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Ubiquitous Serendipity: Potential Visual Design 206 G. Goldschmidt

A search for ideas occurs in a design space [8] that is as rich as the items that populate it are. These items, installed there by the designer, are in fact resources the designer can tap and use, among others, as sources of inspiration. Very often the items in the search space are visual images of one kind or another. Images may be retrieved from memory or summoned from within-domain or between-domain sources. The designer may deliberately choose them or simply invite them on board when stumbling upon them on the fly. They may also be presented to the designer by others, intentionally or unintentionally. The point is that visual images are often useful to the designer who hopes to be able to read into them information that may be helpful in developing design ideas. There is evidence that visual stimuli are in-spirational and enhance design performance and in certain disciplines, like fashion design, designers routinely prepare 'inspiration boards' in which they display imag-es that they wish to make use of in their designs [9]. Creativity or innovation scores assigned by judges are higher when designers are exposed to stimuli as compared to control groups that perform the same tasks with no stimuli (e.g., [101). On the other hand exposure to examples of solutions to similar design problems may cause fixa-tion, lowering the designer's capacity to be innovative (see below). However, even in such extreme cases it is not impossible for designers to circumvent the fixation problem, e.g., by re-defining the problem [11].

Gabora's Theory of Memory Structure and Creative Processes

To understand why images are potent sources of inspiration we should look into some of the characteristics of creative processes, at the cognitive level. To do so we shall build on Gabora [1], who proposes a theory of cognitive mechanisms underly-ing the creative process in terms of the structure and dynamics of memory process-es. Gabora's departure point is the hypothesis that "creativity involves the capacity to spontaneously shift back and forth between analytic and associative modes of thought according to the situation." ([1], 2). In a creative assignment which neces-sitates an intuitive search, the first phase involves primarily associative, divergent thinking [12-14]. Thought is triggered by stimuli, which activate memory in spe-cific patterns that support divergence or convergence. This activation is discussed below.

One of memory's important traits is that it is distributed, such that items are stored in various neurons, or 'memory locations' [15, 16]. Each instance of ex-perience activates a large number of neurons, in a large yet constrained region. The pattern of activity distribution depends on its intensity, which is a function of stimulus frequencies. A high degree of activation causes more memory loca-tions to be impacted around the most activated location. This is referred to as a flat activation function. In a low activation pattern we observe a spiky activation func-tion, which means that a smaller and non-continuous number of memory locations are impacted, creating a spiky pattern around the most activated location. A flat

activation function corresponds to diverl range of memory locations which are all other. A spiky activation pattern correspo: because it involves only clusters of neurot contents they store.

Another important trait of memory is that different memory locations have spe perience has a systematic relationship wi also the location from which this conten therefore, contents with related meaning the address of a memory location is in fa that lead it to be affected. This is importa are paid attention to and are encoded, mo activated, resulting in more retrieval oppo

Various stimuli aspects may be paid al defocused. There is some evidence that ci tention [17-19]: exerting defocused attenti ation or stimulus. This results in affecting reinforce one another, and the activation f is more potential for associations among r Gabora [1] refers to as associative richne5 particularly to details, goes hand-in-hand activation function and create potential f experiences or episodes that would not ust evoked them.

Memory activation is a dynamic proce tivated, what is stored in those neurons tr now somewhat different, and a slightly dif like this is responsible for a stream of thou create conceptual fluidity.

As we see, mechanisms of memory ac an individual's sensitivity and the way in ability to exert control over our focus of cused attention and vice versa, thereby ac activation. This makes it possible to switci analytic thinking which, according to Gabe must now relate this memory structure and know about the way stimuli are used by de

Creative Design Processes in Ligi

There is enough empirical evidence to sho hance creative design problem solving [10, selected displays, or random images one

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208 G. Goldschmidt

may become stimuli—designers infer unexpected information even from their own rudimentary sketches [24-26]. Other, non-visual types of stimuli seem to also have a positive effect on the rated creativity of design outcomes (e.g., [27] regarding textual stimuli). At the same time, exposure to straightforward solution examples at the outset of designing appears to have mostly negative effects, in the sense that designers are unable to divorce themselves from features of the example shown to them, and carry them over to their solution even when explicitly instructed not to do so [28-32].

How can we explain this based on Gabora's [I] cognitive theory of memory acti-vation? In the case of examples taken from the same domain and the same problem, wherein designers are explicitly told not to repeat the stimulus object but rather come up with something new, one pays attention to stimulus features rather than the ensemble. These features, or traits, are perceived individually and given the content addressability of memory locations, they register there, provoking similar individual traits stored in the same neurons. Attention remains focused, producing a spiky activation pattern, and a limited number of locations in the region participate in the process. This amounts to convergent thinking, with little opportunity to break out and spread to more memory regions.

In contrast, when a stimulus is not directly related to the problem at hand, and better yet if it does not belong in the same field or discipline, one is 'invited' to perceive not just, or not primarily, individual traits. The totality of the stimulus is perceived and interpreted based on shape or form, or on specific contents and mean-ing it may suggest to the problem solver. This automatically expands the potential of different memory locations to be evoked because the problem solver may consider different connotations, or combinations of individual features, and in particular re-lationships among them. Attention is thus defocused and activation is spread wider, in a flat function, to more contents addresses. More overlaps occur and therefore there is potential for further new readings of memory locations, leading to wider associative and divergent thinking. I would like to postulate that perceiving totali-ties with less regard to details and interpreting them freely based on associations to what is already stored in memory is different from perceiving details. In repeating such processes one can gradually distance oneself from the original percept through cycles of associative thoughts, which yields, or may yield, what we call abstraction in thought. Oftentimes analogical reasoning is involved. The effect is particularly strong in between-domain analogies, where the stimulus pertains to a domain dif-ferent from the one the problem belongs in [33]. Abstraction is a prerequisite to enhancing creativity through the use of stimuli in such reasoning processes [34]. Since the dynamic nature of the design search allows for modifications in goals and expectations, abstraction becomes easier because there are more directions in which associative thinking may venture to.

Another prerequisite for the successful use of stimuli in design, that is, one that enhances creativity, is that the designer be able to transform features of the stimu-lus rather than apply them more or less as is [34]. Transformation as opposed to simple transfer can also be explained with Gabora's [1] theory. Several research-ers proposed that a certain amount of randomness in a problem solving process is

Ubiquitous Serendipity: Potential Visual Design Sti

a

b

Fig. 1 Le Corbusier's Nôtre Dame du Haut chape shell, a Photo. b Section drawing. c Crab shell

conducive to, or even indispensible for, cre the early phases of design problem solving non-structured way, that is, simply pay atte her, hoping that something will trigger a c he or she is out to solve. If this occurs, on is not unique to design of course; similar e: scientific breakthroughs. Anecdotal evidenc and the mental imagery literature, as well a example Le Corbusier's Nôtre Dame du Hau ing to his own testimony Le Corbusier used drawing board, picked up on a beach a few the shell despite its minimal thickness, whi of two curvilinear surfaces joined at the edg roof that is composed of two shells of rein apart in the widest place, and joined at the between-domain source, having nothing to designing, and which needed to undergo a 5

tribute to the chapel's design. This kind of th

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Le Corbusier's attention wandered between his building and the natural phenom-enon by which he had been enchanted. There could not have been a single memory address where similar items were stored, so most likely a number of locations with some kind of relationship to crabs and to thin membranes were activated, to create a diffused memory distribution and flat activation function. Associating, divergent thinking is obvious in this case.

However, this was not the only stimulus Le Corbusier is said to have used in the design of the Ronchamp chapel. It is claimed he consciously, and not randomly, "borrowed" from Adrian's villa in Pompeii as well as other architectural sources for the design of the light shafts and the battered walls of the chapel. Those stimuli are within-domain, being buildings, and here Le Corbusier's thinking was focused and convergent; direct paths led to memory locations which stored light shafts and battered walls which Le Corbusier had seen and been impressed with, and remem-bered well.

In the design of the Ronchamp chapel, then, Le Corbusier had most probably boasted flexible thinking in which he shifted from focused to defocused thinking and vice versa in a fluid mode until the combination of the different elements af-forded by these modes of thinking came together to create an integrated design of the entire building and its various components.

Le Corbusier and others of similar stature are not the norm, but many designers (and other problem solvers) go through similar thought processes, even though the resulting designs or discoveries may be of lesser historical dimensions. Why is it that some designers make creative breakthroughs and others do not? In other words, what does it take to be able to activate the kind of cognitive processes that lead to creative thinking?

The Prepared Mind

Randomness in a design search may lead to an opportune encounter with stimuli that the designer is able to tie to unexpected items in memory, through a chain of associations, thus paving the way to a creative design idea. This may happen by chance; however, it does not always happen and it does not happen to everyone: as the saying goes, "chance favors the prepared mind." What is a prepared mind in the context of design?

Gabora [1] has laid out two general prerequisites for a creative search. First, as already quoted earlier, having "the capacity to spontaneously shift back and forth between analytic and associative modes of thought". The second prerequisite is possessing heightened sensitivity. Sensitivity, however, cannot be expected to be identical across the board and the subject matter to which one is sensitized to may differ between domains. This has implications for the items we store in memory: we do better with items directly related to our interests and expertise. For example, Chase and Simon [36] have shown that master chess players remember an unusu-ally large number of game boards, whereas their memory is no more than average

for other matters. Kokotovich and Purc non-designers in creative mental synthes nations). Moreover, they tested two groi designers who normally deal with 2D s tinely manipulate 3D forms. They found in their output where superior performs synthesized are similar to the parts norma the discipline. We may therefore conclud owner should also have a certain amount in which he or she operates.

Since stimuli in design are for the m designer, and certainly the creative desigr literacy. Wikipedia' defines visual literac to interpret, negotiate, and make meanin; of an image. Visual literacy is based on tli meaning can be communicated through a sual literacy are able to make meaningful little or nothing to those with low visual the ability to infer information from an im ments, even unexpected and surprising in be crucial to success in the case of proble

We propose that the creative designe 'hunt' for helpful clues in whatever stim or randomly; the 'hunting' mode is almos 'Hunting' may take place in two modes: F search in which a 'good' stimulus, if foui may enhance creativity in the way we des 'hunt' that creative designers are engaged design assignment, but rather for the purç tially useful images. When these are store appropriate time, when activated by a cur of anecdotal evidence to show that design architect Denys Lasdun [39] wrote:

In the course of creation an architect may rece from works of the past and the present and f something to work on; he is certainly no less eye that remembers. (p. 107).

Le Corbusier, whose use of stimuli in the scribed above, was an avid collector of in

His [Le Corbusier's] mind was well stocked v gleaned form tradition, from painting, from her works... At the right moment images we caught, condensed and exteriorized as sketch

Wikipedia, accessed March 20, 2010.

210 G. Goldschmidt Ubiquitous Serendipity: Potential Visual Desigr,

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212 G. Goldschmidt Ubiquitous Serendipity: Potential Visual Design

Keller [41] has recently proposed a digital equivalent of the traditional 'Cabinet' in which cherished objects of inspiration are stored for future reference. The architect James Stirling talked about his tendency to 'appropriate' images he came across and liked, in order to use them in his design work. He referred to himself as a 'magpie' that does not shy away from 'stealing' images [42]:

Like Picasso, Stirling operated a magpie avidity to steal whatever he liked while yet turning it into his own... (20).

The evidence suggests that for the creative designer who is an expert in his domain, possesses an 'educated eye' acquired through a high level of visual literacy, and whose sensitivities are geared towards a never ending scrutiny for 'treasures' that can be stored in memory or used on the spot—the world is a warehouse of potential stimuli. Stimuli are ubiquitous if one is attentive enough to be able to capture and harness them so as to serve as sources of inspiration in design. Moreover, the ex-perienced treasure hunter with a good eye will encounter serendipity, as he or she learns to single out stimuli with the highest amount of potential. Similar to expert chess players who can anticipate a long chain of moves in a chess game, the ex-pert designer can anticipate the usability of a stimulus image through the chain of memory activation described above. His or her mind is well stocked with memory items that have either been helpful in the past or have impressed the designer as holding promise to be useful in the future. In addition, stimuli will be chosen for both their totality and their components, and our designer is able to switch atten-tion from one to the other, activating associative and analytic thinking as per need. 'Ubiquitous serendipity' is therefore not an exaggerated way to describe the way in which designers capitalize on cognitive mechanisms to exploit stimuli everywhere and any time, to enhance their design creativity.

Conclusions

Two major factors are involved in creative processes, and in particular in designing with stimuli: The brain's architecture controlling memory processes, and the de-signer's preparedness. Memory activation functions are only minimally controlla-ble, in focusing and defocusing attention to stimuli, in their totalities and/or details. Preparedness requires that the designer be adequately expert in his or her domain, and that he or she possess a high-level of visual literacy, since most stimuli that have been shown to be effective in enhancing design creativity are visual. Having a large inventory of stored images acquired over time and ready to be tapped as per need is therefore also highly relevant. Being endowed with heightened sensitivity is indis-pensible and this means that the designer is always alert to take in new stimuli as they present themselves, by chance or otherwise. I believe this explains creativity in design and could possibly serve to develop tests which may be able to predict who would make a creative designer at the outset of design education.

Acknowledgement The writing of this paper from the fund for the promotion of research at th author would also like to thank Stanford Univen providing a stimulating intellectual environment

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On Abstraction and Am

Barbara Tversky

Spatial thinking ranges from the concre in space—to the abstract—moving throu ceptual spaces. Both concrete and abstra objects, maps, and diagrams, which in tu in the mind or in the world. Creating re in the mind or outside of it, requires abs guity enables the multiplicity of interpri thought. Space, action, and abstraction a

Internal Spaces

Mental Representations

We inhabit many spaces. There is the SI immediately around our bodies, within spaces, real or imagined, too large to be about in, spaces we may arrange and rea the spaces we create, the spaces we liv to augment our minds and to communi perception, thought, and action. Mental ceive, aided by what we think and infe imagined in the mind. Corresponding to of kinds of representations of space.

B. Tversky () Stanford University, Stanford, USA e-mail: btpsych.stanford.edu

Columbia Teachers College, Columbia Univen

© Springer Science+Business Media Dordrech J. S. Gero (ed.), Studying Visual and Spatial Re DOl 10.1007/978-94-01 7-9297-4_13