The Faith of Islam - Forgotten Books

TH E

FA I TH O F I S L AM

BY THE

REV. EDWARD SELL,B.D .

,

FELLOW OF THE UNIVERS ITY OF MA DRA S

SECOND EDITION

REVI SED A ND ENL A RGED

LOND ON

KEGA N PA UL ,TRENCH ,

TRUBNER, CO . L

PA TERNOSTER HOUSE,CHA RING CROS S ROA D

1896

The rights of translation and of reproduction are reserved .

Printed by BA LL A NTYNE , HA NS ON C0.

A t the B al/an tyrze P ress

PREFA CE

TO THE S ECOND ED IT ION

THIS edition is the result of another fifteen years’ study of

Islam ,and of further intercourse with Musalmans. It deals

with certain phases of modern Muslim thought in India and

in Persia which found no place in the first edition. The

result is that a considerable amount of fresh matter has

been added,though the general form of. the book has not

been altered . The A rabic editions of the Sahihu’

l- Bukhari

and of the Milal wa Nihal of Sharastani have been freely

u sed,and many extracts from these important works have

been made . I have also added two appendices, one of

which enters into a technical and detailed account of the

art of reading the Quran and of its pecu liar spelling,and

also gives illu strations in A rabic of the various readings ;the other

,on the Law of Jihad , I have inserted in order to

show the most recent method adopted by a liberal - minded

Musalman of dealing with this important subject .

The criticism s on the first edition of this work were

highly favourable, and the general conclusions arrived at

in it have not been controverted by any competent Muslim

authority , except on the questions of the finality of the

Muhammadan Law and of the present use of Ijtihad, on

which subjects the late Maulavi Cheragh‘A li differs from me

b ut in Chapter iv. I have dealt with the objections of the

modern rationalistic school in India to the views held by

PREFA CE TO THE SECOND EDITION

orthodox Muslims and expounded by European Oriental

scholars . I have seen nothing yet from any authoritative

source in Islam which leads me to depart from ,or even to

modify, the conclusions arrived at on these and other points

in the former edition . On the contrary,recent events in

Turkey show how hopeless it is to expect religious l iberty,freedom of thought, security of life and property, and all

that is involved in the term modern progress in a purely

Muhammadan S tate .

E . S .

LONDON, June 1 , 1 896.

PREFA CE

TO THE F IRS T ED IT ION

THE following pages embody a study of Islam during a

residence of fifteen years in India,the greater part of which

time I have been in daily intercourse with Musalmans. I

have given in the footnotes the authorities from which I

quote . I was not able to procure in Madras a Copy of the

A rabic edition of Ib n Khaldun’

s great work, b ut the French

translation by Baron M . de S lane,to which I so frequently

refer,is thoroughly reliable . The quotations from the

Quran are made from Rodwell’

s translation . The original

has been consulted when necessary .

In some words,such as Mecca

,Khalif

,Khalifate

,and

Osman and Omar,as the names of the two Khalifs , I have

retained the anglicised form instead of u sing the more correct

terms,Makkah, Khalifa, Khalifat,

‘Usman,and ‘Umr .

MA DRA S , December 1,1 880 .

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

CHA PTER I

THE FOUNDA TIONS OF I S LAM

The Quran—Its revelat ion—Miraculous nature—A rrangement of

Quran—Osman’s recension The S unnat—the authority of S unnat

—Trad it ion—Bid ‘at or innovat ion—Shi ‘ah Trad itions—Ijma‘

I jtihad—Four Orthod ox Imams,Hanifa

,Malik

,Shafi ‘i and Han

b al—Qias—Estab lished b y the early Mujtahid in—S terility of

Islam

Not-e to Chapter I .—I jtihad

CHA PTER II

E ! EGES IS OF THE QURAN A ND THE TRADITIONS

Inspiration Method s of revelation The seven d ialects The

various read ings—Gradual revelation of the Quran—Work of a

Commentator—Word s, sentences , and verses of the Quran- De

d uc tions of arguments from the Quran D ivisions of the Quran- A b rogation—Eternal nature of the Quran—Had is or Trad it ion—Collections of Trad it ions—Classification of Trad it ions

CHA PTER I II

THE SECTS OF IS LAM

The Shi ‘ahs—The Imam and the Imamat—Nur - i -Muhammad i—Isma‘

ilians and Imam ites—D ifference b etween Sh i ‘ahs and S unnis—The S ultan’

s claim to the Khalifate—Sufiism—Persian poetry

! CONTENTS

—Darwishes—‘Umr Khayyam—The Bdb and the Bab is—Wah

hab is - u Their rise—Spread in Ind ia—Doctrines and influence

CHA PTER IV

THE CREED OF ISLAM

Iman—God—A ttrib utes of God—D iscussions on the nature of God

-The rise of the Mu‘taz ilas—The Sifatians—Mushab ihites

Names of God—Creat ion of the Quran—Modern Mu‘taz ilas

A ngels—Record ing A ngels—Harut and Marat—Munkar and

Nakir—Jinn—The Books—A b rogat ion—Tahrit—The Prophets—Rank and inspirat ion of prophets

—Nab i and Rasul—S inlessness of prophets

—The A nb iya- Ulu’l - ‘A zm—Miracles of prophets

—The Mi ‘raj—The resurrect ion and the last day—The trumpets—Descent of the b ooks—Balances—Bridge—A l- A

‘rat—A l- Bar

z akh—Intercession of Muhammad Heaven—Hell—The Fred est ination of good and evil—Jab rians—Qad rians—A sh ‘

arians

Free -w ill—A postasy

Note to Chapter IV.—Muslim Ph ilosophy

CHA PTER V

THE PRA CTICA L DUTIES OF ISLAM

Fara,waj i b ,

sunnat , mustahah, and mub eih act ions—Harem or un

lawful acts—Tashahhud—Salat—Wag(I—Ghusl—Tayammum

Namaz Fara, mustahah , sunnat,witr

, and nafl rak ‘ats - A p

pointed hours of prayer—Friday Namaz and Khutb ah—Namazon a journey and in t ime of war—Namaz in Ramagan and d uringan eclipse and in t ime of d rought

—Funeral service—Its ritualand prayers—Fasting—Its t ime and nature—Zakat—Nisab—Pro

portion of property to b e given as alms—Recipients of the Zakat—The Hajj—Fara, sunnat , waj lb , and mustahah dut ies connectedw ith the Haj j—Time for the Haj j—A rrival of the Haj i at Mecca—Tawaf—Ceremonies of the Haj j

—Conclusion of the Haj jFormal nature of Islam

Note to Chapter V.—Fatvaon the Namaz

PA GE

CONTENTS xi

CHA PTER VI

THE FEA S TS A ND FA STS OF ISLAMPA GE

Muharram ‘A’

shfi r Khzina—Marsiyah—Waqi ‘a Khan ‘A lams

Ceremonies of the ‘Ashura—Fatihahs for ‘A li, for Hasan and

Husain A kh ir - i - char S hamb a BaraWafat Jashn - I -m ilad - i

S harif—Agar- i - S harif—Shab Barat—Ramazan and ‘Id u ’

l- Fitr‘I tikaf—Sadaqah—S ermon on the

‘Idu ’

l- Fitr—Baqr ‘id or ‘Idu ’

g

Zuha—S ermon on the ‘Id u ’z - Zub a—The Qurban or sacrifice

Fest ival of Mada—Fest ival of S zilar Mas ‘fi d Ghaz i—Festivalof Khaja Khiz r—Feast of Pir Dastgir sahib—Festival of Qad irWali Saihib

A PPENDIX A .-

‘Ilm- i - Tajwid

A PPENDIX B .—The Law of Jihad

INDEX

INTRODUCTION

IT is necessary to enter into some explanation as regards

the contents of this work . It does not fal l in with its plan

to enter into an account e ither of the life of Muhammad or

of the wide and rapid spread of the system founded by him.

The first has been done by able writers in England, France ,

and Germany . I could add nothing new to this portion of

the subject , nor throw new light upon it . The political

growth of Mu slim nations has also been set forth in various

ways .

It seems to me that the more important study at this

time is that of the religious system which has grown out of

the Prophet’

s teaching,and of its effect upon the individual

and the community . What the Church in her missionary

enterprise has to deal with , what European Governments in

the political world have to do with, is Islam as it is,and as .

it now influences those who rule and those who are ruled

under it.

I have,therefore

,tried to Show

,from authentic sources

and from a practical knowledge of it,what the Faith of

Islam really is,and how it influences men and nations in

the present day. I think that recent Fatvas delivered by

the ‘Ulama in Constantinople show how firmly a Muslim

S tate is bound in the fetters of an unchangeable Law,whilst

the present practice of orthodox Muslims all the world over

is a constant carrying out of the precepts given in thex i ii

xiv INTRODUCTION

Quran and the S annat,and an illu stration of the principles

I have shown to belong to Islam. On this subj ect it is

not too much to say that there is , except amongst Oriental

scholars, much misconception .

A gain, much that is written on Islam is written either

in ignorant prejudice or from an ideal standpoint . To

understand it aright, one should know its literature and live

amongst its people . I have tried faithfu lly to prove every

statement I have made ; and if,now and again ,

I have

quoted European authors,it is only by way of illustration .

I rest my case entirely upon Mu salman authorities them

selves . S till more,I have ascertained from l iving witnesses

that the principles I have tried to Show as existing in Islam

are really at work now,and are as potent as at any previou s

period .

I have thus traced up from the very foundations the rise

and development of the system,seeking wherever possible

to link the past with the present . In order not to interfere

with this unity of plan,I have had to leave many subjects

untouched,such as those connected with the civil law

,with

polygamy, concubinage , slavery, and divorce . A good digest

of Muhammadan Law will give all necessary information on

these points. The basis of the Law which determines these

questions is what I have described in my first chapter .

Ij tihad,for example

,rules qu ite as effectually in a question

of domestic economy or political jurisprudence as on points

of dogma. It was not,therefore

,necessary for me to go

into details on these points.

When I have drawn any conclusion from data which

Muhammadan literature, and the present practice of Musl ims

have afforded me,I have striven to give what seems to me

a just and right one . S till , I gladly take this opportunity

of stating that I have found many Muslims better than

INTRODUCTION ! V

their creed,men with whom it is a pleasure to associate

,

and whom I respect for many virtues and esteem as friends .

I j udge the system,not any individual in it.

In India there are a number of enlightened Muham

madams,ornaments to native society

,u sefu l servants of the

State , men who show a laudable zeal in all social reform s,

so far as is consistent with a r eputation for orthodoxy .

Their number is far too few,and they do not

,in many cases,

represent orthodox Islam,nor do I believe their counterpart

would b e found amongst the‘Ulama of a Muslim S tate .

The fact is, that the wave of scepticism which has passed

over Europe has not left the East untouched. Hindu and

Muslim alike have felt its influence,b ut to judge of either

the one system or the other from the very liberal utterances

of a few men who expound their views before English

audiences is to yield oneself up to delusion on the subject.

Islam in India has also felt the influence of contact with

other races and creeds,though, theologically Speaking,

the

Iman and the Din,the faith and the practice

,are unchanged ,

and remain as I have described them in Chapters iv . and v .

If ISlam in India has lost some of its original fierceness, it

has also adopted many superstitious practices,such as those

against which the Wahhabis protest . The great mass of

the Musalman people are qu ite as superstitious,if not more

so,than their heathen neighbours . S till the manliness

,the

sauvity of manner,the deep learn ing,

after an Oriental

fashion,of many Indian Musalmans

,render them a very

attractive people . It is true there is a darker S ide—much

bigotry, pride of race,scorn of other creeds

,and

,speaking

generally, a tendency to inertness. It is thus that in

Bengal , Madras , and perhaps in other places, they have

fallen far behind the Hindus in educational status, and in

the number of appointments they hold in the Government

xv i INTRODUCTION

service . Yet an intelligent Muslim,as a rule

,makes a good

Official .

Looking at the subject from a wider standpoint,I think

the Church has hardly yet realised how great a barrier

this system of Islam is to her onward march in the East .

S urely special men with special training are required for

such an enterprise as that of encountering Islam in its

own strongholds . No better pioneers of the Christian faith

could b e found in the East than men won from the Crescent

to the Cross .

A ll who are engaged in such an enterprise will perhaps

find some help in this volume,and I am not without hope

that it may also throw some light on the political questions

of the day.

THE FA ITH OF I S LAM

CHA PTER I

THE FOUNDA TION S OF I S L A’

M

THE creed of Islam ,La- ilaha- il- lal- lahu wa Muhammadu- r

Rasulu’

llah”

(There is no deity b ut God,and Muhammad

is the A postle of God) , is very short, b ut the system itselfis a very dogmatic one . S uch statements as

“ The Quranis an all- embracing and sufficient code

,regu lating every

thing,

”The Quran contains the entire code of Islam—that

is,it is not a book of religious precepts merely

,b ut it

governs all that a Muslim does,

”The Quran contains the

whole religion of Muhammad,

”

The Quran which containsthe whole Gospel of Islam ,

”

are not S imply m isleading, theyare erroneous . So far from the Quran alone being the sole

rule of faith and practice to Muslims,there is not one

S ingle sect amongst them whose faith and practice is basedon it alone.

‘ N0 one among them disputes its authority or

casts any doubt upon its genuineness . Its voice is supreme

in all that it concerns, b ut its exegesis , the whole system

of legal jurisprudence and of theological science, is largelyfounded on the Traditions . A mongst the orthodox Musalmans

,the foundations of Islam are considered to b e four in

number,the Quran

,S annat

,Ijma‘

,and Qias . The fact

that all the sects do not agree with the orthodox—the

S unnis—in this matter illustrates another important fact inIslam—the want of unity amongst its followers .

2 THE FA ITH OF ISLAM

I . THE QURAN.—The question of the inspiration will b e

fully discussed , and an account of the laws of the exegesis

o f the Quran will b e given in the next chapter . It is su f

fic ient now to state that this book is held in the highestveneration by Muslims of every sect . When being read , it

is kept on a stand elevated above the floor, and no one m ust

read or touch it without first making a legal ablution .

1 It

is not translated unless there is the m ost urgent necessity,and even then the A rabic text is printed with the transla

tion . The more bigoted Muhammadans say that it should

not b e taught to any one b ut Muslims,and that a Moulv ie

who teaches a Christian to read it becomes thereby a Kafir .

In the year 1 884 the S unni Qaz i and a number of Madras

Moulv ies issued a Fatva to this effect. This,however

,is

contrary to the Law ,for Qazi Khan says : The Harbi, or

the Zimmi, when they desire to read the Quran,may b e

taught, and so also w ith the Fiqh and the A hkams . It

may b e hoped that they will find the road to the truth.

Bu t until they have washed,they mu st not touch the

Quran ; after they have done this,they are not to b e

hindered .

” 2 It is said that God chose the sacred montho f Ramazan in which to give all the revelations which inthe form of books have been vouchsafed to mankind . Thuson the first night of that month the books of A brahamcame down from heaven ; on the sixth

,the books of Moses ;

on the thirteenth,the Inj il

,or Gospel ; and on the twenty

seventh,the Quran .

3 On that night , the Laylatu’

l- Qadr,

or“night of power

,the whole Quran is said to have

descended to the lowest of the seven heavens,from whence

it was brought piecemeal to Muhammad as occasion re

quired .

4 Verily we have caused it (the Quran) to descend

1 L et none touch it b ut the purified . (S . lvi .2 Fatava- i - Qaz i Khan, chapter on Qiratu

’

l- Quran.

3 The Prophet said :“ Certainly Laylatu

’l- Qad r was revealed to me ,

b ut I have forgotten (its date ), b ut search for it in the last ten d ays and

on one of the od d days.

”

(Sahihu’

l- Bukhari . )4 I t was certainly an adm irab le and politic contrivance of his to b ring

d own the whole Koran at once to the lowest heaven only, and not to the

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he went hastily to his wife and said,

“ O Khadija ! whathas happened to me He lay down and she watched byhim . When he recovered from his paroxysm

,he said

,

O Khadija ! he of whom one would not have believedhimself) has become either a soothsayer (kahin) or

mad . S he replied,

“ God is my protection ,0 A bu’l - kasim .

He will surely not let such a thing [happen unto thee,for

thou speakest the truth,dost not return evil for evil

,keepest

faith,art of a good life , and art kind to thy relatives and

friends , and neither art thou a talker abroad in the bazaars .

What has befallen thee ? Hast thou seen aught terrible ?”

Muhammad replied,

“Yes. A nd he told her what he hadseen . Whereupon She answered and said

,

“ Rej oice,O

dear husband,and b e of good cheer . He in whose hands

stands KhadI’

ja’

s life is my witness that thou wilt b e theProphet of this peOple .

” 1 A fter this there seems to havebeen an intermission

,called the Fatrah. It is generally

acknowledged to have lasted about three years,and it was

at this time that the Prophet gained some knowledge of the

Jewish and the Christian histories .

“ The accounts,how

ever,”

says Mu ir,

are throughout confused , if not contradictory ; and we can only gather with certainty that there wasa time during which his mind hung in suspense and doubtedthe divine mission. It is not absolutely certain when the

Fatrah commenced . Most commentators acknowledge thatthe first five verses of the Surata

’

l- ‘A laq (xcvi . ) form the

first revelation ; b ut according to‘A li

,the S fIratu

’

l- Fatihahis the first

,and Jabir

,a Companion

,maintains that the

Suratu’

l -Mudassir (lxxiv . ) preceded all others . These varyingstatements are thus reconciled : the Suratu ’

l- ‘A laq was thefirst real revelation ; the Surata

’

l- Fatihah was the first onerevealed for purposes of worship ; the S I

’

I ratu’

l- Mudassir

was the first of a continued series . Henceforth there wasno intermission.

2It is said that after the descent of the

Suratu’

l- ‘A laq called also the Surata’

l- Iqra,the

1 Literary Remains of Emmanuel Deutsch , p . 7 7 .

9 Faigu’

l- Bukhari, p . 6 1 .

THE WORK OF GA BRIEL 5

Prophet longed for a further revelation,b ut the Wahi

(inspiration) came not . This Fatrah was a cause of much

grief to him . Indeed one day he started from his home

w ith the intention of comm itting su icide b ut when stagger

ing along, borne down with sorrow,a voice from heaven

sounded in his ears . Then ,as Bukhari relates it

,he looked

up and saw the angel who had appeared to him on a former

occasion . The angel sat on a throne suspended m idwaybetween heaven and earth. Muhammad

,mu ch agitated,

hastened home and said,

“ Cover me w ith a cloth.

” ThenGod revealed to him the Suratu

’

l- Mudassir,which com

mences thus : “ 0 thou,enwrapped in thy mantle ! arise

and warn .

” 1 Bukhari also adds that the steady and regularflow of the revelation of the Quran then commenced

,or

,as

he puts it,

“ inspiration became warm (Fahamiya- al- wahi) .2

Gabriel is believed to have been the medium of communication. This fact

,however

,is only once stated in the

Quran S ay,Whoso is the enemy of Gabriel—For he it

is who by God ’s leave hath caused the Quran to descendon thy heart

”

(S . ii . This Surah was revealed some

years after the Prophet’

s flight to Madina. The otherreferences to the revelation of the Quran are — “ Verilyfrom the Lord of the worlds hath this book come down

the Faithful S pirit (Ruhu’l - Amin) hath come down with it

(S . xxvi . The Quran is no other than a revelationrevealed to him

,one terrible In power (Shadidu

’

l- Qua)taught it him (S . liii . “

The Holy Spirit (Ruhu’l

Quds) hath brought it down with truth from the Lord

(S . xvi . These latter passages do not state clearlythat Gabriel was the m edium of communication

,b ut the

belief that he was is almost,if not entirely

,universal

,

3

1 Fai z u’

l- Bukhari, p . 58.

2Sahihu

’l- Bukhari , chapter on Wahi , Third Trad ition.

3 Bukhari states,on the authority of ‘A yesha

,that Khad ija, after the

Prophet had rece ived the command to re c ite,

”took h im to Waraqa b in

Naufal. H e was a man,so say s Bukhari , who had b een a Naz arene in

the days of ignorance . Now he was old and b l ind . Khad ija said ,

“ O

cousin, listen to thy nephew (Muhammad ) and hear what h e is saying.

Waraqa replied ,“O my b rother

’

s son,what hast thou seen ?

” Then


and the commentators say that the terms Ruhu ’l - Amin,

“Shadidu

’

l- Qua,”

and “ Ruhu’l - Quds

,

”refer to no other

angel or spirit. The use of the word “taught

”in the

quotation from Surah liii . , and the following expression in

Surah lxxv . 1 8 :“When we have recited it

,then follow

thou the recital,

Show that the Quran is entirely an ob jective revelation, and that Muhammad was only a passivemedium of communication . The Muhammadan historian ,

Ib n

Khaldun,says on this point : Of all the divine books

,the

Quran is the only one of which the text,words and phrases

have been communicated to a prophet by an audible voice .

It is otherwise with the Pentateuch,the Gospel and the

other divine books : the prophets received them under theform of ideas .

” 1 This expresses the universal belief on

this point—a belief which reveals the essentially mechanicalnature of Islam.

The Quran thus revealed is now looked upon as the

standing miracle of Islam . O ther divine books,it is

admitted,were revelations received under the form of

ideas,b ut the Quran is far superior to them all

,for the

actual text was revealed to the ear of the Prophet . Thuswe read in S ilrah lxxv. 1 6—1 9

Move not thy tongue in haste to fol low and master this revelation,

For we wi ll see to the col lecting and recital of itB u t when we have reci ted it, then fol low thou the recitalA nd ver i ly it Shal l b e ours to make it clear to thee.

”

The Quran is,then

,believed to b e a m iraculous revelation

of d ivine eloquence,as regards both form and substance

,

arrangement of words , and its revelation of sacred things .

I t is asserted that each well - accredited prophet performed

Muhammad told h im what had happened . Waraqa then said ,

“ This isthe Namus which God sent d own upon Moses .

”The commentators on

the Trad it ions say that this Namfis , which means the possessor of a secret,

is “none o ther than Gab riel . (S ahihu

’l- Bukhari on Sarah xcvi . )

1 Prolégomenes d’Ib n Khaldun , v ol. i . p . 1 95 . A s I shall often refer to

I b n Khaldun, it may b e as well to state what S tanley Lane - Poole says ofh im as an authority He stand s at the head of the A rab h istorians

,and

comes nearest to European notions of a ph ilosophical historian.

”

(Lane’

s

Mod ern Egyptians, vol. ii . p .

THE QURAN A MIRA CLE 7

m iracles in that particular d epartment of human Skill orscience most flourishing in his age . Thus in the days of

Moses magic exercised a wide influence,b ut all the magi

c ians of Pharaoh’

s court had to submit to the superior skillof the Hebrew prophet . In the days of Jesus the scienceof medicine flourished . Men possessed great skill in the

art of healing ; b ut no physic ian could equal the skill ofJesus

,who not only healed the sick

,b ut raised the dead .

In the days of Muhammad the special and most strikingfeature of the age was the wonderful power of the A rabs inthe art of poetry. Muhammadu

’

d - B amiri says : “Wisdomhath alighted on three things—the brain of the Franks

,the

hands of the Chinese , and the tongue of the A rabs.

” Theywere unrivalled for their eloquence ,

for the skill w ith whichthey arranged their material and gave expression to theirthoughts . It is in this v ery particular that superior excellence is claimed for the Quran . I t is to the Muhammadanm ind a sure evidence of its miraculous origin that it Shouldexcel in this respect. Muslims say that miracles have followed the revelations given to other prophets in order toconfirm the divine message . In this case the Quran is

both a revelation and a miracle . Muhammad himself saidEach prophet has received manifest S igns which carriedconviction to men

,b ut that which I have received is the

revelation . S o I hope to have a larger following on the

day of resurrection than any other prophet has.

”

Ib n

Khald iin says that “ by this the Prophet means that sucha wonderful m iracle as the Quran,

which is also a revelation

,should carry conviction to a very large numb er

1To

a Mu slim the fact is qu ite clear , and so to him the Quranis far superior to all the preceding books . Muhammad issaid to have convinced a rival

,Leb id , a poet - laureate

,of the

truth of his mission by reciting to him a portion of the

now second S I'

Irah.

2Unquestionably it

‘ is one of the very

1 Prolégomenes d’

Ib n Khaldun ,vol. i . p . 1 94.

2 There is some d ifference of Opinion as to the exact nature of the

s uperiority of the Quran.

“ S ome hold the proof to lie simply in the


grandest specimens of Koranic or A rabic diction . But

even descriptions of this kind, grand as they b e

,are not

sufficient to kindle and preserve the enthusiasm and the

faith and the hope of a nation like the A rabs . The

poets before him had sung of valour and generosity , of loveand strife and revenge of early graves, upon whichweeps the morning cloud, and of the fleet ing nature of life

,

which comes and goes as the waves of the desert sands,as

the tents of a caravan,as a flower that Shoots up and dies

away. Or they Shoot their bitter arrows of satire right intothe enemy’s own sou l . Muhammad sang of none of these .

No love - minstrelsy his : not the joys of the world , nor

sword,nor camel

,nor jealousy

,nor human vengeance : not

the glories of tribe or ancestor. H e preached Islam .

”The

very fierc eness with which this is done,the Swearing such

as A rab orator,proficient though he may have been in the

art,had never made

,the dogmatic certainty with which the

Prophet proclaim ed his message , have tended , equally withthe passionate grandeur of his utterances , to hold the Mu slimworld spell - bound to the letter and imbued with all the

narrowness of the book .

S o sacred is the text supposed to b e , that only the Companions 1 of the Prophet are deemed worthy of being com

mentators on it . The work of learned divines since then

has been to learn the (211a by heart and to master the

Traditions,w ith the writings of the earliest commentators

thereon . The revelation itself is never made a subj ect of

investigation or tried by the ordinary ru les of criticism . I f

only the Isnad,or chain of authorities for any interpretation,

is good , that inte rpretation is unhesitatingly accepted as the

correct one . I t is a fundamental article of belief that no

e loquence others,in the revelat ion of the Unseen others

,in the ab sence

of d iscrepancies . O thers , again,d isagree ing as to the perfect eloquence

o f the revelat ion,hold to the d octrine of

‘

prevent ion,

’or inab ility to

prod uce the like, owing to d ivine intervent ion.

”

(Mu ir’s Beacon of Truth ,p .

1 Those who w ere in constant intercourse w ith the Prophet are calledA shab (Companion ) the ir d isciples are nam ed Tab i ‘in (Followers ) theird isciples are known as Tab a - i - Tfib i ‘in (Follow ers of the Followers ).

FI RST EDITION OF THE QURAN 9

other book in the world can possibly approach near to it

in thought or expression .

1I t deals with positive precept s

rather than with principles . Its decrees are held to b e

binding not in the spirit merely,b ut in the very letter on

all men,at all times

,and under every circumstance of life .

This follows as a natural consequence from the belief In its

eternal nature .

The various portions recited by the Prophet during the

twenty - three years of his prophetical career were committedto writing by some of his followers

,or treasured up in their

memories. A s the recital of the Quran formed a part of

every act of public worship,and as such recital was an act

o f great religious merit,every Muslim tried to remember as

much as he could . He who could do so best was entitledto the highest honour , and was often the recipient of a sub

stantial reward .

2The A rab love for poetry facilitated the

exercise of this faculty . When the Prophet died the revelation ceased . There was no distinct Copy of the whole

,

nothing to show what was of transitory importance,what of

permanent value . There is nothing which proves that theProphet took any special care of any portions . There seems

to have been no definite order in which,when the book was

compiled,the variou s Surahs were arranged , for the Quran ,

as it now exists,is utterly devoid of all historical or logical

sequence . For a year after the Prophet ’s death nothingseems to have been done ; b ut then the battle of Yemana

took place,in which a very large number of the best Quran

reciters were S lain . Omar took fright at this,and address

ing the Khalif A b ii Bakr,said

,

“ The slaughter may againwax hot amongst the repeaters of the Quran in other fieldsof battle

,and much may b e lost therefrom . Now

,there

fore , my advice is that thou shouldest give Speedy orders

1 The Mu‘taz ilas hold that, if God allowed it , m en could produce a S i

’

rrah

l ike it in eloquence and arrangement . (Milal wa Nihal , b y S harastdni,P 39 )

2 “ Thus , after the usual d istrib ut ion of the spoils taken on the field of

Cad esia (A .H . I4), the res id ue was d ivid ed among those who knew most of

the Cordn .

”

(Muir, vol. i . p .

I O THE FA ITH OF ISLAM

for the collection of the Quran . A b I'

I Bakr agreed , and

said to Zaid,who had been an amanuensis of the Prophet ,

“ Thou art a young man,and wise

,against whom no one

amongst us can cast an imputation ; and thou wert wont towrite down the inspired revelations of the Prophet o f the

Lord,wherefore now search out the Quran and bring it all

together .

” Zaid being at length pressed to undertake thetask

,proceeded to gather the Quran together from date

leaves and tablets of white stone,and from the hearts of

men .

”In cou rse of time it was all compiled in the order in

which the book is now arranged . This was the au thorisedtext for some twenty - three years after the death of Maham

mad . Owing,however

,e ither to different modes of recita

tion , or to differences of expression in the sources fromwhich Zaid ’

s first recension was made,a variety of different

readings crept into the copies in u se. The Faithful became

alarmed,and the Khal if Osman was persuaded to put a stop

to such a danger. He appointed Zaid,with three of the

leading men of the Quraish as assistants,to go over the

whole work again . A careful recension was made of the

whole book,which was then assimilated to the Meccan dia

lect,the purest in A rabia. A fter this all other Copies of

the Quran were burnt by order of the Khalif,and new

transcripts were made of the revised edition,which was now

the only authorised copy. A S it is a fundamental tenet ofIslam that the Quran is incorruptible and absolu tely freefrom error

,no little difficulty has been felt in explaining

the need of Osman’

s new and revised edition , and of the

circumstances under which it took place ; b ut , as u sual,a

Tradition has been handed down which makes it lawful toread the Quran in seven dialects . On the authority of I bn‘A bbas the following tradition is recorded : Gabriel taughtme to read the Quran in one dialect

,and when I recited it

he taught me to recite it in another, and so on until thenumber of dialects amounted to seven .

” These dialects,

known as the S abatu A hraf, or,in Persian, Haft Qira

’

at,

were the seven chief ones of A rabia. The members of these


1 2 THE FA ITH OF ISLAM

lative matter embodied in it,which wou ld never have been

put forward to do duty as a code , b ut for the belief, common

to rulers and ruled,that every word and every syllable cam e

direct from heaven,and which

,having been pu t forward in

that belief,cannot be abrogated or altered in the smallest

particular until a new messenger shall p resent himself with

eguallg good credentials .

” 1

There are many topics connected w ith the Quran whichcan b e better explained in the next chapter . A ll that has

now to b e here stated is that the Quran is the first foundation of Islam . It is an error to suppose it is the only one

an error which more than anything else has led personsaway from the only position in which they could obtain a

tru e idea of the great system of Islam . S tanley LanePoole in “ S tudies in a Mosque ”

(p. 1 6 7 ) we ll says :“A

large part of what Muslims now believe is not to b e foundin the Quran at all. We do not mean to say that theTraditions of Muhammad are not as good authority as the

Quran ; indeed , except that in the latter case,the Prophet

professed to Speak the words of God,and in the former he

did not so profess,there is little to choose between them .

Nor do we assert that the early doctors of the Law dis

played no imaginative facu lty in drawing their inferencesand analogies, though we have our suspicions ; all we wouldinsist on is

,that it is - a m istake to call the Quran either

the theological compendium or the corpus legis of Islam .

The Shi ‘ahs maintain,without good reason

,that the fol

lowing verses favourable to the claims of‘A li and of the

Shi ‘ah faction were om itted in Osman ’s recension

O B elievers b elieve in the two lights (Muhammad and‘A li is of the numb er of the pious we shall give him his right

in the day of judgment ; we shall not pass ov er those who wishto deceive him . We have honoured him ab ove all this family.

H e and his family are v ery patient. Their enemy 2 is the chiefof sinners .

1 A nglo -Muhammadan Law ,b y S ir R. K. Wilson , p . 22 .

2 Mu‘

awiyah .

THE QURAN A ND , THE BIBLE I 3

We have announced to thee a race of just men,men

1 who

will not oppose our orders . Mymercy and peace are on them,

living 2 or d ead .

“ A s to those who walk in their way, mymercy is on them ;

they will certainly gain the mansions of Paradise.

”

The orthodox can reply to this claim by quoting a trad ition recorded by Bukhari : “ The Prophet left nothing b utwhat is within the two covers (of the Quran) .There is no evidence that Muhammad had any practical

acquaintance with the Old and NewTestament S criptures.

3

There is only one quotation in the Quran from the Old

Testament,and that is a passage from Psalm xxxvii . 2 9 ,

which is quoted in Surah xxi . 1 0 5 : S ince the Law was

given ,we have written in the Psalms that ‘ my servants

,

the righteous, shall inherit the earth.

’ There are a few

apparent references to the New Testament,such as in the

words ,“ Nor Shall they enter Paradise until the camel

passeth through the eye of the needle ”

(S . v ii . and

in “ Jesus,the S on of Mary

,said : ‘ 0 children of Israel !

of a truth I am God’s A postle to you to confirm the Law

which was given before Me,and to announce an A postle

that shall come after Me,whose name shal l b e A hmad ’ ”

(S . lxi . This no doubt refers to S t . John xvi. 7 : If

I go not away,the Comforter will not come unto you ; b ut

if I depart , I will send Him unto you . Muhammad seems

to have m isunderstood the word wapdfcxrrros, and imaginedit to b e the same as which has somewhat the

same meaning as A hmad,from which word the name

Muhammad is formed . The poetical parts of the Quran1 The twelve Imams .

2 A l- Mahd i is still supposed to b e alive .

3 Muhammad is called in S fi rah vii . 1 56 , the A l-Nab i’l - Ummi

, whichMuhammadans generally translate as the “

unlet tered Prophet , ” and say

he could not read or w rite . This is used as an argument to show that he

could not have composed so eloquent a b ook as the Quran, and that, there

fore , it must b e th e word s of God . But the term more prob ab ly means

the Prophet of the Gent iles , as d ist inguished from a prophet b elongingto the people of the Book ,” t.e.

,Jews or Christians , and is meant to show

that he was not acquainted w ith the b ooks of preced ing prophets .


are the Prophet’s own creation ; for the rest he was indebtedto the Jewish Trad itions based on the Talmud . The Babylonian Gemara was finished about the year 5 30 A .D . ; the

Jerusalem Gemara in 430 A .D. ,and the Mishna about

2 20 A .D. A ll of these , therefore , were available. Other

portions of the Quran are derived from stories found in the

A pocryphal Gospels, Christian legends, and Zoroastrian tales,to which latter reference seems to b e made in The un

bel ievers say, Of old hav e we been prom ised this,we and

our sires of old ; it is b ut tales of the A ncients’ ”

(S . xxvii .

Many also of Muhammad ’

s friends were acquainted with theBible

,and some of them became Christians . There were also

Jewish tribes in A rabia,with whom the Prophet came into

contact,and with whom he was for a while friendly . A part

from the general conception of the Unity of God and otherdogmas which Islam has borrowed from Judaism

,many of

the less important matters of belief are clearly taken fromTalmud ic sources

,such as the story of the angels Harut

and Marut (S . ii . the seven heavens and hells (S . xvii .

46 , xv. the position of the throne of God at the

creation (S . xi . A l A ‘raf

,or the partition between

heaven and hell (S . vii. The following also may b e

traced to Zoroastrian sources : the Jinn or Genii (S . v i . 1 00 )the Houris

,which are identical with the Parikas of the

A vesta and the Peris of modern Persia,beings

“endowed

with seductive beauty,dwelling in the air , and attaching

themselves to the stars and light ; the angel of death‘

and

the bridge (Sirat) . The teaching generally abou t evil Spiritsis derived from the same source . In fact

,the early adver

saries of the Prophet accused him of having confederates ,and Spoke of his revelations as a collection of fables and

m ere poetical utterances . Thu s,

“ The infidels say :‘ This

Quran is a mere fraud of his own devising, and others havehelped him w ith it. Tales of the A nc ients that he hath

put in writing, and they were dictated to him morn and

eve (S . ! ! V. 5 , The Quran itself bears internalevidence of the great Skill with which Muhammad formed

THE SUNNA T I 5

the eclectic system of Islam,which has been well described as

“a corrupt form of late Judaism w ith which ideas and practicesderived from A rabian and Persian heathenism

,and in one

or two instances from heretical books,have been m ingled .

”

2 . THE S UNNA T .

— The second foundation of I slam is

based on the Hadis (plural A hadis) or Tradition . Com

mands from God given in the Quran are called “ farzand “

waj ib . A command given by the Prophet or an

example set by him is called sunne t,

a word meaning a

rule . It is then technically applied to the basis of religiou sfaith and practice

,which is founded on traditional accounts

of the sayings and acts of Muhammad.

1I t is the belief

common to all Musalmans,that the Prophet in all that he

did , and in all that he said,was supernaturally guided, and

that his words and acts are to all t ime and to all his

followers a divine ru le of faith and practice . We Shouldknow that God A lm ighty has given c ommands and pro

hib itions to his servants,either by means of the Quran

,

or by the mouth of H is Prophet.” 2A l- Ghazzali

,a most

distingu ished theologian , writes : “ Neither is the faithaccording to His will complete by the testimony to the

Unity alone,that is

,by S imply saying,

‘ There is b ut one

God,

’

without the addition of the further testimony to theA postle that is

,the statement

,

‘ Muhammad is the apostle

of God . This belief in the Prophet mu st extend to all

that he has said concerning the present and the future life,

for,says the same author

,

“ A man’

s faith is not acceptedtill he is fully persuaded of those things which the Prophethath affirmed shall b e after death. In the Mishlcdt (Book i .chapter vi .) the following Traditions on this point are re

corded : That which the Prophet of God hath made unlawfu lis like that which God Himself hath made so . Verily thebest word is the word of God

,and the best rule of l ife is that

1 These are called (1 ) S unnat - i - F i ‘li,that wh ich Muhammad h imself

d id . (2 ) S unnat - i - Quali , that wh ich he said should b e practised . (3)S annat - i - Taqriri , that which was d one in his presence and which he d idnot forb id .

2 Risala- i - Berkev i.


delivered by Muhammad .

’ I have le ft you two things,and you will not stray as long as you hold them fast. The

one is the word of God,and the other the law (sannat) of

H is Prophet ” “ I am no more than a man,b ut when I

order anything respecting religion ,receive it

,and when I

order anything about the affairs of the world,then I am

nothing more than a man .

It is often said that the Wahhabis rej ect Tradition . In

the ordinary sense of the word Tradition they may ; b ut in

Muslim Theology the term Hadis,which we translate Tradi

t ion , has a special meaning. It is applied only to the say

ings of the Prophet, not to those of some uninspired divineor teacher. The Wahhabis reject the Traditions handeddown by men who lived after the time of the Companions

,

b ut the Hadis,embodying the sayings of the Prophet, they,

in common with all Muslim sects,hold to b e an inspired

revelation of God ’s will to men . It would b e as reasonableto say that Protestants reject the four Gospels as to say

that the Wahhabis reject Tradition .

1A n orthodox Muslim

places the Gospel s in the same rank as the Hadis,that is

,

he looks upon them as a record of what Jesus said and didhanded down to us by H is Companions .

“ In the same way

as other Prophets received the ir books under the form of

ideas,so our Prophet has in the same way received a great

number of communications which are found in the collec

t ions of the Traditions (A hadiso) .2 This shows that the

S annat must b e placed on a level with the Jewish and

Christian Scriptures ; whilst the Quran is a revelationsuperior to them all. To no sect of Musalmans is the

Quran alone the ru le of faith. The Shi ‘ahs it is true , rejectthe S unnat , b ut they have in their own collection of Traditions an exact equivalent.

1 The/

great Wahhab i preacher Muhammad Isma‘il , of whom some

account w ill b e given later on, says in the Takwiatu’

l- Iman “ The b est

of all ways is to have for principles the word s (holy writ ings) of God and

of H is Apostle ; to hold them alone as preced ents, and not to allow our

own Opinion to b e exercised .

”


I b n Khaldun, vol. i. p . 1 95 .

THE SUNNA T r7

The nature of the inspiration of the Sunnat and its authori

tative value are questions of the first importance,whether

Islam is viewed from a theological or a political standpoint .

“ Muhammad said that seventy - three sects wou ld arise,

of whom only one would b e worthy of Paradise . The Com

panions inqu ired which sect would b e so highly favoured .

The Prophet replied,The one which remains firm in my

way and in that of my friends.

’

It is certain that thismust refer to the A hl- i - S unnat wa Jama‘

at .

” 1

It is laid down as a preliminary religious duty that

obedience should b e rendered to the S unnat o f the Prophet .Thu s in the fourth Surah of the Quran it is written 0 true

believers ! obey God and obey the apostle .

” “We havenot sent any apostle b ut that he might b e obeyed by thepermission of God .

”A gain,

“ A noble pattern have ye inGod ’s apostle

,for all who hOpe in God and the latter day

(S . xiii . The Tafsir- i- Ib n ‘A bbas explains “noble

pattern as“noble sunnat

”

(sunnatan hasanatan) . Fromthese and S imilar passages the following doctrine is ded uced :

“ It is plain that the Prophet (on whom and on

whose descendants b e the mercy and peace of God !) is freefrom sin in what he ordered to b e done

,and in what he

prohibited,in all his words and acts ; for were it otherwise ,

how could obedience rendered to him b e accounted as obedience paid to God ? ” 2 Believers are exhorted to render obedience to God by witnessing to His divinity, and to the Prophetby hearing witness to his prophetship this is a S ign of love

,

and love is the cause of nearness to God . The Prophethimself is reported to have said

,Obey me ,

that God may

regard you as friends.

” From this Statement the conclusionis drawn that “ the love of God (to man) is conditional onobedience to the Prophet.” Belief in and obedience to theProphet are essential elements of the true faith, and he

who possesses not both of these is in error .

3

1 Takm ilu’

l- Iman, p . 1 6 .

2 Mudariju’

n-Nab uwat , p . 285 .

3 Les d octeurs d e la loi sont unaniment d’

accord sur l’

ob ligat ion d e

conformer ses actions a c c qui est ind iqué dans les trad itions attrib uéesau Prophete .

”

(I b n Khald i’

i n ,v ol. ii . p .

1 8 THE‘

FA ITH OF ISLAM

In order to Show the necessity of this obedience , God issaid to have appointed Muhammad as the Mediator betweenHimself and man. In a lower sense

,believers are to follow

the S unnat of the four Khalifs,A bil Bakr

,Omar

,Osman

,

and ‘

A li,who are true guides to men .

To the Muslim all that the Prophet did was perfectly inaccord with the will of God . Moral laws have a differentapplication when applied to him . His jealou sy

,his cruelty

to the Jewish tribes,

1his indu lgence in licentiousness, his

bold assertion of equality with God as regards his com

mands,

2 his every act and word are sinless and a gu ide to

men as long as the world shall last . It is easy for an

apologist for Muhammad to say that this is an accretion,

something which engrafted itself on to a simpler system . It

is no such thing. It is rather one of the essential parts of

the system . Let Muhammad b e his own witness : “ He

who loves not my S unnat is not my follower.

” “ He who

revives my S unnat revives me,and will b e with me in

Paradise .

”He who in d istress holds fast to the S annat

will receive the reward of a hundred martyrs. Thus themorality of Islam in the nineteenth century is the moralityof A rabia in the seventh. Muhammad fulfilled the moralrequ irements of a perfect A rab : he i s the ideal of the

standard of ethics as he regulated it in his own day ; and as

this national standard of ethics is supposed to b e divineand authoritative

,it has fixed for ever the standard for all

Muslim lands ; b ut it is too limited . Muhammad fails as

the ideal embodiment of a S on of Man,

one Common toall humanity. A s might b e expected

,the setting up of his

own acts and words as an infallib le and unvarying rule of

faith accounts more than anything else for the immobility1 “ O b elievers ! take not the Jews or Christians as friend s. They are

b ut one another’

s friend s. If any of you taketh them for his friend s heis surely one of them . God w ill not guid e the evil - d oers .

”

(S . v.

2 “ Ob ey God and the A postle.

” “When God and His A postle haved ecreed a matter whosoever d isob eyeth God and H is

'

A postle erreth

w ith a palpab le error .

” “ Verily they who affront God and H is A postle ,the curse of God is on them in th is world and in the world to come .

”

(S .

xxxiii. 33, 36 ,



men seek after things new - if fresh forms of thought arise ,and the changing condition of society demands new modesof expression for the Faith , or new laws to regulate the

community— if,in internals or externals

,any new thing

(bid‘at) is

‘

introduced,it is to b e shunned . The law

,as

revealed in the Quran and the S unnat,is '

perfect . Everything not in accordance w ith the precepts therein containedis innovation,

and all innovation is heresy. Meanwhile some

“ bid ‘at ”is allowable

,such as the teaching of etymology

and syntax , the establishment of schools, guest

- houses , &c .

,

which things did not exist in the time of the Prophet b ut

it is distinctly and clearly laid down that compliance withthe least Sunnat the obeying the least of the orders ofthe Prophet , however trivial) is far better than doing somenew thing,

however advantageous and desirable it may b e .

There are many stories which illustrate the importancethe Companions of the Prophet attached to the S unnat .

“ The Khalif Omar looked towards the black stone at

Mecca,and said

,

‘ By God,I know that thou art only a

stone,and canst grant no benefit

,canst do no harm . If

I had not known that the Prophet kissed thee,I wou ld not

have done so , b ut on account of that I do ‘A bdu‘llahI bn ‘Umr was seen riding his camel round and round a

certain place. In answer to an inquiry as to his reasonfor so doing he said

,

“ I know not , only I have seen the

Prophet do so here .

”

A hmad Ib n Hanbal,one of the four

great Imams,and the founder of the Hanb ali school of in

terpretation , is said to have been appointed on account ofthe care with which he observed the S unnat . One daywhen sitting in an assembly he alone of all presentobserved some formal custom authorised by the practiceof the Prophet . Gabriel at once appeared and informedhim that now

,and on account of his ac t, he was appointed

an Imam .

”In short

,it is distinctly laid down that the

1 “ The respect wh ich mod ern Muslims pay to their Prophet is almostidolatrous. The Imzim Ib n Hanb al would not even eat water -melonsb ecause

,although he knew the Prophet ate them, he could not learn

THE S IHAHU’

S - S ITTA H 2 1

best of all works is the following of the practice of

Muhammad . The essence of religion has been stated bya learned theologian to consist of three things : first , tofollow the Prophet in morals and in acts ; secondly

,to eat

only lawful food ; thirdly , to b e sincere in all actions .

The S unnet is now known to Musalmans through the

collections of Traditions gathered together by the men

whose names they now bear. The whole are called

S ihahu’

s - S ittah, or six correct books.

”Not one of these

collectors flourished until the third century of the Hij rah,

and so,as may b e easily supposed

,their work has not

passed unchallenged . There is by no means an absoluteConsensus of opinion among the S unnis as to the exactvalue of each Tradition

, yet all admit that a“

genuineTradition ”

must b e obeyed . Whether the Prophet spokewhat in the Traditions is recorded as spoken by him underthe influence of the highest kind of inspiration is

,as will

b e shown in the next chapter,a disputed point ; b ut it

matters little . Whatever may have been the degree , it

was according to Muslim belief a real inspiration,and thus

his every act and word became a law as binding upon his

followers as the example of Christ is upon Christians .

The Shi ‘ahs do not acknowledge the S ihahu’

s - S ittah,the

six correct books of the S unn is,b ut it by no means follows

that they reject Tradition . They hav e five books of Traditions

,the earliest of which was compiled by A b ii Ja‘far

Muhammad A .H. 329 ,or a century later than the S ahih- i

Bukhari,the most trustworthy of the S unni set. Thus all

Musalman sects accept the first and second ground of the

faith - the Quran and the S unnat—as the inspired willof God ; the S hi‘ahs substituting,

in the place of the

Traditions on which the S unnat is based,a collection of

their own . What it is important to maintain is this,

whether he ate them w ith or without the rind , or whether he b roke ,b it

, or c ut them : and he forb ad e a woman,who quest ioned h im as to the

propriety of the ac t , to spin b y the light of torches passing in the streets

b y night , b ecause the Prophet had not ment ioned that it was law ful to d o3)

so . (Lane'

s Mod ern Egyptians , v ol. i . p .


that the Quran alone is to no Musalman an all- suffic ient

gu ide .

3. IJMA ‘

.

1 —The third foundation of the Faith is calledIjma ,

a word signifying to b e collected or assembled .

Technically it means the unanimous consent of the leadingtheologians, or what in Christian theology wou ld b e calledthe “

unanimous consent of the Fathers . Practically it isa collection of the Opinions of the Companions

,the Tabi ‘in

and the Taba- i—Tabi‘in .

“ The Law,

”says Ib n Khaldun ,

“ is grounded on the general accord of the Companions and

the ir followers.

”

I b n A bli Dalid says : A schismatic oncecame to A l- Mamun ,

who said to him ,

‘Why didst thouOppose u s ?

’

He replied , ‘ A verse of the book of God .

’

Which The words of the Most High—whoso judgethnot according to what God has revealed

,they are infidels .

’

The Khalif then wished to know whether he had any certainknowledge that this had been revealed

,and what his proof

was . He answered thus The consensus of the people ;’

to which A l- Mamun rejoined,

‘ A s thou art content withtheir agreement concerning the revelation

,b e content with

their unanimity in the interpretation thereof. ’ The man

then said ,‘ Thou hast spoken truly ; peace b e to thee

,0

Prince of the Faithful . ’ 2The commentator Baiz av i quotes

the following text : “ Ye were the best nation produced tomen ; ye enj oined right and forbade wrong, and believed inGod

”

(S . iii. and says that it is used to prove thatthe agreements of believers is a source of Law

,for this verse

makes it certain that they enjoined everything right and

forbade everything wrong. The election of A b ii Bakr tothe Khalifate is called Ijma‘- i - Ummat

,the unanimous con

1 “ In the Qurdn and the Trad itions we have respectively the undou bted

and the p robable teach ing of th e Prophe t, each equally b ind ing upon h is

followers . But the Muslim has something more than this to guid e him ,

and th is last is what We stern stud ents of Islam are apt to und er - estimate .

Christ ians would call it the general consent of the Fathers ,”

and possib lyreject it . Muhammadans call it I jma‘, and implicitly ob ey it .

”

(S tud iesin a Mosque , b y S tanley Lane - Poole

, p .

2 H istory of the Khalifs , b y Jalai lu’d - d in A s - Syuti , p . 335 .

IJMA‘A ND IJTIHAD 2 3

sent of the whole sect . The Companions of the Prophethad special knowledge of the various circumstances underwhich special revelations had been made ; they alone knewwhich verses of the Quran abrogated others

,and which

verses were thus abrogated . The knowledge of these

matters and many other details they handed on to theirsuccessors

,the Tabi‘in

,who passed the information on to

the ir followers,the Taba- i - Tabi ‘in. S ome of the Mu

‘tazilas

seem to rej ect Ijma‘altogether,

1and some Muslims

, the

Wahhabis for example,accept only the Ijma‘ of the Com

panions,and by all sects that is placed in the first rank as

regards authority ; others accept that of the “ Fugitives”

who dwelt at Madina ; and there are some amongst theorthodox who allow

,as a matter of theory, that Ijma‘ may

b e collected at any time, b ut that practically it is not donebecau se there are now no Mujtahidin. The highest rank a

Muslim Theologian could reach was that of a Mujtahid,or

one who could make an Ijtihad—a word which ,derived from

the sam e root as Jihad (a Crescentade) , means in its technicalsense a logical deduction . It is defined as the “

attainingto a certain degree of authority in searching into the princ iples of jurisprudence.

”The origin of Ij tihad was as

follows z—Muhammad wished to send a man named Ma‘

azto Yaman to receive some money collected for alms

,which

he was then to distribute to the poor . On appointing himhe said

,O Ma

‘

az,by what rule will you act ?

”He re

plied,By the Law of the Quran .

” “ B ut if you find no

direction therein ?” Then I w ill act according to the

Sunnat of the Prophet . But what if that fails ?” ThenI will make an Ijtihad and ac t on that .

”The Prophet

raised his hands and said,

“ Praise b e to God,who gu ides

the messenger of H is Prophet in what He pleases.

” 2 Thisis considered a proof of the authority of Ij tihad

,for the

Prophet clearly sanctioned it .

When the Prophet was al ive,men cou ld go to him with

1 Sharastzini’

s Milal wa Nihal , p. 87.2 Mudariju

’n - Nab uwat , p . 1009 .

2 4 THE FA ITH OF I SLAM

their doubts and fears ; an infallible authority was alwayspresent

,ready to give an inspired direction . They knew

by experience that for each new case as it arose,that for

each new emergency, Gabriel would bring some message

direct from heaven,or that Muhammad would b e rightly

guided in the orders he gave . The Khalifs who succeededthe Prophet had only to administer the Law according to

the opinions which they knew Muhammad had held . Theywere bu sily engaged in carrying on the work of conquest ;they , neither attempted any new legislation,

nor did theydepart from the practice of him whom they revered . In

the first days of Islam the knowledge of the Law was purelytraditional . In forming their judgments, they had no re

course e ither to Speculation,to private Opinion

,or to argu

ments founded upon analogy.

” 1The duty of the religious

teachers was,according to Ibn Khaldun

,to communicate

to others the orders which they had heard from the mouthof the Legislator .

” 2 “ The Prophet charged the principalmen amongst his Companions to teach the (A rab) peoplethe precepts of the Law which he had brought to men .

This m ission was at first confided to ten of the chief Companions

,afterwards to others of lower rank. When Islam

was firmly established and its foundations strengthened, themore distant people received it by means of their adherents ;b ut after a while that teaching suffered modification ,

and

they had'

to deduce from the sacred writings maxims to

apply to the numerous cases which constantly came beforethe tribunals.

” 3 Thus,as the Empire grew,

new conditionsof l ife arose

, giving r ise to questions concerning whichMuhammad had given no explicit direction. This necessi

tated the use of Ij tihad . During the Khalifates of A bu

Bakr,Omar

,Osman

,and ‘A li—the Khalafa- i - Rashidin

,or

the Khalifs who cou ld guide men in the right way— the

c ustom was for the Faithful to consult them as to the

course of action to be pursued under some new develop


Ib n Khald fm, vol. 1 1 . p . 469 .

2 Ib id . ,vol. i . p . 60.

3 Ib id . ,v ol. 1. p. 6 1 .

THE FOUR IMAMS 2 5

ment of circumstances ; for they knew as none other didthe Prophet’s sayings and deeds ; they could recall to theirmemories a saying or an act from which a decision couldb e deduced . In this way all Muslims could feel that in following their judgments and guidance theywere walking in theright path . But after the death of

‘

A li,the fourth Khalif

,

civil war and hostile factions imperilled the continuance of

the Faith in its purity. A t Madina,where Muhammad ’s

career as a recognised Prophet was best known ,devout men

commenced to learn by heart the Quran,the S unnat , and

the analogical judgments (ljtihad) of the four Khalifs .

These men were looked up to as authorities , and their decisions were afterwards known as the Customs of Madina.

”

It is not difficult to see that a system which sought toregulate all departments of life

,all developments of men

’sideas and energies, by the S unnat and analogical deductionstherefrom was one which not only gave every temptationa system could give to the manufacture of Tradition

,b ut

one which would‘

soon become too cumbersome to b e of

practical use. Hence,it was absolutely necessary to syste

matise all this incoherent mass of Tradition,of judgments

given by Khalifs and Mujtahidin. This gave rise to the

systems of jurisprudence,founded by the four orthodox

Imams,to one or other of which all Muslims

,except the

Shi‘ahs , belong. These Imams,A bl

’

i Hanifa, I bn Malik,A s - Shafi‘f

,and Ib n Hanbal , were all Muj tahidin of the

highest rank . A fter them it is the orthodox belief thatthere has been no Muj tahid . Thus in a standard theological book much used in India ' it is written :

“ Ijma‘ isthis , that it is not lawful to follow any other than the four

Imams.” “ In these days the Qazi must make no order,the Mufti give no fatva (i .e. a legal decision), contrary tothe Opinion of the four Imams .

“ To follow any other isnot lawful .” To ac t contrary to the Ijma

‘ is unlawful .” 1

S o far,then

,as ox thodoxy is concerned , change and

progress are impossible .

1 Zawab itu’l- Furkan , p. 1 7 .


Imam A b ii Hanifa was born at Bas ra (A .H . b ut he

spent the greater part of his life at Krifah,and died at

Baghdad in the year 1 5 0 A .H . He had two disciples,

famou s in the legal world , Muhammad and A b ii YIi suf.

He was the founder and teacher of the body of legistsknown as

“ the jurists of Irak .

”H is system differs con

siderab ly from that of the Imam Malik, who , living at

Madina,confined himself chiefly to Tradition as the basis

of his j udgments . Madina was fu ll of the memories of the

sayings and acts of the Prophet ; Kufah , the home of

Hanifa,on the contrary

,was not founded till after the

Prophet’

s death, and so possessed none of his m emories .

Islam there came into contact with other races of men,b ut

from them it had nothing to learn . If these men becameMuslims , well and good : if not

,the one law for them as

for the Faithfu l was the teaching of Muhammad . Var ioustet of the Quran are adduced to prove the correctness ofthis position .

“ For to thee have we sent down the bookwhich cleareth up everything

”

(S . xvi . “ Nothinghave we passed over in the book ”

(S . vi . “ Neitheris there a grain in the darkness of the earth

,nor a thing

green or sere , b ut it is noted in a distinct writing (S . vi .These texts were held to prove that all law was pro

v ided for by anticipation in the Quran . If a verse couldnot b e found bearing on any given question ,

analogicaldeduction was resorted to. Thus : “ He it is who created

for you all that is on earth (S . ii . A ccording to the

Hanifite j urists, this is a deed of gift which annul s all otherrights of p roperty . The

“

you”refers to Muslims. The

earth1may b e classified under three heads : (1 ) land which

never had an owner ; (2 ) land which had an owner and

has been abandoned ; (3) the person and property of the

Infidels . From the last division the same legists deducethe lawfulness of slavery

,piracy

,and constant war against

the unbelievers .

“ A b i’

I Hanifa was esteemed a great

master in the art of Qias . The following story on this

1 Journal A siatz'

que, 4me S érie, tome xi i .


‘


was called the “ Mawatta or“ The Beaten Path.

”

The

greater part of its contents are legal maxim s and Opinionsdelivered by the Companions . H is system of j urisprudence

,

therefore,has been described as historical and traditional .

In an e legy on his death by A bu Muhammad Ja‘far it issaid : “ H is Traditions were of the greatest authority ; his

gravity was impressive ; and when he delivered them,all

his auditors were plunged in admiration .

” 1 The Traditionswere his great delight. I delight,

”said he

,

“ in testifyingmy profound respect for the sayings of the Prophet of God ,and I never repeat one unless I feel myself in a state of

perfect purity ” 2after performing a legal ablution) .

A S death approached,his one fear was lest he should have

exercised his private judgment in delivering any legalOpinion. In his last illness a friend went to visit him

,and

inqu iring why he wept,received the following answer :

Why Should I not weep, and who has more right to weepthan I ? By A llah ! I wish I had been flogged and re

fiogged for every question of law on which I pronouncedan opinion founded on my own private judgment .

” 3

Imam A s - Shafi‘i,a member of the Qurai sh tribe

,was

born A .H. 1 50 . He passed his youth at Mecca, b ut finallysettled in Cairo

,where he died (A .H . Ib n Khallikan

relates o f him that he was unrivalled for his knowledgeof the Quran

,the Sunnat

,and the sayings of the Com

panions . “ Never,

” said Imam Ib n Hanbal,

“ have Ipassed a night without praying for God

’

s mercy and blessing upon A s “Whosoever pretends , said A b i

’

i

Thaur “that he saw the like of A s - Shafi‘i for learning is

a liar. Having carefully studied the systems of the two

preceding Imams,he then proceeded on an eclectic system

to form his own. It was a reaction against the system of

A bu Hanifa. A s - S hafi ‘i follows rather the traditional planof Ib n Malik . The Hanifite will b e satisfied if

,in the

absence of a clear and a direct statement,he finds one

1 Ib n Khallikan’

s B iograph ical D ictionary , vol. i i . p. 594.

2 I b id . , p . 546.

3 Ib id ., vol. ii. p . 584.

IMAM IBN H ANBA L 2 9

passage”

in the Quran'

or one Tradition from which the

required judgment may be deduced . The S hafi‘ite in the

sam e circumstances, if Tradition is the source of his doduot ion

,will require a considerable number of Traditions from

which to make it.Imam Ib n Hanbal was the last of the four Orthodox

Imams, He was b Orn at’

Baghdad (A .H. His systemis a distinct return to Traditionalism . He lived at Baghdadduring the reign of the Khal if Mamun , when orthodoxIslam seemed in danger of being lost amid the rational isticspeculations (that is, from an orthodox Muslim standpoint) and licentious practices of the Court . The j uristsmost in favour at Court were followers of A b ii Han ifa.

They carried the principle of analogical deduction to

dangerous lengths in order to satisfy the latitudinarianismof the Khalif. Human speculation seemed to b e weakening all the essentials of the Faith.

' Ib n Hanbal met the

difficulty by discarding altogether the principle of analogicaldeduction . A t the same t ime he saw that the Malikisystem ,

founded as it was on the “ Customs of Madina,

”

was ill suited to meet the wants of a great and growingEmpire . It needed to b e supplemented . What better ,what surer ground could he go upon than the Traditions ?

These at least were inspired,and thus formed a safer

foundation on which to build a system of jurisprudencethan the analogical deductions of A b I

'

I Hani fa did . The

system of I bn Hanbal has almost ceased to exist . There isnow no Mufti of this sect at Mecca

,though the other three

are represented there . S till his influence is felt to this dayin the importance he attached to Tradition.

The distinction between the four Imams has been put inthis way. A buHanifa exercised his own judgment, thoughthis has not had much permanent influence on his system .

1

1 The advantages possessed b y the Hanifis through the ir partial recognition of natural reason counted for less and less as the centuries wore on.

Not only were their teachers ; from A b fi Yusuf d ownwards,amb it ious of

d isplaying the ir acquaintance w ith the Trad itions,and o f using them in

support of their views whenever they could , thereb y o

d eb arring themselves


Malik and Hanbal preferred authority and precedent . A S

Shafi ‘i entirely repudiated reason. They differ,too , as

regards the value of certain Traditions,b ut to each of them

an authentic Tradition is an incontestable au thority. TheirOpinion on points of doctrine and practice forms the thirdbasis of the Faith.

The Ijma‘of the four Imams is a binding law upon all

Sunnis . It might b e supposed that, as the growing needsof the Empire led to the formation of these schools of

interpretation ,so now the requirements of modern social

and political l ife might b e met by fresh Imams making new

analogical deductions . This is not the case. The orthodox belief is

,that S ince the time of the four Imams there

has been no Mujtahid who coul d do as they did . If c ir

cumstances Should arise which absolutely require some

decision to b e arrived at,it must b e given in full accordance

with the mazhab ,”or school of interpretation ,

to which theperson fram ing the decision belongs . This effectually prevents all change, and by excluding innovation , whether

good or b ad,keeps Islam stationary . Legislation is now

purely deductive . Nothing must b e done contrary to the

principles contained in the j urisprudence of the four Imams ,

Thus,in any Muhammadan S tate legislative reforms are

S imply impossible. There exists no initiative . The S ultanor Khalif can claim the allegiance of his people only so

long as he remains the exact executor of the prescriptionsof the Law .

”

The question then as regards the politics of the Eastern

Question is not whether Muhammad was a deceiver or selfdeceived

,an apostle or an impostor ; whether the Quran is

on the whole good or b ad ; whether A rabia was the betteror the worse for the change Muhammad wrought b ut whatIslam as a religious and political system has become and is

,

how it now works,what Orthodox Muslims believe and how

from repud iat ing such as told against them , b ut the authority of the earliert eachers was invoked to fetter the lib erty of their successors. (A ngloMuhammadan Law,

b y S ir R. K. Wilson, p.

THE FINA LITY OF MUS LIM LAW 3 1

they act'

in that belief ? The essence of'

that bel ief is,that

the system as taught by Prophet , Khalifs , and Imams isabsolutely perfect. The following statement by the authorof the A khlak- i - Jalali, a book held in very great esteem

,

is most important . He says : “ A u thority becomes sacredbecause sanctioned by Heaven . Despotism

,being the first

form of consolidated political authority,is thu s rendered

unchangeable and identical in fact with government at

large.

”S upreme government has four stages : (I ) where

the absolute prince (Muhammad) is among them,conc en

trating‘

in his own person the four cardinal virtues,and

this we call the reign of wisdom ; (2) where the princeappears no longer, neither do these virtues

‘centre in anysingle person, b ut are found in four (A b I

'

I Bakr,Omar ,

Osman and ‘A li) , who govern in concert with each other,

as if they were one,and this we call the reign of the pious ;

3) where none of these is to b e found any longer, b ut a

chief (Khalif) arises with a knowledge of the rules propounded by the previous ones

,and with judgment enough

to apply and explain them ,and this we call the reign of the

S unnat (4) where these latter qualities, again , are not to be

met with in a S ingle person , b ut only in a variety who governin concert ; and this we cal l the reign of the Sunnat - fel

l'owers .

” 1A b ad king is like a b ad season . The next may

bring improvement , or, if his rule i s wholly intolerable , he canb e deposed . Under a b ad constitution no such change ispossible . It can b e ended only

'

by a revolution . But in

Islam innovation is worse than a mistake : it is a crime,

a sin . This completeness,this finality of his systemof

religion and polity,is the very pr ide and glory of a true

Muslim . To look for an increase of light in the knowledgeOf his relation to God and the unseen world in the lawswhich regulate Islam on earth

“is to admit that Muhammad’

s

revelation was incomplete,and that adm ission

.

no

t

Muslimw ill make . In fact

,so hopeless h

‘

as the attempt to reform

Islam frOm'

withinbeen felt,that the most

’

recent reformers ,1 A khlak~i1Jala1Lpp. 374, 378.


the Babis of Persia, gave up the idea and recognised the

fact that freedom could b e gained only by substituting forMuhammad ’s revelation a still later one

,which claims not

only to b e suited to present needs,b ut to b e of equal, if not

even superior,authority.

I t has been stated on high au thority that all that is

requ ired for the reform of Turkey is that the Qanuns, or

orders of the S ultan,Should take the place of the Shari‘at or

law of Islam. Precisely so ; if this could b e done Turkeym ight b e reformed ; b ut Islam would cease to b e the religiono f the S tate . That the law as formulated by the ImamA b I

'

I Hanifa ill suits the conditions of modern life is morethan probable ; b ut it is the very function of the Khalif of

Islam,which the Sultan claims to b e

,to maintain it . He

is no Mujtahid , for such there are not now amongst theS unnis

,to which sect the Turks belong. If through stress

of circumstances some new law must b e made,orthodoxy

demands that it shou ld b e strictly in accordance w ith theopinions of the

‘

Imams. I bn Khaldun lays great stresson the fact that the legists were not to use their own

judgment. He says : “ A S the Opinion of each Imamformed , for those who followed it

,the subject of a special

science,and as i t d id not p ermit them to decide new gues

tions by reason,or by the conscientious emp loyment of their

own j udgment (ij tihad) they were obliged , in every doubtful case

,to search for points of similarity or of differ

ence which would permit them to connect it w ith a

question already settled,or from which they could entirely

distinguish it . In so doing, they were obliged to . com

mence by resting on the principles which the founder of

the system had established ; and,in order to accomplish

this,it was necessary to have acquired in ‘

a substantialmanner the faculty of using these points of assimilationand distinction well , by followmg,

as much as possible,the

opinion of their Imam .

” 1

The Shi ‘ahs, in Opposition to the S unnis,hold that there

1,Ib n Khald i

’

in,vol. iii. p. 1 5 .

‘

MUJTA HIDI’

N 33

are still Muj tahidin, b ut this opinion arises from their'

peculiar

doctrine of the Imamat,a Subject we Shall discuss a l ittle

later on . A t first sight it w ould seem that if there can b e

Muj tahidin who are now able to give authoritative Opinions,

there may b e some hope of enlightened progress amongstShi ‘ah people— the Persians, for example . There is doubtless amongst them more religious unrest

,more mysticism

,

more heresy,b ut they are no fur ther on the road of . pro

gress than the ir neighbours ; and the apparent advantageof the presence of a Mujtahid is qu ite nullified by the

fact that all his decisions must b e strictly in accordancewith the Quran and the S unnat , or rather with what to theShi

‘

ah stands in the place of the Sunnat. The Shi‘

ah,as

well as the S unni,mu st base all legislation on the fossil

ised system of the past,not on the living needs of the

pre sent . Precedent rules both with an iron sway . It is

not to the Shah,b ut to the trained and certificated inter

preters of the Shari ‘at— a diflerent S hari‘

at from that of

the S unni, b ut built up on the same Quranic foundations,

by S im ilar methods and with analogou s though differentmaterials—that the faithful are s upposed to look for gu idance to their consciences, for determinations in points of

law . In this and in sim ilar ways the Shari ‘at is prettye ffectually secured against modification by the (Persian)Government of the day.

” 1 There is a sort of unwrittenlaw

,called ‘Urf

,which the secular ruler adm inisters through

his own civil officers ; b ut in any conflict between the‘Urf

and the Shari‘at the former has to give way. It is the

province of the Muj tahid s to declare when such Oppositionarises

,and so the chance of any reforms being initiated , or;

if proposed by others,accepted by the Muj tahids of Persia

,

is very remote indeed . A S a matter of practical fact,they .

are absolutely Opposed to reform .

The Wahhabis reject all Ijma‘ except that of the Com

panions, b ut that they accept ; so when they are cal led thePuritans of Islam,

it must b e remembered that they accept1 A nglo -Muhammadan Law ,

b y S ir R. K. Wilson, pp . 69

—70.

C


as a rule of faith not only the Quran,b ut the Sunnat and

some Ijma‘.In order to make Ijma‘ binding, it is necessary that the

Muj tahidin should have been unanimous in their Opinion or

in their practice .

The whole subject of Ij tihad is one of the most importantin connection with the possibility of reforms in a Muslimstate . A modern Muhammadan writer ,

1seeking to Show

that Islam does possess a capacity for progress, and that so

far from being a hard and fast system,it is able to adapt

itself to new circumstances,because the Prophet ushered in

“an age of active the story I have already

related when describing the origin of Ij tihad to prove theaccuracy of his statement . He makes Mu

‘az to say :“ I

will look first to the Quran,then to precedents of the

Prophet,and lastly rely upon my own j udgment.

”It is

true that Ij tihad literally means“

great effort it is true

that the Companions and Muj tahidin of the first class hadthe power of exercising their judgment in doubtful cases ,and of deciding them according to their sense of the fitnessof things, provided always that their decision contravenedno law of the Quran or the S unnat ; b ut this in no way

proves that Islam has any capacity for progress, or that an

age of active principles was ushered in by Muhammad , orthat his “ words breathe energy and force

,and infuse new

life into the dormant heart o f humanity .

”For though the

term Ij tihad might, in reference to'

the men I have men

tioned,b e somewhat freely translated as

“ one’s own judgment

,

”it is now a purely technical term

,and its u se

,and

only use,is to express the “

referring of a diffi cult case tosome analogy drawn from the Quran and the S unnat .

”But

even were the meaning not thus restricted,even though it

meant now , as it sometimes meant at first,

“ one’s own

judgment,”

still Syed A m ir ‘A li’s position would remainto b e proved ; for, since the days of the four Imams

,the

orthodox believe that there has been no Mujtahid of the

1 Life of Muhammad,by Syed A mir ‘A li, p . 289 .



the elder ones ought to fulfil for their parents all thoseobligations which for some reason or other the parents may

not b e able to perform,such as the pilgrimage to Mecca, &c .

?

I t is said in the Quran that “ the maintenance of a woman

who suckles an infant rests upon him to whom the child is

born. From this the Opinion is deduced that the maintenance of the infant also falls upon the father . A Tradition

said to come from the Companions runs thus : “ One day

a woman came to the Prophet and said,

‘My father diedw ithou t making the Pilgrimage .

’

The Prophet said ,‘ If

thy father had left a debt what wou ldest thou do ?’

I

would pay the d ebt .

’ ‘ Good,then pay this debt also .

The Quran forbids the u se of khamar,

an intoxicatingsubstance , and so it is argued that wine and opium are

unlawfu l,though not forbidden by name . The Wahhabis

wou ld extend the prohibition to the u se of tobacco .

From cases such as these,many jurisconsults hold that

the Muj tah idin of the earliest age established this fourthfoundation of the faith which they call (21218 . It is alsocalled I ‘

tibaru’

l- A msal,or

“ imitation of an example .

”The

idea is taken from the verse : “ Profit by this example , yewho are men of insight

”

(S . lix. There are strictrules laid down which regulate Q i as

,of which the most

important is,that in all cases it must b e based on the

Quran , the S annat , and the Ijma‘ . In fact, the fundamental idea of Islam is that a perfect law has been given ,

even unto details,of social and political life . The teaching

of Muhammad contains the solution of every difficulty thatcan arise . Every law not provided by the Prophet must

b e deduced analogically. This produces un iformity after

a fashion, b ut only because intellec tual activity in higher

pursu its ceases and moral stagnation follows. Thus all who

come within the range of this system are bound down to

political servitude . Whatever in feeling or conviction goesbeyond the limits of an outworn set of laws is swept away .

There is a wonderful family likeness in the decay of all

Musalman S tates,which seems to point to a common cause .

(Wis 37

A ll first principles are contained in the Quran and the

S annat ; all that does not coincide with them must b ewrong . They are above all criticism .

Q ias,then,

affords no hope of enlightened progress ,removes no fetter of the past

,for in it there must b e no

d ivergence in principle from a legislation imperfect in its

relation to modern life and stationary in its essence .

“ The

laws of Islam,taken in the lump

,the only way which their

al leged sacred origin allowed them to b e taken,and chiefly

because they could only b e so taken,were b ad anywhere

and for any commun ity,and became worse and worse the

farther they were transplanted from their original surroundings worse under the Khalifate of Baghdad than at Madinaunder the “

rightly directed” Khalifs

,and worse for the

Hindus of the seventeenth century than for Baghdad inthe n inth .

” 1In the Nihayatu

’

l- Murad it is written : We

are shut up to following the four Imams . In the Tafsiri - A hmadi we read : “ To follow any other than the fourImams is unlawful . A n objector may say that such respectis like the reverence the heathen pay to their ancestors .

To this an answer is given in the preface to the Tarjuma- i

Sharh- i -Waqayah. The writer there says that it is nothingof the kind .

“ The Mujtahidin are not the source of the

orders of the Law ,b ut they are the medium by which we

obtain the Law. Thus Imam A bi'l Hanifa said,

‘We selectfirst from the Quran ,

then from the Traditions,then from the

decrees of the Companions we ac t on what the Companionsagreed upon ; where they doubt, we doubt.

’

The Oommen

tator Jelalu’

d - dfnMahh’

says,

‘The common people and otherswho have not reached the rank of a Muj tahid must followone of the four Imams .

’ Then when he enters one Maghab

(sect) he must not change . A gain ,it may b e objected that

God gave no order about the appointment of four Imams.

Now,it is recorded in a Tradition that the Prophet said ,

Follow the way of the great company ; whosoever d epartsfrom it will enter hell . ’ The Fol lowers of the Imams are

1 A nglo -Muhammadan Law,b y S ir R. W . Wilson, p . 87 .

38 THE FA ITH OF IS LAM

a great company. It is,moreover

,the unanimous Opinion

,

the“ Ijma‘- i- Ummat

,

”that the Imams rightly occupy the

position accorded to them . It is a great blessing,as we

read in the Tafsir - i - A hmadi : “ It is of . the grace of God

that we are shut up to these four Imams . God approvesof this

,and into this matter proofs and explanations do not

enter .

”

Should any one further object that,in the days of

the Prophet , there were no Muj tahidin,that each man acted

on a“ saying as he heard it , that he did not confine his

belief or conduct to the deductions made by some“appointed

Companion,

”he may b e answered thu s : “ For a long time

after the death of the Prophet many Compan ions were alive,

and consequently the Traditions then current were trust

worthy ; b ut now it is not so, hence the need for the Imams

and their systems .

” 1

These four foundations— the QURAN,the SUNNA T, IJMA ‘

,

and QfAfS— form in orthodox Muslim Opinion and belief a

perfect basis of a perfect rel igion and polity . They securethe permanence of the system

,b ut they repress an intelligent

growth. The bearing of all this on modern politics is veryplain . Take again the case of Turkey . The constitutionof the Government is theocratic . The germs of freedomare wanting there as they have never been wanting in any

other country in Europe . The ruling power desires no

change ; originality of thought, independence of judgmentis repressed . S ome Musalman conquerors produced typesof civilisation more or less permanent in India

.

and in S pain .

Turkish conquerors,in the full tide of might and energy,

have overspread and extirpated ; nowhere have they planted .

”

Nothing good has the Turk ever done for the world . H is

rule has been one continued display of brute force unrelievedby any of the reflected glory which shone for a while in

1 A mod ern Muslim writer,who strives to show that Islam is progressive ,

i s yet ob liged to adm it that the Sunnis b ase the ir d octrines on the entiretyof the Trad itions . They regard the concordant d ecisions of the success iveKhalifs and of the General A ssemb ly (Ijma‘- i - Ummat ) as supplement ing theQuranic rules and regulat ions , and as almost equal in authority to them .

(S yed A mir‘A li in the “ Personal Law of the Muhammadans , p .

THE THEOCRA TIC SYSTEM 39

Cordova and in Baghdad . No nation can possibly progressthe foundations of whose legal and theocratic system are

what has been described in this chapter .

“ A religion that has the m isfortune to b e identified withthe S tate is on this v ery account brought into trouble withthe latter

,whilst the S tate is on all sides restricted by the

religion . The S tate has on it a divine stamp,and as the

whole of its constitution,as well as its individual laws

,

possesses a character absolutely sacred,it is evident that

mere human institutions,calcu lated only for a certain degree

of culture,will b e considered as being of divine authority

,and

hence unchangeable . Thus very soon the S tate will becomean unmovable

,petrified , death - like mass

,and

,if its end

b e not hastened from without in a b eneficent manner , wil lentomb itself in its own corruption . The S tate

,then

,is in

a most dangerous position when it is surrounded by othernations who

,having been civilised by a higher religion ,

possess a freer and more movable form,and are therefore

capable,w ithou t any particular restriction

,of approaching

nearer and nearer to perfection . But should those who

administer the government perceive the necessity of radicalreforms and commence new plans

,then the S tate annihilates

its religious basis : violent antagonistic principles are developed

,and internal destructive dissensionbecomes inevitable .

” 1

When brought into diplomatic and commercial intercourse with S tates possessing the energy and vigou r of a

national l ife and l iberal constitution,Muslim kingdom s

must,in the long - run

,fail and pass away . It has been

well said that “ Spain is the only instance of a countryonce thoroughly infused with Roman civilisation whichhas been actually severed from the Empire ; and even

then the severance,though of long duration ,

was b ut

partial and temporary. A fter a struggle of nearly eight

centuries,the higher form of social organisation triumphed

over the lower,and the u su rping power of Islam was

expelled .

”S o it ought to b e , and so indeed it must ever

1 The Relation of Islam to the Gospel , b y Dr. J. A . Mochler.


b e,for despotism must give way to freedom ; the life

latent in the subj ect Christian communities must sooneror later cast off the yoke of a barbarian rule

,which even

at its best is petrified and so is incapable of progress .

However low a Christian community may have fallen, thereis always the possibility of its rising again . A lofty idealis placed before it. A ll its most cherished beliefs pointforward and upward . In Islam there is no regenerativepower . Its golden age was in the past . When the work of

conquest is done,when a Muhammadan nation has to l ive by

industry,intelligence , and thrift, it always miserably fails .

In this chapter,which must now draw to a close

,I have

tried to prove from authentic and authoritative sources thatthe Quran alone is to no Muslim the sole guide of life .

The fetters of a dogmatic system fasten alike around the

individual and the community. Islam is sterile,it gives

no new birth to the spirit of a man,leads him not in

search of new forms of truth,and so it can give no real

l ife , no lasting vitality to a nation .

1

1 The Muslim everywhere , after a b rilliant passage of prosperity, seem s

to stagnate and w ither,b ecause there is nothing in h is system or h is

b el ief wh ich l ifts him ab ove the level of a servant , and on that level man’

s

l ife in the long - run must not only stagnate b ut d ecay. The Christ ian,

on the other hand,seem s everywhere in the last extrem ity to b id d is

organisat ion and d ecay d efiance , and to find,A ntaeus - like, in the earth

wh ich he touches , the spring of a new and fruitful progress . For there

is that in his b elief,his trad itions , and in the s ilent influences which

pervad e the very atmosphere around him,which is ever moving him ,

often in ways that he knows not , to rise to the d ignity and to clotheh imself w ith the power which the Gospel proposes as the priz e of his

Christ ian calling. The sub m issi ve servant of A llah is the highest typeof Moslem perfection ; the Christ ian id eal is the Christ - like son .

”

(Br itish Quar terly, NO . cxxx . )“Marvellously adapted alike to the climate

,character, and occupation

o f those countries upon wh ich it has laid its adamant ine grip , Islam hold sits votary in complete thrall from the crad le to the grave . To him it is

not only religion ,it is government , ph ilosophy, and science as well . The

Muhammadan conception is not so much that of a S tate Church as,if

the expression may b e perm itted , of a Church S tate . The und ergird ers

w ith which society itself is warped round are not of civil b ut of ecclesiast ical fab rication ; and

,warped in th is superb if paralysing creed , the

Musalman lives in contented surrend er of all volit ion .

” Pers ia,

”b y the

Hon. G. Curz on, vol. i. p .

NOTE TO CHA PTER I

IJT IHAD

QUESTIONS connected with I jtihad are so important in I slam,that

I think it well to give in the form of a note a fuller and more

technical account of it than I cou ld do in the chapter justconcluded . This account which I shall now give is that of a

learned Musalman,and is

,therefore, of the highest v alue . I t

consists of extracts from an article in the Journal A siatique,

Quatrieme S érie,tome 1 5 , on

“ Le Marche et les Progres de la

Jurisprudence parm i les S ectes orthodoxes Musalmanes,b yMir z a

Kaz im B eg, Professor in the University of S t. Petersb urg. I t

entirely supports all that has b een said of the rigid character ofMuhammadan law

,and of the immob ility of systems founded

thereon .

Orthodox Musalmans adm it the following propositions as

axioms

1 . God,the only legislator , has shown the way of felicity to the

people whom H e has chosen,and in order to enab le them to walk

in that way H e has shown to them the precepts which are found

part ly in the eternal Quran, and partly in the sayings of the

Prophet, transm itted to posterity by the Companions and pre

served in the S unnat . That way is called the The

rules thereof are called A bkam .

2 . The Quran and the S unnat,which since their manifestation

are the prim itive sources of the orders of the Law ,form two

b ranches of study,v iz .

‘I lm—i- Tafsir, or the interpretation of the

Quran ,and ‘I lm - i - Hadis , or the study of Tradition .

3. A ll the orders of the Law have regard e ither to the actions

(D in) or to the b elief (Iman) of the Mukallifs.

1

1 A Mukallif is one who is sub ject to the Law . A Ghair - i -Mukallif is

one not so sub j ect , such as a m inor, an id iot , &c . The term Mukallif is

thus equ ivalent to a consistent Muslim,one who takes troub le (taklif) in

his religious d ut ies .


4 . A s the Quran and the S unnat are the principal sources fromwhence the precepts of the Shari‘at have b een drawn ,

so the rules

recognised as the principal elements of actual jurisprudence are

the sub ject of ‘Ilm - i - Fiqh,or the science of Law.

Fiqh in its root signifies conception, comprehension . Thu sMuhammad prayed for I b n Mas

‘ud May God make him com

prehend (faqqihahu ), and make him know the interpretation of

the Quran .

” Muhammad,in his quality of judge and chief of the

Be lievers,decided

,without appeal or contrad iction, all the affairs

of the people . H is sayings served as a guide to the Companions .

A fter the death o f the Prophet the first Khalifs acted on the

au thority of the Traditions. Meanwhile the Quran and the

S unnat, the principal elements of religion and legislation ,b ecame

little b y little the sub ject of controversy. I t was then that men

applied themselves vigorously to the task of learning by heartthe Quran and the Trad itions

,and then that jurisprudence b e

came a separate science. N0 science had as yet b een systema

tically taught , and the early Musalmans d id not possess b ookswhich would serve for such teaching. A change soon

,however ,

took place. In the year in which the great jurisconsult of Syr iad ied (A .H . N i ‘man b in Sab it

,su rnamed A buHanifa

,was b orn .

H e is the most celeb rated o f the founders of the schools of juris

prudence , a science which ranks first in all Muslim seats of

learning. Until that t ime and for thirty years later the

Mufassirs,

1 the Muhaddis ,2and the Fuqiha,

3 had all their knowledge by heart, and those who possessed good memories werehighly esteemed . Many of them knew by heart the whole

Quran,with the comments made on it b y the Prophet and b y

the Companion s ; they also knew the Traditions and their ex

planations , and all the commands (ahkam) which proceed fromthe Quran and the S unnat . S uch men enjoyed the right o f

Mu jtahidin . They transm itted their knowledge to their scholarsorally. I t was not till towards the m iddle of the second c en

tury A .H . that treatises on the d ifferent b ranches of the Law

w ere written,after which six schools (Maghab s) of jurisprudence

were formed . The founders , all Imams of the first class , were

A b ii Hanifa,the Imam - i - A ‘

z am or great Imam (A .H . I S afian

1 Commentators on the Quran. The Trad itionists .

3 Plural of Faqih , a theologian.

4 I have given the dates of the ir d eath.



prudence that the confirmation of this rank is dependent on

many cond itions, and so no one now gains the honour . These

conditions are

1 . The knowledge of the Quran and all that is related to it ;that is to say, a complete knowledge of A rab ic literature , a profound acquaintance with the orders of the Quran and all theirsub divisions

,their relationship to each other and their connec

tion with the orders of the S unnat . The candidate should knowwhen and why each v erse of the Quran was written ,

he Shouldhave a perfect acquaintan ce with the literal meaning of the

words,the speciality or generality of each clause

,the ab rogating

and ab rogated sentences. H e should b e ab le to make clear themeaning of the “

ob scure ”

passages (mutashab ih), to d iscrimi

nate b etween the literal and the al legorical, the un iversal and theparticu lar .

2 . H e must know the Quran by heart with all the Traditionsand explanations .

3. H e must have a perfect knowledge of the Traditions, or at

least of three thousand of them .

H e must know their source,history

,ob ject , and their connec

tion with the laws of the Quran. H e should know by heart themost important traditions .

4 . A pious and austere life .

5 . A profound knowledge of all the sciences of the Law .

Should any one now aspire to such a d egree another conditionwould b e added

,VlZ

6 . A complete knowledge of the four schools of jurisprudence .

The ob stacles,then

,are almost insurmountab le. On the one

hand,there is the severity of the ‘Ulama, which requires from the

candidate things almost impossib le ; on the other hand , there is

the attachment of the ‘Ulama to their own Imams , for shou ld

such a man ar ise,no one is b ound now to listen to him . Imam

Hanb al said :“ Draw your knowledge from whence the Imams

d rew theirs,and do not content yourself with following others

(i . e. , modern Mujtahidin), for that is certainly b lindness of

S ight .

” Thu s the schools of the four Imams remain intact aftera thou sand years hav e passed , and so the ‘U lama recognise S incethe time of these Imams no Mujtahid of the first degree . I b n

Hanb al was the last .

The rights of the man who attained to this degree were very

IJTIHAD 4 5

important . H e was not b ound to b e a d isciple of another ; he was

a mediator b etween the Law and his fo llowers,for whom he estab ~

lished a system of legislation , without any one hav ing the right

to make any ob jection . H e had the r ight to explain the Quran ,

the S unnat,and the I jma‘ according as he understood them .

H e u sed the Prophet’s words , whilst his d isciples only u sed his .

Should a d isciple find some d iscrepancy b etween a decision of

his own Imam and the Quran or Traditions,he must ab ide by

the decision of the Imams The Law does not permit him to

interpret after his own fashion. When once the d is ciple hasentered the sect of one Imam ,

he cannot leave it and joinanother . H e loses the right of private judgment, for only a

Mu j tahid of the first class can dispute the decision of one of the

Imams . Theoretical ly such Mujtahidin may still arise ; b ut , aswe have already shown

, practically they do not .

THE SECOND DEGREE OF IJTIHAD .

This degree has b een granted to the immediate d isciples of the

great Imams who have elab orated the systems of their masters .

They enjoyed the special consideration of the contemporary‘U lamaand of their respective Imams

,who in some cases have

allowed them to retain their own opinion . The most famous of

these m en are the two d isciples of A buHanifa, A bu Yusuf, andMuhammad b in al Hasan . In a secondary matter their opinioncarries great weight . I t is laid down as a rule that a Mufti may

follow the unanimous opinion of these two even when it goes

against that of A buH anifa.

THE THIRD DEGREE OF IJTIHAD .

This is the degree of special independence . The candidates forit should have a perfect knowledge of all the b ranches of jurisprudence according to the four schools, and of the A rab ic languageand literature . They can solve cases which come b efore them ,

giving reasons for their judgment,or decide on cases which have

not b een settled by previous Mu j tahidin b ut in either case theirdecisions must always b e in ab solute accordance with the opinionsof the Mu jtahidin of the first and second classes, and with the

principles which guided them . Many of these men attained


great celeb rity during their lifetime,b ut to most of them this

rank is not accorded till after death . Imam Qagf Khan , who

d ied in the year 5 9 2 A .H .,closes the list of the most famous

'

of

the men whose works serv e as a gu ide to the Muftis and jurisconsults of a later age. Though some others have since claimedthis position

,it is not generally accorded to them by orthodox

S unnis .

There are three other inferior classes of jurists,cal led Muqal

lidin,or followers of the Mujtahidin

‘

b ut all that the highest inrank amongst them can do is to explain ob scure passages in thewritings of the older juriscon sults. By some of the ‘U lamatheyare considered to b e equal to the Mu jtahidin of the third class .

I f there are several conflicting legal opinions on any point, theycan sele ct one opinion on which to b ase their decision. This a

mere Qaz f cannot do. In such a case he wou ld hav e to refer to

these m en or to their writings for guidance. They seem to hav e

written commentaries on the legal systems without originatinganything new. The author of the H idayah, who lived at the end

of the sixth century, was a Muqallid .

S uch is Mirza Kaz im B eg’

s account. The whole article,of

which I have only giv en the main points, is worthy of the closests tudy. I t shows how “ the system

,as a whole

,rejects experience

as a guide to deeper insight or wider knowledge tramples upon

the teaching of the past pays no heed to d ifferences of climate,

character, or history ; b ut regards itself as a b ody of ab solutetru th

, one jot or tittle of which cannot b e rejected withoutincurring the everlasting wrath of God .

” 1

Osb orn’s Islam under the Khalifs, p . 72 .

CH A P TE R I I

E ! EGE S I S OF THE QURAN A ND THE

TRA D I TION S

THE following account of this branch of Muslim theology ,technically called ‘Ilm - i - Usul

,may b e introduced by a few

remarks on the nature of inspiration according to Islam,

though that is not , strictly speaking, a portion of this study .

There are two terms used to express different degrees of

inspiration,Wahf and Ilham . The former is sometimes

divided into Wahi z ahir (external inspiration) and WahiBatin (internal inspiration) , which is almost the same as

Ilham . Wahi is the term applied to the inspiration o f the

Quran , and implies that the very words are the words of God .

The whole book was prepared in heaven . Muhammad,

'

instructed by Gabriel , is simply the medium through whichthe revelation of Wahf z ahir reaches man . The Wahi

'

Quran,or the Wahi z ahir, the highest form of inspiration

,

always came to the ear of the Prophet through the instrumentality of Gabriel . In Muhammadan theology this isthe special work of Gabriel . Thus in the Traditions it isrelated that he appeared to A dam twelve times

,to Enoch

four,to Noah fifty, to A braham forty - two

,to Moses four

hundred,to Jesus ten times, to Muhammad twenty - four

thousand times .There is a lower form of Wahi Z ‘ahir

,which is called

Isharatu’

l- Malak—the sign of the angel . This expresseswhat Muhammad meant when he said

,

“ The Holy Ghost

has entered into my heart.”

He then received the inspira

tion through Gabriel,b ut not

,as in the Wahi Quran, by

word of mouth .


Ilham means the inspiration given to a saint or to a

prophet when he , though rightly guided , delivers the sub

j ect - matter out of his own m ind,and is not a mere machine

to reprodu ce the messages of Gabriel.Imam Ghazzali in “ Ibya Ulfimu

’

d—dfn ’”defines Ilham

and Wahi'

thu s The recipient receives informationfrom an unknown source and in a way unknown . This iscalled the

“ breathing into the heart”

(nafakha fi qalb) .This is the inspiration of saints and Sufis . It is Ilham .

The recipient knows the medium by which he receivesinformation

,i . e.

,the angel appears to him. This is Wahf

and is the inspiration of prophets. Between Ilhamand Wahi there is only this difference, viz .

,that in Wahi

'

the angel who is the medium of communication appears,and

in Ilham does not .

It is said that,

except when del ivering the Qura'n,Muhammad Spoke by Ilham

,and not by Wahi . S ome

,

however,believe that the words of the Prophet

,as recorded

in the Traditions, were Wahi inspiration ,and thus they

come to b e as authoritative as the Quran . S harastani’

speaks of“the signs (sayings) of the Prophet which have

the marks of Wahi .” 2 This opi ni on i s sai d by some

Muslim theologians to b e supported by the text,

“ By theS tar when it setteth ; your companion Muhammad erreth

not,nor is he led astray, neither doth he sp eak of his

own will. I t is none other than a revelation which hathbeen revealed to him (8 . liii . I ) . In any case, the inspiration of Muhammad is something qu ite different fromthe Christian idea of inspiration

,which is to Mu salmans a

very imperfect mode of transmitting a revelation of God’swill .That there shou ld b e a human as well as a divine side

to inspiration is an idea not only foreign,b ut absolutely

repugnant to Muhammadans . The Quran is not a book of

principles : it is a book of directions. The Quran describesthe revelation given to Moses thus : We wrote for him

1 Vol. iii . p . 30.

2 Dab istan , p . 2 14.

METHODS OF REVELA TION 49

upon the tables a monition concerning every matter,and

said,

‘ Receive them thyself with steadfastness,and com

mand thy people to receive them for the observance of its

most goodly precepts’ ”

(S . v ii. It I S such an ih

spiration as this the Quran claims for itself . Muhammad’sidea was that it Should b e a complete and final code of

directions in every matter for all mankind . It is not the

word of a prophet enlightened by God .

1 It proceeds imme

d iately from God , and the word“say or speak ” precedes,

or is understood to precede,every sentence. This to a

Musl im is the highest form of inspiration ; this alonestamps a book as divine . It is acknowledged that the

Injfl—the Gospel—was given by Jesu s ; b ut as that,too

,

according to Muslim belief,was brought down from heaven

by the A ngel Gabriel d uring the month of Ramazan,it is

n ow asserted that it has been lost , and that the four Gospelsof the New Testament are simply traditionary accounts of

the acts and words of Jesus Christ,collected by the writers

whose names they bear . Their value is,therefore

,that of

the second foundation of the Islamic system .

The question next arises as to the exact way in whichGabriel made known his message to Muhammad . The

Mudariju’

n - Nab uwat,a standard theological work , gives

some details on this point.2 Though the Quran is all of

God,both as to matter and form

, yet it was not all madeknown to the Prophet in one and the same manner . The

following are some of the modesI . I t is recorded on the authority of ‘

A yesha, one of

1 S ome Moulvies In Mad ras have lately contend ed that the Prophet was‘Alimu

’

l Ghaib,i .e. ,

one who knows the secret world ,b y wh ich they mean

that b y his own power h e had knowledge of the secret things wh ich herevealed . To such an Opinion the orthod ox

,who hold that the term

‘A limu’

l Ghaib can b e applied to God only, reply b y quoting the verse ,

“ Say : I say not to you‘ In my possession are the treasures of God ,

’

neither say I‘ I know things secret

,

’

ne ither d o I say to you‘I am an

angel ;’

only what is revealed to me d o I follow (S . vi . The c om

mentator Baiz eiv i argues from the last clause in this verse that the Prophetd id not claim d ivine knowledge .

2 Pp . 508—5 10 .


Muhammad’

s wives,that a brightness like the brightness of

the morning came upon the Prophet . A ccording to some

commentators,this brightness remained six months . In

some mysterious way Gabriel , through this brightness or

vision,made known the will of God .

2 . Gabriel appeared in the form of Dahiah,

1one of the

Companions of the Prophet,renowned for his beauty and

gracefulness . A learned dispute has arisen with regard tothe abode of the soul of Gabriel when he assumed the

bodily form of Dab iah . A t times the angelic nature of

Gabriel overcame Muhammad,who was then translated to

the world of angels . This always happened when the

revelation was one of b ad news,such as denunciations or

predictions of woe . A t other t imes,when the message

brought by Gabriel was one of consolation and comfort ,the . human nature of the Prophet overcame the angelicnature of the angel , who, in such case

,having assumed a

human form,proceeded to deliver the message .

3 . The Prophet heard at t imes the noise of the t inklingof a bell. To him alone was known the meaning of the

sound . He alone cou ld distinguish it , and through it thewords which Gabriel wished him to understand . The effectof thismode ofWahf was more marvellous than that of any

of the other ways . When his ear caught the sound hiswhole frame became agitated . On the coldest day, thepersp iration ,

like beads of silver , would roll down his face .

The glorious brightness of his countenance gave place to

a ghastly hue , whilst the way in which he bent down“

his

head showed the intensity of the emotion through which hewas passing. If riding, the camel on which he sat wouldfall to the ground . The Prophet one day, when recliningw ith his head in the lap of Zaid

,heard the well - known

sound : Zaid,too

,knew that something unu sual was hap

pening,for so heavy became the head of Muhammad that it

1 A ll the commentators b r ing th is incid ent forward as an illustrat ion of

the verse : “ A nd if we had appointed an angel , we should certainly haveappointed one in the form of a man

”

(S . vi .


5 2 THE F A ITH OF ISLAM

says : He roared like a camel the sound as of bell s wellnigh rent his heart in p ieces . The historian

, Wackid i ,

says : A t the moment of inspiration anxiety pressed uponthe Prophet, and his countenance was troubled .

” Largedrops of perspiration gathered on his forehead . S ome

strange power moved him,his fear was uncontrollable .

Mu ir quotes from the same historian a statement to the

effect that Muhammad ascribed his grey hairs to the terrorcau sed him by the revelation of the “

terrific Surahs ”

(Su i'

i ru’

n- nazira) . These are said to b e the Sarah Had

(xi ) and its sisters,the S urahs lvi . and ci . Thus for

twenty years or more the revelations came,a direction on

things of heaven and of earth , to the Prophet as the

spiritual gu ide of all men,

lto the Warrior - Chief, as the

founder of political un ity among the A rab tribes .

A Muhammadan student,after passing through a course

of instruction in grammar,rhetoric

,logic , law,

and dogma

tics,at length reaches the stage when he is permitted to

enter upon the study of “ ‘Ilm i usul,

”

or the exegesis o f

the Quran and the inspired sayings of the P1 0 .phet ThisdOne

,he can henceforth read the approved commentaries in

order to learn what the Fathers of Islam have to say. Thisscience in one way fits him to b e a commentator

,for the

work‘

of a Muslim divine now is,not to bring things

“new

and old out of the sacred book,b ut to hand down to others

the things old . There is no indwelling spirit in the Churchof Islam which can reveal to the devout m ind new viewso f truth

,or lead the pious scholar on to deeper and more

profound knowledge .

The greatest profic ient in theology is the man who can

repeat the Quran by heart,who knows also and can repro

duce at will what the early commentators have said ; whoc an remember, and quote in the most apposite manner

,the

Prophet ’s sayings preserved in the Traditions handed downby the Companions

,the ir followers

,and their followers’

followers ; who can point out a flaw in the Isnad chain1 It (the Qurr

’

m) is simply an instruct ion for all mankind (S . xi i . I04).

THE S EVEN DIA LECTS 5 3

of narrators)’

of a Tradition quoted by an opponent,or

maintain,by repeating the long list of names

,the authority

of the Isnad of the Tradition he quotes himself. A goodmemory

,not critical acumen

,is the great desideratum in a

Muslim theologian . The chief qualification of a Hafiz,a

man who can repeat the whole Quran by heart,is not that

he shall understand its meaning, b ut that he shal l b e ableto pronounce each word correctly. By men Who are not

A rabs by birth this is only to b e attained after years of

practice from childhood . The S unnis say that no Shi‘

ahcan ever become a Hafiz , from which fact they draw the

conclusion that the Shi‘

ahs are heretics . In the earlyd ays

of Islam,the great authorities on the question of the correct

pronunciation of the Quran were the Khalifs A buBakr, Omar,

Osman,and ‘

A li,and ten of the Companions

,who learned

from the Proph et himself the exact way in which Gabrielhad spoken . The A rabic of heaven was the A rabic of Islam .

The e ffort,however

,to preserve one un iform method of

repeating the Quran failed . Men of other lands cou ld not

acquire the pure intonation of Mecca,and so no less than

seven different ways of reading the sacred book became

current . Here was a great d ifli culty, b ut it proved sur

mountable . A b 1'

1 Ib n Kab,one of the Companions

,had

become so famous as a reader that the Prophet him selfsaid ,

“ Read the Quran under A bu I b n Kab .

” These men

remembered that A bu Ib n Kab had stated that one day,

when scandalised at man after man who entered the mosquerepeating the Quran in different ways , he spoke to Muham

mad about it. H is Highness said,

“ O A bu Ib n Kab !

intelligence was sent to me to read the Quran in one d ialect,

and I was attentive to the Court of God,and said

,

‘Makeeasy the reading of the Quran to my sects .

’ These instruot ions were sent to me a second time

,saying,

‘ Read the

Quran in two dialects.

’ Then I turned myself to the CourtOf God

,saying,

Make easy the reading of the Quran to mysects .

’ Then a voice was sent to me the third time,saying,

Read the Quran in seven'

dialects.

’

5 4 THE FA ITH OF IS LAM

This removed all difficulty,and the foresight displayed

by the Prophet in thus obtaining a divine sanction for the

variou s ways of reading was looked upon as a proof of hisinspiration . Thus arose the “ haft qira

’

at,

”

or seven read

ings of the Quran,now recognised .

In the Quran compiled by the order of the Khalif Osmanthere were no vowel - points

,b ut when men of other countries

embraced Islam they found great d ifli culty in masteringA rabic . Khalid b in A hmad

,a great grammarian

,then in

vented the short vowels and other diacritical marks . The

seven famous “ Readers ”

(Qaris), whose names have been

given to the various modes of reading, are Imam Nafi of

Madina,Imam Ib n - i - Kasir of Mecca

,Imam A bu

‘

Umr of

Basrah,Imam Hamza of Kfifah

,Imam Ib n

‘A mir of Syria,

Imam ‘A sim of Kufah , Imam Kisae of d ah . Theselearned men affixed d ifferent vowel - points in many place sin the Quran

,and thus

,in some cases

,slight differences of

meaning arose. In many passages, however, the sense isnot at all affected . In India the q1ra

”at - reading—of

Hafs,a disciple of Imam ‘A sim

,is followed by both S unnis

and Shi ‘ahs Jalalu ’

d din,in his famous commentary

,

follows the q1ra at of Imam A b i'

l‘Umr . Those who belong

to the Maz hab,or sect of Imam A s Shafi‘i, also prefer this

qira’ .at Imam ‘A sim had two disciples . Their names are

A bu Bakr and Hafs . They differ slightly between them

selves,b ut the qira

’

at of Hafs is the one in common use in

India. The qira’

at of Nafi is preferred in A rabia,and is

highly valued by theological writers. Each of the sevenQaris or Readers had two disciples

,called Ravis, or narrators ,

from whose testimony the qira’

at approved by their master

is known . They never give an opinion of their own on the

text,b ut simply record that of their master.

There are three readings of lesser note allowable whenreading the Quran privately, b ut not when reading any partin a liturgical service . During the month of Ramazan theQuran is repeated every night in the mosque

,it being

so arranged that one - thirtieth part Shall b e recited each

THE VA RIOUS REA DINGS 5 5

night . The Imam of the mosque, or the public reader (Qari) ,who commences according to one of the seven recognisedreadings must keep to the same all the month.

A S he has to recite without a book,this involves a great

exercise of the memory. A good Hafiz will know the wholeseven varieties . The various readings thus 1ntrodu ced

,

though unimportant in t heir nature ,1amount to about five

hundred in number. The following are a few illustrationsIn the second S 1

'

1rah,A b I

'

1‘

Umr reads .

“ Nor Shall ye b e

questioned concerning that which they have done ; b u t‘A sim reads : “ That which ye have done .

”

A gain ,‘A sim

reads : “Enter ye the gates of hell (S . xxxix . 7 b u t

Nafi reads : Ye will be made to enter hell,

”—that is,by a

slight change , the passive is substituted for the active voice .

These are fair samples of the rest . No doctrine,so far as I

know,is touched

,b ut the way in which Tradition records

the Prophet’

s anticipation of the d ifli culty is instructive tothe student of Islam. A t t imes

,too

,fierce disputes have

arisen between the followers of the seven famous Readers,

whose names I have given above . In the year 323 A .H .

,

Ib n Shanabad , a resident of Baghdad , ventured to introducesome different readings in his recital of the Quran . The

people of Baghdad, not knowing these,were furious

,and

the Khalif was compelled to cast the offender into prison .

A council of divines was called together, before whom the

unhappy Ib n Shanab ud was produced . For a while hemaintained the correctness of his “

readings,”b ut after

being whipped seven times he said,

“ I renounce mymanner

o f reading, and In future I shall follow no other than thatof the manuscript drawn up by the Khalif Osman,

and thatwhich is generally rece ived .

” 2

When the first copy of the Quran was written and pre

sented to the Khalif Osman ,he said

,

“ There are faults of

1 The Opinion of Von Hammer,quoted b y S ir W. Muir in his Life of

Muhammad (vol. 1. p . seems to b e correct : “We may hold the Qurzinto b e as surely Muhammad

’

s word s as the Muhammadans hold it to b e theWord of God .

2 Ib n Khallikan’s Biograph ical D ict ionary, v ol. i ii . p . 1 6 .

5 6 THE FA ITH OF ISLAM'

language in it ; let the A rabs of the desert rectify themw ith their tongues .

” 1The meaning of this order is that

they were to learn to pronounce the words properly,b ut on

no account to alter the writing or form in which the wordsw ere spelt . This accounts for the peculiar Spelling of manywords in the Quran. In fact

,there are special ru les laid

d own for guidance of the Oopyist . They are technicallyknown as the Rasmu

’

l- Khatt,or ru les for writing .

2

Closely connected with this subject is the history of the

rise of the science of grammar. A S Islam spread,it became

necessary to expound the Quran to persons unacquaintedw ith A rabic . The science of grammar then became an im

portant branch of study,and the collection of Traditions

a necessary duty . The Faithful were for a long time indoubt as to the lawfulness of applying the laws of grammar

to so sacred a book . There was no command in the bookitself to do so

,nor had the Prophet given any directions on

this point . It was,then

,neither “ farz ” nor

“sannat

”

that is,neither a command based on the Quran nor one

based on any saying or act of the Prophet. The Traditions,

however,solve the d ifficulty.

A l Mamun,the distinguished though heretical Khalif

of Baghdad, was a patron of A l Farra,the chief of gram

marians. A distinguished pupil of his , A bu’l ‘A bbas Thalub

,

on his death - b ed expressed his belief in the fact that the

Quranists, the Traditionists, and others,had gained the ir

heavenly reward,b ut he had been only a grammarian

,

and grammar after all was,in connection w ith the Quran

,

a science of doubtful legality . The friend to whom he toldhis doubts and fears went home and saw a vision. It is

recorded that he had a vision in his S leep that very night ,in which he saw the blessed Prophet, who said to him

,

Give my greeting to A bu’ l ‘A bbas Thalub ,

and say, Thou1 I b n Khallikan

’

s Biograph ical D ictionary, vol. 1 1 . p . 40 1 .

2 The sub j ects of Tilawat,or manner of read ing the Quran of Rasmu

'

l

Khatt , or the spelling of the word s in the Quran of the Haft qira’

at,or

seven read ings, are so h ighly technical that I have d ealt w ith them in an

append ix, instead of going into further d etail in this place .

GRA DUA L REVELA TI ON OF THE QURAN 5 7

art master of the superior science . The Prophet had now

spoken,and henceforth grammar became a lawful study in

Islam . Muslims now quote the Quran as a perfect modelof style ; it may b e well to remember that the rules havebeen made for it , and that therefore it is b ut natural that itshould b e perfect according to the present canons of A rabic

grammar.

1

The question of the interpretation of the text speedilybecame a very important branch of the

‘Ilm - i—u sul .” It issaid that the Quran was brought from Paradise by Gabrielto Muhammad as occasion requ ired . The Prophet was re

proached for not having a complete revelation,and answered

the reproach by the following verse , sent for the purposeThe infidels say, Unless the Quran b e sent down to him

all at once —b ut in this way we establish thy heart in it ;in parcels have we parcelled i t out to thee (S . xxv.

The revelation thus given is entirely objective ; it came

to the ear of the Prophet through the teaching of Gabriel .Yet it is a glorious Quran, written on the preser ved Table

(S . lxxxv. Gabriel addresses the Prophet thu s Whenwe have recited it

,then follow thou the recital (S . lxxv. 1

This order was given because the Prophet had tried to learnit by heart . Bukhari relates the following TraditionWhen Wahi came upon him

,he moved his tongue and

lips,desiring to commit it to memory . Then God sent

down the words , ‘ Move not thy tongue that thou mayesthasten with it remember it). Truly on US is the col

lection and the recital ’ (S . lxxv . 1 6,

In other words,

the Prophet was not to trouble about learning it by heart ;it would come to his mind when needed

,according to the

Tradition,

“ We will collect it in thy heart when needed .

” 2

1 “Were we to examine the Quran b y the rules of rhetoric and criticismas they are taught in Muslim schools

, w e should b e ob liged to acknowledge that it is th e perfection of thought and expression ; an inevitab leresult , as the Muslim s d rew the ir principles of rhetoric from that veryb ook .

”

(Baron M . d e S lane,in the introd uction to Ib n Khallikan

’

s

Biograph ical D ictionary. )

Sahihu’

l- Bukhari on Sarah lxxv .


The external mode in which it came is referred to in theverse

,

“We have sent down to thee an A rabic Quran ”

(S .

xx. I The fragmentary way In which the Quran was

given was not without its difficu lties .

1S ome passages con

tradicted others ; some were difficu lt to understand . To

the Prophet alone was the solution known. The knowledgehe communicated to his immediate followers

,the Companions

,

as"

they are called,thus : To thee have we sent down this

book of monitions,that thou mayest make clear to men what

hath been sent down to them ”

(S . xvi.Ib n Khald ii n says : The Prophet unfolded the meaning,

distingu ished between abrogated and abrogating verses , andc ommunicated this knowledge to his Companions . It was

fromhis mouth that they knew the meaning of the versesand the circumstances which led to each distinct revelationbeing made .

” 2The Companions thus instructed becam e

perfectly familiar with the whole revelation. This knowledge they handed down by word of mouth to their followers

,the Taba‘in

,who in their turn passed it on to their

followers,the Taba- i - Taba‘in. The art o f writing then

1 There are many Trad it ions wh ich refer t o th is fact . Omar Ib n A I

Khatab said :“ I accord ed w ith my cherisher (i .e. God ) in three th ings.

One is that I said,

‘O messenger of God ! if we were to say our prayers

in A b raham’

s place it would b e b etter .

’ Then a revelation came d own,

‘ Take the place of A b raham for a place of prayer.

’The second is that

I said,

‘ O messenger of God ! good and b ad people come to your house ,and I d o not see that it is fitt ing therefore

,i f you ord er your women to

b e shut up it w ill b e b etter .

’ Then the revelation for d oing so came

d own . The th ird is that h is Maj esty’s w ives were all agreed in a storyab out his d rinking honey , and he had vowed never to d rink it more .

Then I said to h is Majesty ’

s w ives, Shou ld the Prophet d ivorce you , God

w ill give him b etter in exchange .

’ Then a revelat ion came d own,agree ing

w ith what I said .

”

‘Ayesha said “ I was reflecting on those women who had given themselves to the Prophet , and said , ‘What l d oes a w oman give herselfaway ! ’ Then the revelation d escend ed , ‘ Thou mayest d ecline for thepresent whom thou w ilt of them

,and thou mayest take to thy7 b ed her

whom ‘ thou wilt,and whomsoever thou shalt long for of those thou shalt

have b efore neglected : and th is shall b e no crime in thee’

(S . xxxu i .

I said , ‘ I see noth ing in wh ich your God d oth not hasten to please youwhatever yo u wish H e d oeth .

’

2 Les Prole’

gomenes d‘

Ib n Khaldun,v ol. 11 . p . 459 .



Thirdly,words which relate to Special individuality

,c g.

Zaid,which is the name of a special indiv idual .

2 .

‘A mm,

or common or collective names,

such as

people.

”

3 . Mushtarak,or words which have several significations,

as the A rabic word which may mean an eye , a

fountain,or the sun . A gain , the word “ Sulat,

”

if con

nected with God,may mean mercy

,as

“ S ulat Ullah,the

mercy of God ; if with man,it may mean e ither namaz

,

”

a stated liturgical service , or du ‘a,

” prayer in its ordinarysense

,eg. Sulatu

’

l- I stisqa (prayer in time of drought) isdu ‘

a,not namaz .

4 . Muawwal,words which have several significations, all

of which are possible,and so a special explanation is re

qu ired . For example,S i

’

i rah cviii. 2,reads thus in S ale ’s

translation :“Wherefore pray unto the Lord and slay (theThe word translated “

slay is in A rabic inhar,

”

from the root nahr,which has many mean ings. The fol

lowers of the great legist A bu Hanifa render it sacrifice,

and add the words (the The followers of Ib n

S hafi‘i say it means“ placing the hands on the breast in

prayer .

The Tafsir- i - Ib n‘A bbas give s another illustration of

JlIuawwal in S I'

Irah xli . 6,where the phrase “

they‘

d o

not give alms is sometimes interpreted as meaning theydo not say : there is no God b ut God that is

,the word

zakat b ears the double meaning of alms and of kalimah or creed .

This illustrates the difference between Mushtarak and

Muawwal. In the former,only one meaning

’

is allowable,

and that meaning the context settles ; in the latter,both

meanings are allowable,and both right .

These divisions of words having been well mastered and

the power of defining any word in the Quran gained , thestudent passes on to consider the nature of the sentences .

These are divided into two great classes, —the“ Obvious

and the Hidden .

”

THE SENTENOES OF THE QURAN 6 1

This division is referred to in the follow ing passage of

the Quran ° “He it is who hath sent down to thee the

book . S ome of its signs are of themselves persp icuous ;these are the basis (literally

‘mother of the book,and

others are figurative. But they whose hearts are given to

err follow its figures , craving discord , craving an interpretation ; yet none know its interpretation ,

b ut God .

1A nd the

stab le in knowledge say :‘We believe in it

,it is all from

God’ ”

(S . iii.This has given rise to the division of the whole book into

literal and allegorical statements. In order to explain thesecorrectly

,the commentator mu st know (I ) the reason why,

(2 ) the place where , (3) the time when ,the particular pas

sage he is expounding was revealed ; he must know whetherit abrogates or is abrogated , whether it is in its prOper

order and place or not ; whether it contains its meaningwithin itsel f or needs the light which the context throwsupon it ; he must know all the Traditions which bear uponit

, and the authority for each such Tradition . This effec

tually confines the order of commentators in the strict senseof the word to the Companions , and supplies the reason whycommentators since then simply reproduce the i r 0p1n10ns .

2

B ut to return from this digression . S entences are z ahirobvious

,

”or Khafi hidden .

”Obvious sentences are

divided into four classesI . (L ) gahi r, or obviou s

,the meaning of which is so

clear that he who hears it at once understands its mean

ing withou t seeking for any explanation . This kind of

sentence may b e abrogated. Unless abrogated , action in

accordance with it is to b e considered as the express

1 This interpretation God mad e known to the Prophet , who communic ated it to the Companions hence all orthod ox Opinion must b e in strictaccordance w ith the irs . They were the sole d epositaries of the inspiredcommentary given b yMuhammad . There is now no room for

,as there is

no need of , any other.

2 S peaking on this very sub ject Ib n Khaldun says : “Rien d e tout celan

’

a pu'

se c onnaitre que par d es ind icat ions provenant d es Compagnons et

d e leurs d isciples (v ol. i i . p .


command of God . A ll penal laws and the rules regu

lating the substitution of one religious act for another,

e .y.,almsgiving instead of fasting,

must b e based on this,

the clearest of the obvious s entences.

Nass, a word commonly u sed for a text of the

Quran,b ut in its technical mean ing here expressing what

is meant by a sentence the meaning of which is madeclear by some word which occurs in it . The followingsentence illustrates both z ahir and Nass : “ Take in mar

riage of such other women as please you ,two

,three

,four.

This sentence is Zahir,because marriage is here declared

lawful ; it is Nass , because the words “one

,two

,three

,

four,

”which occur in the sentence

,show the unlawfulness

of having more than four w ives .M gfassar , or explained . This is a sentence which

needs some word in it to explain it and make it clear.

Thus : “ A nd the angels prostrated themselves,all of them

with one accord , save Iblis (S atan) (S . ii . Here thewords save Iblis Show that he did not prostrate himself.This kind of sentence may b e abrogated .

M thham ,or perspicuous . This is a sentence as to

the meaning of which there can b e no doubt,and which

cannot b e controverted,thus : “ God knoweth all things .

This kind of sentence cannot b e abrogated . To ac t on suchsentences without departing from

' the literal sense is the

highest degree of obedience to God ’s command .

The difference between these sentences is seen whenthere is a real or apparent contradiction between them .

I f such should occur,the first mu st give place to the

second,and so on. Thus Muhkam cannot b e abrogated

or changed by any of the preceding,or Mufassar by

‘Nass,or Nass by zahir.

The other great division of sentences is that ofII . K haf i, or hidden . Such are those sentences in

which other persons or things are hidden beneath the plainmeaning of a word or expression contained therein

,as :

“ A s

for a thief,whether male or female

,cut ye off their hands

THE SENTENCES OF THE QURAN 6 3

in recompense for their doings (S . v . The word

for thief is “sariq , and in this passage it is understood

to inc lude highwaymen,pickpockets , plunderers of the dead

,

&c . These meanings are Khafi or hidden under it .

Mushkil,or ambiguou s . The following is given as

an illustration :“A nd (their attendants) shall go round

about them with vessels of silver and goblets . The bottles

shall b e bottles of silver .

”The difficulty here is that

bottles are not made of silver,b ut of glass. The oommen

tators say, however , that glass is dul l in colour, though ithas some lustre

,whilst ‘

silver is white,and not so bright as

glass . Now it may b e that the bottles of Paradise will b elike glass bottles as regards their lustre

,and like silver as

regards their colour . B ut anyhow,it is very difficult to

ascertain the meaning.

illujmal. These are,first

,sentences which may have

a variety of interpretations, owing to the words in them

being capable of several meanings ; in that case the mean

ing which is given to the sentence in the Traditions re

lating to it shou ld b e acted on and accepted . S econdly,

the sentence may contain some very rare word,and thu s

its meaning may b e doubtful, as :“ Man truly is by crea

tion hasty (S . lxx . In this verse the word—hasty —occurs . It is very rarely used

,and had it not

been for the following words ,“ when evil toucheth him

,he

is full of complaint ; b ut when good befalleth him,he

becometh niggardly, its meaning would not have been at

all easy to understand .

The following is an illu stration of the first kind of Mujmal sentences : “ S tand for prayer (salat) and give alms

”

(zakat .) Both salat and zakat are Mu starak words. The

people,therefore

,did not understand this verse

,so they

applied to Muhammad for an explanation . He explainedto them that salat might mean the ritual of public prayer,standing to say the words

“ God is great,”

or standing to

repeat a few verses of the Quran '

; or it m ight mean privateprayer . The primitive meaning of

“ zakat ”is growing.


The Prophet,however

,fixed the meaning here to that of

almsgiving,”

and said,

Give of your substance one

fortieth part.

”

Mutashabih . These are sentences so difficult thatm en cannot understand them

,a fact referred to in Sarah

iii . 3, nor will they do so until the day of resurrection .

The Prophet,however

,knew their mean ing. S uch port ions

are the letters A,L

,M ; A ,

L , R ; Y,A , at the commence

ment of some of the Surahs .

1 Such expressions also as

“ God’s hand,

”

The face of God ,”

God S itteth,

”

&c .

,come

under this category . The Tabi ‘ Mujahid says : The

verses which speak of things lawful and unlawful giveorders and prohibitions) are Muhkam ,

all others are Muta

shahih.

” 2

III. The nex t point to b e considered is the use (isti‘mal)

of words in the Quran , and here again the same symmetricaldivision into four classes is found

,viz.

(I .) Haqiqat, that is, words which are u sed in theirliteral meaning, as a prostration

,and salat in

the sense of prayer.

Majaz , or words which are used in a figurative sense ,

as salat ”in the sense of

“namaz ,

”a liturgical service .

Sar ih, or words the meaning of which is quite evi

dent,as

“ Thou art d ivorced,

” “ Thou art free.

Kinayah, or words which , being u sed in a meta

phorical sense , requ ire the aid of the context to make their

1 Ib n Khaldun says that Zamakcheri (a theologian of good repute for

learning in the s ixth century A H . ) remarked on these le tters as followsThey ind icate that the style of the QurAn is carried to such a d egree of

excellence , that it d efies every attempt to im itate it for this b ook wh ichhas b een sent d own to us from h eaven is composed of letters . A ll men

know them all alike,b ut th is power d isappears when,

in ord er to express

the ir id eas , they want to use these same letters comb ined .

”

On this curious passage Baron d e S lane remarks that the author is not

very clear, and that the Turkish translator of Ib n Khaldun gives the sense

of the passage as :“ God has placed these letters in several Surahs as a

sort o f d efiance ; as if H e had said :‘ Vo ila les éléments d ont se c om

pose le Quran ; prenez - les et faites - eu nu l ivre qui l’égale par le style .

’

(Ib n Khald i’

in,vol. i ii . p .

2 S ahihu’

l- B ukhAri - Tafsir on S t’Iratu ’

l-

‘Imran.

A RGUMENTS FROM THE QURAN 6 5

meaning clear, as“ Thou art separated , which may, as it

stands alone,mean

“ Thou art divorced . This class alsoincludes all pronouns the meaning of which is only to b eknown from the context , e.y. ,

one day the Prophet not

knowing who knocked at his door said, Who art thou ?

”

The man replied,It is I . Muhammad answered

, Whydost thou say I , I ? S ay thy name

,that I may know who

thou art .

”

The pronoun “ I is here kinayah.

”

IV. The most important and most difficult branch of

exegesis is istidlal,

”

or the science of deducing arguments

from the Quran . This too is divided into four sections as

follows‘I barat

,or the plain sentence .

“ Mothers, after

they are divorced,shall give suck unto their children two

full years,and the father shall b e obliged to maintain them

and clothe them according to that which is reasonable ”

(S . 1 1 . From this verse two deductions are made .

First,from the fact that the word “

them”is in the fem i

n ine plural,it must refer to the mothers

,and not to the

children ; secondly,as the duty of supporting the mother is

incumbent on the father, it Shows that the relationship of

the child is closer with the father than with the mother.

Penal laws may b e based on a deduction of this kind .

I sharat,that is

,a S ign or hint which may b e given

from the order in which the words are placed .

B alalai,or the argument which may b e deduced

from the use of some special word in the verse,as :

“S ay

not to your parents‘ Fie

’ ”

(A rabic“uff

”

) (S . xvii .From the u se o f the word “

uff,

”

it is argued that childrenmay not beat or abuse their parents. Thus Baizavi says“ This prohibition proves the further prohibition of all

kinds of trouble which children cou ld give .

” Penal lawsmay b e based on dalalat

,

”thus Their aim will b e to abet

disorder on the earth ; b ut God loveth not the abettorsof disorder ”

(S . v . The word translated “aim is

in A rabic literally yas‘

auna,

“they run .

” From this the

argument is deduced that as highwaymen wander about ,E


they are included amongst those whom“ God loveth not

,

and that therefore the severest pun ishment may b e givento them

,for any deduction that comes under the head of

“ dalalat is a sufficient basis for the formation of the

strictest penal laws.

Igtiea. This i s a deduction which demands certainc ondit ions : Whosoever killeth a believer by mischance ,shall b e bound to free a believer from slavery (S . iv .

A s a man has no authority to free his neighbour’s slave , the

condition here required,though not expressed

,is that the

slave should b e his own property .

The Quran is divided intoHarf (plural Ifuruf ) , letters. The numbers given

by different authorities vary . In one standard book it issaid that there are letters

,including the Bis

m illahS . The last letters of each Sarah are collectivelycalled Fawasil by the Qaris

,and each letter of the alphabet

thu s occu rs, except Ghain

,Khai

,and Waw . The variety

in the number of letters is thu s explained : S ome lettersare written b ut not read

,as A liph in qumd a and in anlik

,

and some are read b ut not written,as w in Dawdd , which

is always written Daud . This,and the ru les of the rasmu

’

l

khatt,which are not always observed

,account for the variety

in the enumeration .

” 1

Kalimah (plural Kalimat) , words stated by some to

amount to by others to The difference isaccounted for by the fact that some persons count compoundwords as one word

,some as two ; some reckon the article

al as a word,others do not ; in the same way prepositions

j oined with another word,such as f ima, sometimes count

for one word instead of two.

flyat (plural Ayat), verses. Ayat really means a

S ign,and was the name given by Muhammad to short

sections or verses of the Quran . The end of a verse isdeterm ined by the position of the small circle 0 . The earlyQuran Readers did not agree as to the position of these

1 Zawab itu’

l- Furqan , p. 44.



Most of the cases,however

,are like the follow ing

In Sarah xxvii . an account is given of the Queen of

Sheba’

s receiving a letter from King S olomon. A ddressingher nobles she said : “ Verily

,kings , when they enter a

city (by force) waste the same,and abase the most powerful

of the inhabitants hereof : and so will (these) do (w ithMany Readers put the fu ll stop after the word “ hereof

,

and say that God is the speaker of the words “and so will

they do .

Sarah, or chapter. The word Sarah means a row or

series,such as a line of bricks arranged in a wall

,b ut it is

now exclusively u sed for chapters in the Quran . Theseare one hundred and fourteen in number . The S urahs arenot numbered in the original A rabic

,b ut each one has

some approximate name (as Baqr— the cow,Nisa— women

,

generally taken from some expression which occursin it. They are not arranged in chronological order, b utaccording to their length . A s a general rule , the shorterSurahs , which contain the theology of Islam

,belong to the

Meccan period of the Prophet’s career,

1and the longer ones,

relating chiefly to social duties and relationships,to the

organisation of Islam as a civil polity,to the time when he

was consolidating his power at Madina. The best way,therefore

,to read the Quran is to begin at the end . The

attempt to arrange the S urahs in due order is -

a verydifficult one

,and

,after all

,can only b e approximately

correct .

2 Carlyle,referring to the confused mass of “

end

less iterations,long- windedness

,entanglement

,most crude

,

incondite,

”

says : “ Nothing b ut a sense of duty could

1 The last verse revealed at Mecca was,

“ Th is d ay have I perfectedyour religion for you ,

and have filled up the measure of my favours upon

you and it is mypleasure that I slzim b e your religion b ut who so w ithoutw ilful leanings to wrong shall b e forced b y hunger to transgress , to him ,

verily,w ill God b e ind ulgent , m erciful ” (S . v . (Ib n Khaldun ,

vol. i .

p . 206 )2 The arrangement mad e b y Professor Th . Nold eke in his Geschichte

d es Qurans is consid ered b y S tanley Lane - Poole to b e the b est . Rodwell’

s

English vers ion of the Quran is , with some exceptions, an example of th isord er.

THE suRA HS OF THE QURAN 6 9

carry any European through the Quran . When re

arranged the book becomes more intelligible . The chie ftests for such rearrangement are the style and the matter .

There is a very distinct difference in both of these respectsbetween the earlier and later Surahs . The references tohistorical events sometimes give a clue ; b ut the help fromexternal sources is very limited . Individual Surahs are

often very composite in their character,b ut

,such as they

are,they have been from the beginning. The recension

made by Zaid in the reign of the Khalif Osman has beenhanded down unaltered in its form . The only variations

(qira’

at) now to b e found in the text have been alreadynoticed . They in no way affect the arrangements of the

Surahs .

The ordinary arrangement is a most unfortunate one,

as it makes it very difficult to follow the working of the

Prophet’s m ind . In Rodwell’

s translation the first ninetySurahs are Mecca

,and the last twenty - two Madina ones .

The Mecca Surahs are divided into three parts . The firstforty- eight were delivered during the first four years of the

Prophet ’s m ission ; then twenty - one more during the fifthand sixth years

,and again twenty - one more before the flight

to Madina. The Hebrew legends and references to the OldTestament are mostly found in the second and third of

these periods . The first S 1'

1 rahs are the most e loquent and

rhetorical,and contain passages of great beauty . The

Prophet deals there with a simple theology, emphasises thedoctrine of the Unity of God , illustrates His power, and

declares that H is justice w il l b e seen at the day of reckoning. The ritual is not elaborated . The social system and

the laws of Islam are not as yet fixed in their rigidity.

The Madina Surahs are different . The fervid eloquenceof the preacher is absent

,and the dictates of the practical

administrator take its place . He deals now with questionsof social life

,domestic details

,peace and war . This may

b e called by contrast the legal section of the Quran . Thereis

,however

,comparatively little of definite legislation in the


book . I have already shown in chapter i . how the canoni

cal law grew up. In theory the Quran is the laws- book of

the Musl im ; in practice he resorts to the “ Traditions and

Decisions of the Canonists .

”

S ipara,a thirtieth portion . This is a Persian word

derived from si , thirty, and para ,a portion . The A rabs

call each of these divisions a Juz . Owing to this division,

a piou s man can recite the whole Quran in a month,taking

one S ipara each day. Musalmans never quote the Quranas we do by Sarah and Ayat

,b ut by the S ipara and Ruki

’

i‘

,

a term I now proceed to explain .

Rulci’

t‘

(plural Balen‘

ai) . This word literally means a

prostration made by a wo rshipper in the act of saying the

prayers . The collection of verses recited from the Quran ,

ascriptions of praise offered to God,and various ritual acts

connected with these,constitute one act of worship called

a A fter reciting some verses in this form of

prayer,the worshipper makes a Ruhu

‘

,or prostration ; the

portion then recited takes the name of Ruku‘

. Traditionstates that the Khalif Osman

,when reciting the Quran

during the month of Ramazan,used to make twenty rak

‘

ats

each evening. In each rak ‘at he introduced different verses

of the Quran , beginning with the first chapter and goingsteadily on . In this way he recited about two hundred verseseach evening, that is, about ten verses in each rak‘at . S incethen it has been the custom to recite the Quran in this wayin Ramazan

,and also to quote it by the ruku ‘

,e.g.

,such a

passage is in su ch a S ipara and in such a

The following account of a rak‘at will make the matter

plain . When the Faithfu l are assembled in the mosque,

the Imam,or leader, being in front facing the Qiblah

,the

service commences thus —Each worshipper stands and saysthe Niyyat (literally

“ intention a form of words declaringhis intention to say his prayers. He then says , God i s

great .

”A fter this

,looking downwards, he says

,Holiness

to thee , O God ! and praise b e to Thee ; Great is Thyname,

Great is Thy greatness, there is no deity b ut Thee.

” Then

RUKI’

J‘A ND RA K ‘

A T 7 1

follows : “ I seek from God refuge from cursed S atan .

Then the Tasmiyah i s repeated :“ I n the name of God

,the

Compassionate and Merciful .” Then follows the Fatihah ,

that is,the Short chapter at the commencement of the

Quran. A fter thi s has been recited,the Imam proceeds

,

on the first night of the month Ramazan,with the first

verse of the second chapter.

1 A fter saying a few verses,

he makes a Ruku‘,that is

,he bends his head and body

down,and places his hands on his knees . In this position

he says , “ God is great .

” Then he repeats three timesthe words

,

“ I extol the holiness of my Lord , the Great .

”

He then stands up and says : “ God hears him who praisesH im . To this the people respond

,

“O Lord,thou art

praised . A gain, falling on his knee s,the worshipper says

,

God is great .

” Then he puts first his nose and then his

forehead on the ground and says three times,I extol the

holiness of my Lord , the Most High .

” Then sitting on his

heels he says,God is great ; and again repeats as before ,

I extol,

”

850. H e then rises and says,

“God is great .

”

This is one rak ‘

at. On each night in the month of Ramazanthis is gone through twenty times

,the only variation being

that after the Fatihah,and before the first prostration

,fresh

verses of the Quran are introduced . The whole is,of

course,done in A rabic

,in whatever country the worshippers

may b e . The name of the prostration (Ruka‘

) has beentransferred to the portion of the Quran recited j ust beforeit is made . There are altogether five hundred and fifty

S even RukI'

I‘

at .

The other divisions are not important . They are,

a S amn,Ruba

‘

,Nisf , S i lls , that is, one - eighth, one - fourth

,

one - half, one

- third of a S ipara respectively .

In reciting the Quran the worshipper m ust b e carefulto say the Takb ir

,

”i .e. , God is great ,

”

after the severalappointed places . S uch a place is after the rec ital of the

9 3rd Sarah . The custom arose in this way. The hypocrites

1 On ord inary occasions any verses may b e chosen. The 1 1 2th S firah is

the one generally repeated .


came to the Prophet and asked him to recite the story of

the S even S leepers .

”

He said,I will tell you to - morrow

,

”

b ut he forgot to add the words,

“ if God will .” By way of

warning, God allowed no inspiration to descend upon him

for some days . Then the hypocrites began to laugh and

say, God has left him A s it was not God’s purposeto put H is messenger to ridicule

,the Sarah entitled “ The

Brightness (xciii . ) was immediately brought by the everready Gabriel . It begins :

“ By the brightness of the

morning, and by the night when it groweth dark , thy Lordhath not forsaken thee

,neither doth He hate thee.

”

In

rem embrance of this S ignal interposition of Providence hnhis behalf

,the Prophet always concluded the recital of this

S I'

Irah w ith the words,

“ God is great .

”The practice thus

became a sunnat” obligation ,

that is,it should b e done

becau se the Prophet did it . A Tradition states that the

Prophet said,

“ The Takb ir should b e recited after everyS I

'

I rah which follows the Suratu’

z - Zuba The

Tafsir - i—Jalalain confirms this. Other authorities say that

the Takb ir should b e said after eleven of these only,viz . , the

S i’

i rahs 9 3, 9 4, 9 5 , 9 6 , 9 7 , 9 8 , 1 00 , 1 0 2 , 1 09 ,1 1 0 , 1 1 2 ,

and that after all the others the words La- ilaha- il- lal- lahushould b e said .

In reciting the Quran,the person so doing must carefully

observe all the rules and regulations concerning it . The

correct recital is called Tilawat ; b ut before a person can

do this properly,he must have some acquaintance with

the science called ‘

I lm - i—tajwid . It includes a knowledgeof the peculiar spelling of words in the Quran, of its variousreadings, of the tab kirs and responses at the close of certainappointed passages , of its various divisions , punctuation, andmarginal instructions , of a correct pronunciation and in

tonation .

1

The doctrine of abrogation is a very important one in

connection with the study of the Quran . The Openingverses of the 7 7 th Sarah are by some commentators held to

1 For further d etails on this sub ject see A ppend ix.

A BROGA TION 7 3

refer to this : “ By the train of the sent ones,and the swift

ones in their swiftness , by the scatterers who scatter,and

the distinguishers who distinguish and by those who giveforth the word to excuse or warn . Here the “ swift onesare said to b e the angels sent forth with verses of the

Quran ,scattering or dispersing previous revelations

,dis

tinguishing between good and evil .” 1 It is also referred toin the verses : “When we change one verse for another

,and

God knoweth the best which He revealeth (S . xvi.Whatever verses we cancel or cau se thee to forget, we

give thee better in their stead , or the like thereof ”

(S .

ii . This last one is a Madina S I'

I rah .

“What He

pleaseth will God abrogate or confirm ; for with Him is

the source of revelation (S . xiii . S ome verses whichwere cancelled in the Prophet’s lifet ime are not now extant.‘

A bdu’llah Ib n Masud states that the Prophet one day re

cited a verse,which he immediately wrote down . The

next morning he found it had vanished from the materialon which it had been written . A stonished at this , heacquainted Muhammad with the fact

,and was informed

that the verse in question had been revoked . There are,

however,many verses still in the Quran which have been

abrogated . It was an exceedingly convenient doctrine , andone needed to explain the change of front which Muham

mad made at different periods of his career . Certain ruleshave been laid down to regulate the practice . The versewhich abrogates is called Nasikh,

and the abrogated verse

Mansdkh. Mansukh verses are of three kinds— first,where

the words and the sense have both been abrogated secondly,

where the letter only is abrogated and the sense remains ;thirdly

,where the sense is abrogated though the letter

remains . Imam Malik gives as an instance of the firstkind the verse If a son of A dam had two rivers of gold ,he would covet yet a third ; and if he had three

,he would

covet yet a fourth. Neither shall the belly of a son of

A dam b e filled,b ut with du st . God wil l turn unto him

1 Tafs ir - i - H usaini, p. 442 .


who shall repent . The Imam states that originally thisverse was in the 9 th Surah called Repentance . The versecalled the verse of stoning is an illu stration of the secondkind . It reads : “ A bhor not your parents

,for this would

b e ingratitude in you . If a man and woman of reputationcommit adultery

, ye shall stone them both it is a punishment ordained by God ; for God is mighty and wise. The

Khalif Omar says this verse was extant in Muhammad’sl ifetime

,b ut that it is now lost. But it is the third class

which practically comes into ‘Ilm - i - usd l.

A u thoritie s differ as to the number of verses abrogated .

Sale states that they have been estimated at two hundredand twenty - five . The principal ones are not many in

number,and are very generally agreed upon. I give a

few examples. It is a fact worthy of notice that they occurchiefly

,if not almost entirely

,in S urahs delivered at Madina.

There , where Muhammad had to confront Jews and Christ ians , he was at first politic in his aim to win them overto his S ide

,and then

,when he found them obstinate

,the

doctrine of abrogation came in conveniently. This is seenplainly in the following case . A t Mecca Muhammad and

his followers did not stand facing any particular directionwhen at prayer

,a fact to which the following passage refers :

To God belongeth the east and west ; therefore, whithersoever ye turn yourselves to pray, there is the face of God

”

(S . ii. When Muhammad arr1ved at Madina he en

tered into friendship w ith the Jews, and tried to win them

to his side . The Q iblah (sanctuary) , towards which the

worshippers now invariably turned at prayer,was Jerusalem .

This went on for a while,b ut when Muhammad claimed to

b e not merely a prophet for the A rabs,b ut the last and the

greatest of all the prophets—when he asserted that Moseshad foretold his advent

,and that his revelations were the

same as those contained in their own S criptures— theyutterly refused allegiance to him . In the first half of the

second year of the Hijrah the breach between them was

complete . The later Surahs contain fierce denunciations



The doctrine of abrogation is brought in for a morepersonal matter in the follow ing case :

“ It is not permittedto thee to take other wives hereafter

,nor to change thy

present wives for other women,though their beauty charm

thee,except S laves

,whom thy right hand Shall possess ”

(S . xxxiii . This is said by Baizav i and other em inentMuslim divines to have been abrogated by a verse which

,

though placed before it in the arrangement of verses,was

really delivered after it. The verse is : “ O Prophet, weallow thee thy wives whom thou hast dowered

,and the

slaves which thy right hand possesseth out of the bootywhich God hath granted thee ; and the daughters of thy

uncle,and the daughters of thy aunts

,both on thy father

’sside and on thy mother’s side

,who have fled with thee (to

Madina) , and any other believing woman who hath givenherself up to the Prophet ; if the Prophet desireth to wed

her,it is a pecul iar privilege for thee above the rest of the

Faithful (S . xxxiii.The Moghul Emperor A kbar , wishing to discredit the

‘Ulama,in one of the meetings so frequently held for dis

c ussion during his long reign , propounded the question as

to how many free - born women a man m ight marry . The

lawyers answered that four was the number fixed by theProphet .

“Of other women who seem good in your eyes

marry two and two,and three and three

,and four and

four (S . iv. The Emperor said that he had not re

stric ted himself to that number , and that Shaikh‘A bdu’

n

Nabi had told him that a certain Mujtahid had had ninewives . The Mujtahid in question

,Ib n A b i Lailah

,reckoned

the numb er o allowed thu s : 2 3 + 4 9 . Other learnedmen counted in this way 1 8 . The

Emperor wished the meeting to decide the point .

A gain,the second verse of Sarah lxxiii. reads : “

S tandup all night , except a small portion of it

,for prayer .

A ccording to a Tradition handed down by ‘Ayesha,the last

verse of this Sarah was revealed a year later . It makesthe matter much easier .

“ God measureth the night and

A RROGA TION 7 7

the day ; he knoweth that ye cannot count its hours aright ,and therefore turneth to you mercifully . Recite then so

much of the Quran as may be easy to you (verseThe following is an illu stration of a verse abrogated ,

though there is no verse to prove its abrogation . How

ever,according to the Ijma‘ it has been abrogated :

“ B ut

alms are only to b e given to the poor and the needy,and

to those who collect them , and to those whose hearts are

won to Islam (S . ix . The clause to those whosehearts are won to Islam — is now cancelled.

’ Muhammad,

to gain the hearts of those who,lately enemies

,had now

become friends,and to confirm them in the faith

, gave themlarge presents from the Spoils he took in war ; b ut whenIslam Spread and became strong,

the ‘Ulama agreed thatsuch a procedure was not required

,and said that the order

was mansukh.”

The words “ Put up with what they say (S . xx. 1 30 )are

,according to the commentators Jalalain and Husain

,

abrogated by the verse called the Ayatu’

s - saif,or verse o f

the sword : “ Kill those who j oin other gods with God

wherever ye shall find them”

(8 . ix . The“they in

the first verse refers to the idolaters of Mecca,to whom

for a while toleration was shown . When the power of the

Muslims increased,the toleration ceased

,and the l 3o th

verse of Surah xx . was abrogated accordingly .

The other verses abrogated relate to the Ramazan fast,

to Jihad,the law of retaliation

,and other matters of social

interest .

The doctrine of abrogation is now almost invariablyapplied by Musalman controversialists to the Old and New

Testaments,which they say are abrogated by the Quran .

H is (Muhammad ’s) law is the abrogator of every other

law .

” 2 This is not,however , a legitimate use of the

doc trine. A ccording to the best and most ancient Muslimdivines

,abrogation refers entirely to the Quran and the

1 Tafsir - i - Husaini, p . 2 1 6 .

2 S harh- i - ‘A qaid- i - Jami, p . 1 31 .


Traditions , and even then is confined to commands and prohib itions. Those who imagine it to b e part of the Muham

madan creed that one law has totally repealed another,are

u tterly m istaken—we hold no such doctrine .

” 1In the

Tafsir - i - Itifaq it is written : A brogation . affects thosematters which God has confined to the followers of Maham

mad,and one of the chief advantages of it is that the way

is made easy.

”

In the Tafsir- i - Maz hiri we find : A brogat ion refers only to commands and prohibitions

,not to facts

or historical statements .

” 2A gain,

no verse of the Quran,or a Tradition can b e abrogated unless the abrogating verseis distinctly Opposed to it in meaning. I f it is a verse of

the Quran,we must have the authority of Muhammad him

self for the abrogation ; if a Tradition,that of a Companion .

Thu s “the word of a commentator or a Mujtahid is not

sufli c ient unless there is a‘

genuine Tradition’

(Hadis - i

Sahih) , to show the matter clearly. The question of the

abrogation of any previous command depends on historicalfacts with regard to the abrogation,

not on the mere

Opinion of a commentator.

”

I t cannot b e Shown that eitherMuhammad or a Companion ever said that the Bible wasabrogated .

3 This rule,whilst it shows that the assertion of

modern controversialists on this point is void of foundation,

also illustrates another point to which I have often calledattention

,v iz .

,that in Islam all interpretation must b e

regulated by traditional ism .

A dditions were occasionally made . Thu s when it was

revealed that those who stay at home were not before Godas those who go forth to war

,

‘A bdullah and Ib n Um

Maktum said,A nd what if they were blind The Prophet

asked for the shou lder—blade on which the verse was

written . He then had a spasmodic convulsion . A fter his

1 Commentary on the Holy Bib le , b y Syed 'A hmad , vol. i . p . 268.

2 Niaz Namah , b yMaulavi Safdar ‘A li

, p . 250 .

3 In fact , the Qurzin is said to b e “ confirmatory of previous scripturesand the ir safeguard

”(S . v. If then, as some Muslims say, the Bib le

has b een corrupted , the Qurdn has failed of its purpose, and has not b een

a“safeguard .

”

THE ETERNITY OF THE QURAN 7 9

recovery he made Zaid add the words “ free from trouble .

S o now the whole verse reads thus : Those believers whosit at home free from trouble bodily infirmity) , and

those who do valiantly in the cause of God,with their

substance and their persons, Shall not b e treated alike ”

(S . iv . Years after Zaid said,

“ I fancy I see the

words now on the shoulder - blade near a crack .

”

The question of the eternal nature °of the Quran does notproperly come under the head of ‘Ilm - i—u S I’Il

,b ut it is a

dogma fondly cherished by many Muslim s . In the days of

the Khalif A l- MamI’

Im this question was fiercely debated .

The Freethinkers,whilst believing in the mission of

Muhammad,asserted that the Quran was created

,by which

statement they meant that the revelation came to him in a

subj ective mode, and that the language was his own . The

book was thus brought within the reach of criticism . In

the year 2 1 2 A H . the Khalif issued a decree to the effectthat all who held the Quran to b e uncreated were to b e

declared guilty of heresy. But the Khalif himself was a

notorious rationalist , and so the orthodox,though they

remained quiet , remained unconvinced . The arguments

used on the orthodox side are : that both the words and

their pronunciation are eternal ; that the attempt to drawa distinction between the word as it exists in the DivineMind and as it appears in the Quran is highly dangerous .

In vain do their opponents argue that if the Quran is

uncreated,two Eternal Beings are in existence . To this

it is answered : “ This is the honourable Quran,written in

the preserved Tablet ”

(S . lvi. A Tradition is alsoadduced which states : “ God wrote the Thorah (Law) withH is own hand

,and w ith H is own hand He created A dam ;

and also in the Quran it is written ,

‘ A nd We wrote for

him upon the tables a mon ition concerning every matter,

’

in reference to the tables of the Law given to Moses .

”If

God did this for former prophets and their works , howmuch more

,it is argued , shou ld He not have done it for

the last and greatest of the prophets and the noble Quran

80 TH E FA ITH OF ISLAM

I t is not easy to get a correct definition of the term “the

I

uncreated Quran ,

” 1 b ut a Mu salman author puts it thus '

“ The Word as it exists in the mind of God is Kalam - i

Nafsi (spiritual word) , some thing unwritten and eternal .I t is acknowledged by the Ijma

‘—i - Ummat (consent of the

Faithful), the Traditions, and by other prophets that God

speaks. The Kalam - i - Nafsi then is eternal,b ut the actual

words,style

,and eloquence are created by God ; so also is

the arrangement and the miraculou s nature of the book .

”

This seems to b e a reasonable account of the doctrine,

though there are theologians who hold that the very wordsare eternal . The doctrine of abrogation clashes w ith thisidea

,b ut they meet the obj ection by their theory of ab so

lute predestination . This accounts for the circumstanceswhich necessitated the abrogation , for the circumstances

,

as well as the abrogated verses , were determined on fromall eternity.

This concludes the consideration of the exegesis of the

Quran,a book difficult and uninteresting for a non - Musl im

to read,b ut one which has engaged , and is still engaging,

the earnest thoughts of many millions of the human race .

Thousands of devout students in the great theologicalschools of Cairo

,S tamboul

,Central A sia

,and India are

now plodding through this very subj ect of which I havehere been treating ; soon will they go forth as teachersof the book they so much revere . How u tterly unfit thattraining is to make them wise men in any true sense of the

word,how calcu lated to render them proud, conceited , and

scornful of other creeds,its rigid and exclusiv e character

shows . S till,it is a marvellous book ; for twelve hundred

years and more it has helped to mou ld the faith,animate

the courage, cheer the despondency of multitudes,whether

dwellers in the wild uplands of Central A sia,in Hindustan

,

1 “ The orthod ox Musl ims maintain,if I may venture upon a d efinit ion

of their b elief , that the-

Quran, the uncreated Logos , was from the b eginning, c o - eternal w ith the De ity, not of H is essence in hypostat ic union

,

b ut an inseparab le quality of it , like H is unity.

”

(Major Jarrett in the

Bib liotheca Ind ica, No. 446, Fasciculus iv. p.

THE TRA DITIONS 8 I

or on the shores of the Mediterranean . The Turanian and

the A ryan,the A rab and the Negro , alike learn its sonorou s

sentences,day by day repeat its opening clauses, and pray

in its words as their fathers prayed before them .

Next to the ac t of testifying to the unity of God,the

Quran is the great bond of Islam . No matter from whatrace the convert may have come , no matter what languagehe may Speak

,he must learn in A rabic

,and repeat by rote

portions of the Quran in every act of public worship .

The next subject for consideration is that of the Traditions

,or the second branch of the science of ‘Ilm - i - u sul .

The Traditions contain the record of all that Muhammaddid and said . It is the belief of every Mu slim

,to whatever

sect he belongs, that the Prophet not only spake,b ut also

acted under a divine influence . The mode of the inspirationis different from that of the Quran. There the revelationwas obj ective . In the Prophet’s sayings recorded in the

Traditions the inspiration is subjective , b ut still a true

inspiration . This belief places the Traditions in a placesecond only to the Quran ; it makes them a true supplem ent to that book

,and thus they not only throw light on

its meaning, b ut themselves form the basis on which doctrines may b e established . Without going so far as to

say that every Tradition by itself is to b e accepted as an

authority in Islam,it may b e distinctly asserted that there

can b e no true conception formed of that system if the

Traditions are not studied and taken into account . S o

important a branch of Muslim theology is it, that the studyof the Traditions is included in the ‘Ilm - i - u sul

,or science of

exegesis . S ome account of them,therefore

,naturally forms

part,

of this chapter.

The first four Khalifs were called the Khulafa- i - Rashidin,

that is, those who could gu ide others aright . They had beenfriends and Companions of the Prophet

,and the Faithful

cou ld always appeal to them in cases of d oubt . The Pro

phet had declared that Islam must b e written in the heartsof men . There was therefore an unwillingness to ,

commit

F


his sayings to writing . They were handed down by wordof mouth . A S no argument was so effectual in a dispute as

a saying of the Prophet,the door was opened by which

spuriou s Traditions could b e palmed off on the Faithful . Toprevent this

,a number of strict ru les were framed

,at the

head of which stands the Prophet’

s saying, itse lf a Tradit ion :

“ Convey to other persons none of my words exceptthose which ye know of a surety. Verily

,he who purposely

represents my words wrongly will find a place for himselfnowhere b ut in fire .

”To enforce this ru le

,it was laid down

that the relator of a Tradition must also repeat its Isnad,

”

or chain of authorities,as : I heard from such an one

,who

heard from such an one,

”and so on

,until the chain reaches

the Prophet himself. The following Tradition, taken fromImam Malik’s treatise , the Muwatta, affords a good illu strat ion of an Isnad : “ Malik relates from Yahya Ib n Said

,

from Omra,the daughter of ‘A bdu ’

r - Rahman,from ‘Ayesha

,

the wife of the Prophet,who said : The Prophet conducted

m orning service,and the women returned therefrom with

their upper garments wrapped around them in such a way

that they could not b e recognised in the twilight .

’ ThisTradition also settles the time for the S alatu

’

l- Fajr,which

must b e just before daybreak . Each person,too

,in an

“ Isnad ”must b e well known for his good character and

retentive memory. The system of Isnad employed by theTraditionists of the Hedjaz is Very superior to that whichthe others follow,

and singularly corroborates the authen

tic ity of their Traditions . This arises from the extreme

care they took. They only received Traditions from the

mouths of upright and virtuous men, gifted with good

memories .

” 1A ll this care , however, failed to prevent a

vast number of man ifestly false Tradit ions becoming currentS O men set themselves to the work of collecting and siftingthe great mass of Tradition that in the second century of

Islam had begun to work untold evil. These men are calledMuhadisin,

”

or collectors of Tradition .

”The S unnis and

1 Ib n Khaldun , vol. 11 . p. 468.



people brought him a basket of dates . He went on eatingand searching,

b ut unfortunately he ate so many dates thathe died (A .H .

Sunan - i - A b i’

t Daud . A b I'

I Daud Saj i stani, a nativeof S eistan

,was born A .H . 202 . He was a great traveller,

and went to all the chief places of Musalman learning . In

knowledge of the Traditions , in devot ion,in piety

,he was

unrivalled . H e collected about Traditions,of

which he selected four thousand eight hundred for his book .

Jami‘- i - Tirmiz i. A bu Isa‘ Muhammad Tirmiz i was

born at Tirmiz in the year A .H . 2 0 9 . He was a disc ipleof Bukhari. Ib n Khallikan says this work is “ the product ion of a well - informed man : its exactness is proverbial 1

Sunan- i - Nasai. A b I'

I‘A bdu’

r - Rahman Nasal was

born at Nasa,in Khorasan

,in the year A .H . 2 1 4 ,

and diedA .H . 30 3. It is recorded of him , with great approbation

,

that he fasted every other day, and had four wives and

many slaves. This book is considered of great value . He

met with his death in rather a sad way. He had compileda book on the virtues of ‘A li

,and as the people of Damas

c us were at that time inclined to the heresy of the Khari

gites, he wished to read his book in the mosque of that

place . A fter he had read a little way, a man arose and

asked him whether he knew aught of the praises ofMu‘

awiyah,

‘Ali’s deadly enemy. He replied that he did not . This

answer enraged the people, who beat him SO severely thathe died soon after.

S unan - i—I bn Maj ah. Ib n Maj ah2was born at ‘Irak

,

A .H . 2 09 . This work contains 4000 Traditions .

The Shi ‘ahs reject these books and substitute five books 3

1 Ib n Khallikan’

s Biograph ical D ict ionary, vol. ii . p . 679 .

2 “ He ranked as a h igh authority in the Trad itions, and was well

versed in all the sciences connected w ith them . (Ib n Khallikan, vol. i i.p .

3 The Kafi ,b y A b u Ja‘far Muhammad , A .H . 329 . The Man - la-

yastah

z irahu’l- Faqih , b y S haikh ‘A li, A .H . 38 1 . The Tahz ib and the Ist ib sar , b y

S haikh A b u Ja ‘far Muhammad , A .H . 466 . The Nahaju’l- Balzighat, b y

S yed Raz i , A .H . 406.

SUBJECT - MA TTER OF THE TRA DITIONS 8 5

of their own instead. They are of a much later date,the

last one,indeed

,having been compiled more than four

hundred years after the Hijrah .

The belief which underlies the question of the authorityof the Traditions is that before the Throne of God there

stands a“ preserved Table

,

”on which all that c an happen ,

and all that has ever entered or will enter the mind of

man,is “

noted in a distinct writing.

” Through the mediumof Gabriel

,the Prophet had access to this . It follows

,then

,

that the words of the Prophet express the will of God .

Of the four great Canonical Legists”of Islam

,A hmad

Ib n Hanbal was the greatest collector of Traditions . It

is said that he knew by heart no less than one m illion .

Of these he incorporated thirty thousand into his system of

jurisprudence . That system is now almost obsolete . A b I’

I

Hanifa,who is said to have accepted only eighteen Tradi

t ions as authentic,founded a system which is to this day

the most powerful in Islam . The Hanifites,however

,as

well as other Muslims,acknowledge the six standard col

lections of Traditions as d irect revelations of the will of

God . They range over a vast number of subjects,and

furnish a commentary on the Quran . The Prophet ’s personal appearance , his mental and moral qualities, his actions,his opinions

,are all recorded over and over again. Many

questions of rel igious belief are largely founded on the

Traditions,and i t is to them we mu st go for an explanation

of much of the ritual of Islam. It is very difficult for any

one,who has not lived in long and friendly intercourse

with Mushms,to real ise how much their religious l ife and

Opinions,their thought and actions

,are based on the

Traditions .

Having thu s shown the importance of the Traditions,I now proceed to enter a little into detail on the questiono f the rules framed concerning them . The classificationadopted by different authors may vary in some subordinatepoints

,b ut the follow ing account is adopted from a standard

Muhammadan work . A Tradition may b e Hadis - i - Quali ,


that is,

an account of something the Prophet said ; or

Hadis - i - Fi‘li,

a record of something which he did ; or

Hadis - i- Taqriri, a statement of some act performed byother persons in his presence

,and which action he d id

not forbid .

The Traditions may b e classed under two generalheadsFirst

, Hadis - i - Mu tawatir,that is

,an undoubted Tra

dition,

”the Isnad or chain of narrators of which is perfect

,

and in which chain each narrator possessed all the necessaryqual ifications for his office .

1S ome authorities say there are

only a few of these Traditions extant,b ut most allow that

the following is one :“ There are no good works except

w ith intention ; for example,a man may fast, b ut, unless

he has the intention of fasting firmly in his mind,he gains

no Spiritual reward by so doing .

S econd,Hadis - i - A had . The authority of this class is

theoretically somewhat less than that of the first, b ut

practically it is the same.

This class is again subdivided into two

(L ) Had i s- i - Sahih, or a genu ine Tradition. It is not

necessary to go into the subdiv isions of this subdivision .

A Tradition is Sahih if the narrators have been men of piouslives

,abstemious in their habits

,endowed with a good

memory,free from blemish,

and persons who lived at peacew ith their neighbours . The following also are Sahih,though their importance as authorities varies . I arrange

them in the order of their value . Sahih Traditions are thosewhich are found in the collections made by Bukhari and

Muslim,or in the collection of e ither of the above

,though

not in both ; or,if not mentioned by either of these famous

collectors,if they have been retained in accordance with their

canons for the rejection or retention of Traditions ; or

1 If the Isnad is good , internal improb ab ility carries w ith it little weightagainst the genu ineness of a Trad it ion. There is a saying current to thiseffect —“ A relat ion mad e b y Shdfi

‘i on the authority of Matlik,and b y

him on the authority of Nafi , and b y him on the authority of Ib n Omar, isreally the gold en chain.



A Tradition may b e abrogated in the same way as a

verse of the Quran is . The following example from Buk

hari is quoted as a proof of this : “We made salaam to the

Prophet when he was engaged in prayer, and he returnedit.

” This is now abrogated by this Tradition :“ A fter we

returned from A byssinia, we made our salaam to the Pro

phet when he was at prayer. He did not return it,b ut

said,

‘ In prayer there i s no employment’ ” do not

attend to other things then) .1 This latter Tradition agrees

with the verse of the Quran :“ Be careful in prayer and

stand with respect. S ilence is enj oined on us . A notherexample is given with regard to mut

‘ah marriages. The

Tradition,

“Whatever man or woman agrees to live to

c ether for ten or more days,if they like they can increase

0

it or separate ,”is said to have been abrogated by this

later Tradi tion : The Prophet at last forbad mut‘ah

marriages .

” 2

It is the universally accepted rule that no au thenticTradition can b e contrary to the Quran . The importanceattached to Tradition has been shown in the precedingchapter

,an importance which has demanded the formation

of an elaborate system of exegesis . To an orthodox Muslimthe Book and the S unnat

,God ’s

.

word direct and God’s wordthrough the m ind of the Prophet, are the foundation and sum

of Islam,a fact not always taken into account by modern

panegyrists of the system .

3

1Sahihu

’

l- Bukhari, p. 302 .

2 I b id .

, p . 427 .

3 “ The Qurén is not the only source of informat ion on Muhammad’

s

teach ing . It contains his official p ronunciamenti , his pub lic orat ions , hisjudgments from the b ench . If we would know his private talk, his dailyacts and sayings, which form the rules and preced ents for every Muslim’

s

conduct—insomuch that a pious jurist refused to eat water -melons , b ecause , though it was record ed that the Prophet ate them

,it was not

record ed whether he cut or crushed them—we must turn to these c ollec

t ions of Trad itions wh ich form the tab le - talk of Muhammad .

”

(S tud ies ina Mosque, b y S tanley Lane - Poole

, p .

CHA PTER III

THE S ECTS OF I S LA'

M

THE commonly received Opinion that the Muhammadanreligion is one remarkable for the absence of dogma and

the unanimity of its professors is qu ite incorrect. In thischapter I propose to show how the unorthodox sects differin some very important principles of the faith . The nextchapter will contain a full account of the doctrines held bythe S unnis , or the orthodox sect. The term Shi ‘ah means

a“ follower

,

”and is now used to denote the followers of

‘A li,the son- in - law of Muhammad and the fourth Khalif.

The Shi‘ah sect is chiefly found in Persia.

Koshai,a member of the Quraish tribe

,about the year

440 A .D.

,acquired for his family the guardianship of the

Ka‘bah. He gathered around himself at Mecca many of

the scattered Quraish fam ilies,improved the city

,and

gradually assumed whatever dignities there were connectedwith the custody of the Ka‘bah and the pilgrimage to it.

He thus became the chief spiritual and temporal ruler of

Mecca. A fter his death many disputes arose amongst hisdescendants

,and at length the various offices he held were

divided amongst his grandchildren . The S iqayah and

Rifada,the prerogative of providing water and food to the

pilgrims,passed on to Hashim ,

the'

leadership in war to‘A b du

’

Sh- Shams . The son of Hashim,

‘A bdu ’l - Muttalib,

succeeded his father,b ut met with much Opposition from

Umaiyah , the son of ‘A b du’

Sh - Sham s . However,

‘A bdu’

lMuttalib

,who was the grandfather of Muhammad , main

tained his position as head of the Quraish.

’

Thus two

permanent rival factions were formed , the Hashimites and89


the Umawiyah, both descendants of the great Koshai. The

feud passed on from generation to generation . Muhammadwas a lineal descendant of Hashim. H is ablest and mostactive enemy in Mecca was A b I

'

I Sofyan,a grandson of

Umaiyah . The A rab families were united in hate as wellas in love. Nothing delighted their members more than to

hear of and dwell upon the passions and strifes of theirancestors—hatreds which they took care to keep alive and

hand down to the ir descendants as they had received themfrom the generations passed away . A buS ofyan commandedthe Quraish in more than one attack on the Prophet’s forces.

S o bitter was the hatred of the Prophet to this leader of theUmawiyah faction that

,when he made his triumphant march

to Mecca in the year 6 30 A .D.

,he excluded A bu S ofyan and

his wife from the amnesty granted to his foes. They werecondemned to death

,b ut

,the day before the entry of the

Prophet with his friends into Mecca,A b 1

'

1 S ofyan acknowledged his error and subm itted to Muhammad

,who then

granted him a free pardon . It was a mere ou tward con

version,and led to much heart- burning between the faithfu l

A nsars1of Madina and these newly found allies .

Two parties now gradually formed themselves amongstthe Mu slims—on the one side the Companions of the

Prophet and the men of Madina ; on the other , the descendants of Umaiyah and of the Quraish generally. The

two first Khalifs,A bu Bakr and Omar

,held the respective

parties in check,b ut the third Khalif

,Osman

,failed to do

so . He was a member of the family of Umaiyah, though hehad voluntarily and sincerely adopted the Prophet

’

s cause .

H e gradually removed the leaders of the army and othersfrom places of command and trust.

Men most distasteful to the great body of Muslims,men

such as Mu‘

awiyah , son of A b 1'

1 S ofyan ,Merwan

,whom the

Prophet had banished from Mecca,and others of the Uma

1 The term A l- A nsAr means“ The helpers , and is used of the early

converts at Mad ina : the men of Mecca who accompanied Muhammad to

Mad ina were called Muhaj irun, or the exiles.



between us .

‘A lI S army was composed of military theologians , fanatical and disputatious .

“ God is great,”they

replied,we must subm it to the arbitrament of this book .

‘A li tried in vain to prevent his followers from falling intothe trap laid for them , b ut failed . Violent altercationsensued

,which finally resulted in a very large secession

from his ranks . These men originated the sect called theKharigites. The arbitration went in favour of Mu

‘awiyah .

S till the trickery of the whole affair was so manifest thatthe war soon recommenced

,b ut then clouds and darkness

gathered around the path of ‘A li. Many of the morefanatical Muslims of his own party turned against him ,

and the old feudal hatred of the Umawiyahs followed himto the death. H is sad and chequered life ended in the

year 40 A .H.,when he was assassinated by a Kharigite .

One great blot in his character seems to b e connected with

the fate of Osman,to whom he had sworn allegiance , and

whose murderers he Should have brought to j ustice . It

was an error of judgment , to say the least, and lent a strongmotive t o men who perhaps otherwise might not haveopposed him . B ut for all that

,

‘A li was one of the best

and truest - hearted of the early Mu slim chiefs,and worthily

calculated to win and retain,as he has done for so many

centuries,the ardent love and affection of so many m illions

of Shi‘

ahs .

‘A li’

s eldest son,Hasan

,made a formal re

nunc iation of his claim,and took an oath of allegiance to

Mu‘awiyah,

who thus became the Khalif of Islam. S till,

so long as the lad was alive,he felt insecure , and being

anxious to leave the government to his son Yazid , he causedHasan

,some years after

,to b e put to death by poison— SO

at least the Shi‘ah historians say.

‘

The city of Kufah,

where‘A li was assassinated , was the centre of religiou s

fanaticism . It was the home of the Quran Readers,

D octors of the Law,and of Theologians generally . Theo

logical controversy raged , and much of the after bewilder

ing refinement of Muslim theology owes its origin to the

wrangling disputes of the men of Kufah .

THE DEA TH OF HUSA IN 9 3

Yazid,who succeeded his father Mu

‘awiyah in the year6 0 A .H . ,

Was not an orthodox Muslim . He drank wine,

loved dogs, and hated an austere life . The men of KI'

I fah

were scandalised , and he in return treated them with muchcontempt . A t this time

,Husain

,the remaining son of ‘A li

,

was residing at Mecca. He had never taken the oath of

allegiance to Mu‘

awiyah ,and so now the men of Kufah

begged him to come,and promised to espouse his cause if

only he would pronounce the deposition of Y azid and takeaway the Khalifate from the house of Umaiyah . The

friends of Husain in vain urged that the men of Kiifah

were a fickle lot,and that they could

,if they wished

,revolt

against Yazid without his help. Hu sain accepted the call,

and started for d ah with his fam ily and a small escort offorty horsemen and one hundred foot - soldiers .

But meanwhile Yazid sent the Governor of Basrah toblock the way, and Husain on the plains of Karbalafoundhis progress arrested by a force of 3000 men . The peopleof Kufah gave no aid . S ubmission or death was the

alternative placed before him . To his followers he said,

“ Let all who wish to go do so. O son of the A postleof God ,

”

was the reply,“what excuse cou ld we give to thy

grandfather on the day of resurrection did we abandonthee One by one the little band fell

,and at last Husain

and his little son,a mere infant

,alone remained . Hu sain

sat on the ground . Not one of the enemy seemed to daretouch the grandson of the Prophet . The scene was a

strange one—Husain S itting down ,his little boy running

round him,all his followers lying dead close by, the enemy

longing for his blood b ut restrained by a superstitious awe .

Hu sain took the little lad up into his arms ; a chance arrowpierced the child’s ear and it died at once. Husain thenplaced the corpse on the ground , saying,

“We come fromGod and we return to H im . 0 God

, give me strength to

bear these m isfortunes .

”He stooped down to drink some

water from the Euphrates which flowed close by . Justthen an arrow struck him in the mouth . Encouraged by


this,the enemy rushed on him and speedily put an end to

his life. The plain of Karbala is now a place of sacredpilgrimage to S hi

‘

ahs,and the sad event which took place

there is kept alive in their memories by the annual celebrat ion of the Muharram . The schism was now complete. A

rent had been made in the Muslim world which time has

failed to heal . ‘ The martyred Husain ’

is a watchwordwhich has kept alive a Spirit of hatred and of vengeanceeven to this day.

Many traditions record the virtues of ‘A li and his family.

The martyrdom of Husain was foretold by Muhammad, forhe is reported to have said of Husain

,

“ He will die forthe sake of my people .

” Just before he set out upon hisfatal journey

,standing by the grave of the Prophet

,Husain

said,

“ How can I forget thy people , since I am going to

offer myself for their sakes This idealising of the naturalresult of a tribal feud seems to Show that the hard and

cold system of orthodox Islam failed to find a warm responsein the Persian m ind . The Christian idea of self- denial

,

of self—renunciation,of sel f- sacrifice for others was needed ;

and this representation of Husain as a voluntary sacrificewas the substitute the Shi ‘ahs found . It has been wellsaid by a sound critic of Islam

,that the death of Husain

,

as idealised in after ages, fills up this want in Islam : it is

the womanly as against the mascu line— the Christian as

Opposed to the Jewish element that this story supplies tothe work of Muhammad .

”

The annual ceremonies celebrated in the month of

Muharram refer to the historical facts,and help to keep

aliv e a bitter feud ; b ut to suppose that the only differencebetween the S hi

‘

ah and the S unni is a mere d ispute as to

the proper order of the early Khalifs would b e a mistake .

S tarting off with a political quarrel , the Shi‘

ahs have travelledinto a very distinct religious position of their own . The

fundamental tenet of the Shi‘ah sect is the “ divine right”

of ‘A h’

the Chosen and his descendants. From this it

follows that the chief duty of religion consists in devotion



various parts . Two at last settled in Oman,and there

preached their distinctive doctrines . In course of time the

people of Oman adopted the doctrine that the Imamat was

not hereditary b ut elective,and that in the event of mis

conduct the Imam might b e deposed .

‘A bdu ’llah - ib n‘Ibadh (7 44 A D . ) was a vigorous preacher of this doctrine ,and from him the sect known as the ‘Ibadhiyah takes itsrise . The result of this teaching was the establishment of

the power and jurisdiction of the Imam of Oman . The‘Ibadhiyah seem to have always kept themselves independent of the S unni Khalifs of Baghdad , and

,therefore

,

wou ld consider them selves free from any obligation to obeythe S u ltan of Turkey . From the ordinary Shi‘ahs theyd iffer as regards the divine right of ‘A li and his children .

The curious in such matters w ill find the whole subj ectwel l treated in Dr . Badger

’

s S eyyids of Oman .

”

The tragic end of ‘A li and his sons invested them withpeculiar interest. When grieving for the sad end of theirleaders

,the S hi ‘ahs found consolation in the doctrine which

soon found development,viz .

,that it was God ’s will that

the Imamat shou ld continue in the family of ‘A li . Thu s aTradition relates that the Prophet said “ He of whom Iam master has ‘A li also for a master .

”The best judge

among you is ‘A li.”

Ib n ‘A bbas,a Companion

,says : “ I

heard the Prophet say,‘He who blasphemes my name

blasphemes the name of God ; he who blasphemes the

name of ‘A li blasphemes my name .

’

S ome say‘A li is

alive and that “a part of God

” is in him,and also that

‘A li will descend upon earth and fill it with justice,as it is

now filled with tyranny .

‘A li existed before the creationof the heavens and the earth ; he is a shadow at the righthand of the throne

,and men and angels make tasbih to

him .

” 1

The general idea is, that long before the creation of the

world,God took a ray of light from the splendour of His

own glory and united it to the body of Muhammad1 Milal wa Nihal , pp. I 32

—1 34.

NuR - I- MUHA MMA DI 9 7

saying,

“ Thou art the e lect,the chosen ; I will make

the members of thy fam ily the guides to salvation .

”

Muhammad said : “ The first thing which God created wasmy light and my Spirit .

”In due time the world was

created,b ut not until the birth of Muhammad did this ray

of glory appear . It is well known to all Musalmans as

the “ Nur - i - Muhammadi ” —l ight of Muhammad . ThisNi n is said to b e of four kinds . From the first kindGod created H is throne

,from the second the pen of fate

,

from the third paradise,and from the fourth the state or

place of spirits and all created beings .

This “ light1 descended to ‘A li

,and from him passed on

to the true Imams,who alone are the lawful successors of

the Prophet. Rebellion against them is sin ; devotion to

them the very essence of religion.

S harastani tells us that“ The Imamat is a light (Nur)

which passes from one to the other and becomes prophetship. The Imams are prophets and d ivine. Divinity is a

ray(Nur) in prophetship, which is a ray in Imamat,and the

world is never free from these signs and lights (anwar).The Imam is the successor of the Prophet

,adorned with

all the qualities which he possessed . He is wiser than themost learned men of the age, holier than the most pious .

He is the noblest of the sons of men and is free from all

sin,original or actual 2 hence the Imam is called Ma

‘sum.

The Imam is equal to a prophet .

‘A li said,

“ In me is

the glory of every prophet that has ever been .

”The

authority’

of the Imam is the authority of God,for “ his

word is the word of God and of the Prophet,and obedience

to his order is incumbent .

”The nature of the Imam is

identical with the nature of Muhammad,for did not

‘A li

say,“ I am Muhammad , and Muhammad is me.

” This

1 It is said that the only d ifference b etween the light of Muhammad

and that of ‘A li is that the one was prior to , the other in t ime . (Milal wa

Nihal , b y Sharastzini , p .

2 “ The Imam ites b elieve that the Imam, preserved inviolate from s in ,

knows what is in the pregnant womb and b eh ind walls .

”

(JalAlu’

d - d in

A s - Syuti, Bib liotheca Ind ica, Fasciculus v. p .


probably refers to the possession by the Imam of the “ lighto f Muhammad . The bodies of the Imams are so pure and

delicate that they cast no shadow . They are the beginningand the end of all things . To know the Imams is the veryessence of the knowledge which men can gain of God .

A S mediums between God and man they hold a far higherposition than the prophets

,for

“the grace of God

,without

their intervention,reaches to no created being.

” Theseextravagant claims for the Imams cu lm inate in the assertionthat “ for them a pillar of light has been fixed betweenthe earth and heaven

,by which the actions of the Faithfu l

are made known to them .

”The Imam is the supreme

Pontiff,the Vicar of God on earth. The possession of an

infallible book is not sufficient . The infallible guide isneeded . S uch wisdom and discernment as such a gu idewould requ ire can only b e found amongst the descendantsof the Prophet . It is no longer, then,

a matter of wonderthat

,in some cases

,almost

,if not entirely , divine honour is

paid to ‘A li and his descendants .

’

The U S I'

Il,or fundamental tenets of the Shi ‘ah sect

,are

five in number : (I ) To believe in the unity of God . (2)To admit that He is just . 3) To believe in the divinem ission of all the prophets

,and that Muhammad is the

chief of all. (4) To consider‘A li the Khalif next in order

after Muhammad,

2and to believe ‘A li

’

S descendants fromHasan to A l- Mahdi

,the twelfth Imam

,to b e his true

1 The S unnis esteem and respect the Imetms as A hl- i - Bait, “men of the

House (of the b ut d o not give them preced ence over the dulyappointed Khalifs .

2 The Sh i ‘ahs , in support of their Opinion regard ing the close unionof ‘A li w ith the Prophet , ad d uce the fact that in the 34th verse of S firah

xxxiii . the pronoun “

you”in the word s ,

“ God only d esireth to put

away filthiness from you as his household ,is in the mascul ine gend er

and in the plural form . The household b e ing, accord ing to the S hi‘ahs,

Muhammad , Faitimah,

‘A li, Husain, and Hasan,

they say the word “

you

must mean‘A li and his sons . The S unni comm entators say that the

context shows that the “you refers to the w ives

,of the Prophet, and

support th is view b y s tat ing that the preced ing pronouns and the next

finite verb ,

“recollect ,” are all feminine. I have not yet seen a good

explanation of th is d ifl‘i culty.


1 00 THE FA ITH or ISLAM

successors The Prophet replied,They agree in number

with the twelve tribes of Israel . ”

A s to the claim of the Imamites that ‘A li was the Khalifappointed by Muhammad to succeed him as head of the

faithfu l,Ib n Khaldun

,a S unni historian

,says :

i

“ The errorof the Imamites arises from a principle which they haveadopted as true and which is not so. They pretend thatthe Imamat is one of the pillars of religion ,

whereas , in

real ity,it is an office instituted for the general advantage

and placed under the surveillance of the people . If it had

been one of the pillars of religion the Prophet wou ld havetaken care to bequeath the functions of it to some one ; and

he would have ordered the name of his intended successorto b e published

,as he had already done in the case of the

leader of prayer (Namaz) . The Companions recognised A b I'

I

Bakr as Khalif because of the analogy which existed b etween the functions of the Khalif and those of the leaderof prayer . The Prophet

,

’

they said,chose him to watch

over our spiritual interests ; why should we not choose himto watch over our earthly interests ? ’ This shows that theProphet had not bequeathed the Imamat to any one , and

that the Companions attached much less importance to thatoffice and its transm ission than is now done .

” 1

The other large division , the Isma‘

ilians , agree with theImam ites in all particu lars save one . They hold that afterJa‘

far Sadiq, the sixth Imam,commenced what is called

the succession of the “ concealed Imams .

” They believethat there never can b e a t ime when the world will b ew ithout an Imam

,though he may b e in seclusion. Sharas

tani says , If any one says,How can the Imam remain con

c ealed —did not Enoch and Elias live a thousand years inthe world withou t food : why should the A hl- i - Bait havemore need ?”

The earth is never without a living Imam ,

though concealed .

“ He who dies withou t knowing the

Imam , or who Is not his disciple , dies ignorant .

” Thisidea has given ri se to all sorts of secret societies

,and has

1 Ib n Khaldan, vol. i. p . 431 .

THE KA RMA THIA N OUTBREA K I O I

paved the way for a mystical religion , which often lands itsvotaries in atheism .

The“ Veiled Prophet of Khurasan was one of these

em issaries of disorder . Babek,who taught the indifference

of human actions,and illustrated his teaching by acts of

cruelty and lust during the reigns of the Khalifs Mamunand Mu

‘tasim

,was another. For a while they were kept

in check, b ut in the fourth century A .H .,when the power

of the Khal ifate began to wane, the Karmathian outbreakshook the Islamic empire to the very centre . Mecca wascaptured

,the Ka‘bah pillaged , and the famous black stone

,

spilt by a blow from the sacrilegious Karmathians, wasremoved and kept away for twenty - two years . This was,however

,too serious a matter . It became the question of

the preservation of society against anarchy . The Kar

mathians were at length defeated, and passed away ; b utin the places where they lived orthodox Islam never re

gained power in the hearts of the people .

“The district ,

Mr. Gifford Palgrave tells us,

“ has remained permanentlyestranged , a heap of moral and religious ruins

,of Kar

mathian and esoteric doctrines.

”

From it,however

,seriou s

divisions arose and made great rents in the political worldof the Musl im people. One of the latest pretenders wasthe Mahd i in the S oudan . The fanatical attachment of hisfollowers to his person is now explained

,for what I have

described as the doctrine concerning the Imam wou ld,

when once they acknow ledged him to b e such,have a very

real influence over them . They wou ld look upon him as

the “ Concealed Imam ” brought again amongst men to

restore the world to obedience to God’s law,to reprove the

careless Musalmans and to destroy the Infidels. This alsoaccounts for his arrogant tone and defiance of the Su ltan ,the acknowledged head of the S unnis, who form the majorityof Musalmans.

When Islam entered upon the tenth century of its

existence,there was throughout Persia and India a mil

lenarian movement. Men declared that the end was draw

1 0 2 THE FA ITH OF ISLAM

ing near and various persons arose who claimed to b e

A l—Mahd i . A mongst others was Shaikh ‘A lai of A gra

(9 56 Shaikh Mubarak , the father of A bu’l - Fazl,

the Emperor A kb ar’s famous vizier, was a disciple of Shaikh‘A lai

,and from him imbibed Mahdavi ideas . This brought

upon him the wrath of the‘Ulama, who , however , were

finally overcome by the free - thinking and heretical Emperorand his vizier. There never was a better ruler in Indiathan A kbar

,and never a more heretical one as far as

orthodox Islam is concerned . The Emperor delighted inthe controversie s of the age . The Sufis and Mahdav is werein favour at Court. The orthodox ‘Ulama were treatedwith contempt . A kbar fully believed that the millenniumhad come . He started a new era and a new religion calledthe “ D ivine Faith .

” There was toleration for all exceptthe bigoted orthodox Musl ims . A b li

’

l- Fazl and others likehim

,who professed to reflect A kb ar’s religiou s vi ews, held

that all religions contained truth . Thus

“ O God , in every temple I see people that seek Thee,and in

every language I hear spoken people praise TheePolytheism and Islam feel after Thee

,

Each religion says,

‘Thou art one,w ithout equal . ’

I f it b e a mosque, people murmur the holy prayer , and if it b ea Christian church

, people ring the b ell from love to Thee.

S ometimes I frequent the Christian cloister,and sometimes

the mosque,

But it is Thou whom I search from temple to temple .

The whole of the S hi ‘ah doctrine of the Imamat seemsto show that there is in the human heart a natural desirefor some Mediator—some Word of the Father

,who shall

reveal Him to His children . A t first sight it would seem

as if this dogma m ight to some extent reconcile the

thoughtful Shi‘

ah to the Christian doctrine of the Incarnation and Mediat ion of Jesus Christ, to H is office as the

perfect revealer of God ’s will,and as our Gu ide in life ;

b ut it is not so . The mystic lore connected w ith S hi ‘ahdoctrine has sapped the foundation of moral life and vigour.



S unnis decline to accord to them ; that the Muharram cerem onies should b e observed in commemoration of the deathsof Hasan and Husain

,whilst Sunnis observe only the tenth

day of Muharram ,or the ‘A shiirah

,as the day on which

A dam was created. There are also minor differences inthe liturgical ceremonies , and in some points of the civillaw . On what may b e termed questions of scholasticphilosophy , S hi ‘ahs differ from the S unnis

,and

,speaking

generally , have a tendency to a somewhat freer method of

looking at some abstruse questions.

We here make a slight digression to show that thislonging for a spiritual leader extends beyond the Shi‘ahsect

,and is of some importance in its bearing upon the

Eastern Question. A part from the superhuman claims for

the Imam ,what he is as a ruler to the S hi ‘ah ,

|the Khalif isto the Sunni— the supreme head in Church and State

,the

successor of the Prophet,the Conservator of Islam

,as made

known in the Quran,the Sunnat

,the Ijma‘

,and the legal

decisions of the early Muj tahidin . To administer the laws,

the adm inistrator mu st have a divine sanct ion . Thus when

the Ottoman ru ler,S alim the First

,conquered Egypt (A .D .

he sought and obtained,from an old descendant of

the Baghdad Khalifs, the transfer of the title to himself,and

in this way the S ultans of Turkey became the Khalifs of

Islam . Whether Mutawakkil Billal,the last titular Khalif

of the house of ‘A bbas,was right or wrong in thus trans

ferring the title is not my purpose now to d iscuss I onlyadduce t he fact to show how it illustrates the feel ing of the

need of a Pontiff— a d ivinely appointed Ru ler. S trictlyspeaking, according to Muhammadan law

,the S ultans are

not Khalifs,for it is clearly laid down in the Traditions

that the Khalif (also the Imam) mu st b e of the tribe of

the Quraish,to which the Prophet himself belonged . Ib n

‘Umr relates that the Prophet said : “ The Khalifs shal lb e in the Quraish tribe as long as there are two personsin it

,one to ru le and another to serve . It is a necessary

condition that the Khalif should b e Of the Quraish tribe .

THE SULTA N’

S CLA IM To THE KHA LiFA TE 1 0 5

A bri Dalid says : The Imams shall b e of the Quraish as

long as they shall rule and do justice,and promise and

fufil,and pardon is implored of them and they are com

passionate . A t - Tirmiz i quotes from A b ii Huraira thus

The sovereignty shall rest in the Quraish . A l- Buz zar

says : “ The Princes shall b e of the Quraish .

” 1Such

quotations might b e multiplied,and they tend to show

that it is not at all incumbent on orthodox S unnis,other

than the Turks,to rush to the rescue of the S ultan ,

whilstto the Shi ‘ahs he is little better than a heretic .2 Certainlythey would never look upon him as an Imam

,which person

age is to them in the place of a Khalif. In countries not

under Turkish rule,the second Khutbah

,or prayer for the

ruler,said on Fridays in the mosques , is said for the ruler

of the age ,”

or for the A m ir,or whatever happens to b e the

title of the head of the S tate. Of late years it has becomemore common in India to say it for the S ultan . This isnot , strictly speaking, according to Muhammadan law

,

which declares that the Khutbah can only b e said with thepermission of the ruler

,and as in India that ruler is the

British Government,the prayers shou ld b e said for the

Queen . Evidently the law never contemplated large bodiesof Musalmans residing anywhere b ut where the influence of

the Khalif extended .

In thu s casting doubt on the legality of the claim madeby Turkish S ultans to the Khal ifate of Islam

,I do not

deny that the Law of Islam requ ires that there should b e

1 H i story of the Khalifs, b y Jalalu’d - d in - as - Syuti .

2 The usual d efence of the claim of the S ultAn to the office is(L ) The right of the sword . The Ottoman ruler Salim so won it, and

his successors hold it till a rival w ith a b etter t itle appears .

Salim b rought w ith him from Cairo to Constantinople learned men ,

who, w ith the ‘Ulama of the latter city, rat ified his assumption of the

t itle . Each new S ultan rece ives in the Mosque of A iyub the sword of

o ffice from the ‘Ulama.

The guard ianship of the two sacred shrines (Haramain) of Meccaand Jerusalem .

The possession of the sacred relics—the cloak of the Prophet, some

hair of his b eard , the sword of the Khalif Omar.


a Khal if. Unfortunately for Islam,there is nothing in its

history paralle l to the conflict of Pope and Emperor,of

Church and S tate .

“ The action and reaction of thesepowerfu l and partially independent forces

,their resistance

to each other,and their m inistry to each other

,have been

of incalcu lable value to the higher ac tivity and life of

Christendom .

”In Islam the Khalif is both Pope and

Emperor . Ib n Khaldun states that the difference betweenthe Khal if and any other ruler is that the former rulesaccording to divine

,the latter according to human law .

The Prophet in transmitting his sacred authority to the

Khalifs,his successors

,conveyed to them absolute powers .

Khali fs can b e assassinated,murdered , banished , b ut so

long as they reign anything like c onstitutional l iberty isimpossible . It is a fatal mistake in European politics and

an evil for Turkey to recognise the S ultan as the Khal ifof Islam

,for

,if he b e such

,Turkey can never take any

step forward to newness of political life .

1

The Mu‘tazilas

,or S eceders

,were once an influential

body . They do not exist as a separate sect now. A n

account of them will b e found in the next chapter .

There has been from the earliest ages of Islam a mysticalmovement known as Sufiism (Tasawwu f) . It has beenespecially prevalent among the Persians . It is a reaction

1 Nothing show s th is more plainly than the Fatva pronounced b y theCouncil of the ‘Ulamain July 1 879 anent Khairu

’

d - d in’

s proposed reform ,

wh ich would have placed the S ultan in the posit ion of a const itut ionalsovereign. Th is was d eclared to b e d irectly contrary to the Law . ThusThe law of the S heri d oes not authorise the Khalif to place b esid e h im a

power superior to his own. The Khalif ought to re ign alone and governas master. The Vakils (Ministers ) should never possess any au thorityb eyond that of representat ives , always d epend ent and sub m iss ive . It

would consequently b e a transgression of the unalterable p r inc iples of the

S her i , which should be the gu id e of all the actions of the Khalif , to transferthe supreme power of the Khalif to one Vakil.” Th is

,one of the latest

and most important d ecisions of the jurists of Islam , is qu ite in accordancew ith all that has b een said ab out Muhammadan Law . It proves as clearlyas possib le that so long as the S ultzin rules as Khalif, he must Oppose any

attempt to set up a const itutional Government . There is ab solutely no

hOpe of real reform.



bubble is merged into the stream on the surface of whichit has for a moment risen.

”

Sweep off the life of Hafiz like a dream,

Whilst Thou art,none shal l hear me say, I am .

The way in which S Iifis gain inspiration (ilham) is thu sdescribed . First

,they mu st put away all thoughts of

worldly things, of home,family

,and country

,and so arrive

at the state in which the existence or non - existence of thingsis all the same. Then in retirement

,engaged in serving

and praising God , the S lifi mu st cast away all thoughts saveof H im . Even the reading of the Quran

,the Tradition s

,

and Commentaries may b e set aside . Let him in seclusion ,

w ith collectedness of heart,repeat the word A llah, A llah,

so often that at last the word involuntarily passes fromhis lips . Then ceasing to speak

,let him utter the word

mentally,until even the word is forgotten and the meaning

only remains in the heart ; then will God enlighten his

m ind.

”The difference between an ordinary Muslim and a

Sufi is said to b e that the former has only a counterfeitfaith (iman - i - taqlidi) , or that belief which he accepts on theauthority of his forefathers and his teachers

,without really

knowing how essential true belief in the creed of Islam is

for his salvation . The Siifi , on the other hand,is said to

search for the origin of religious dogmas . Many spendyears in the search and m iss it after all

,for only those

of them who perfectly subj ect themselves to the Murshid,

or spiritual director,find the reality of things and finally

arrive at a fully established faith .

The habit of speaking of forbidden things as if theywere lawfu l , such as wine , w ine - sheps

,wine - cups

,and the

frequent references to sweethearts,curls of the m istress

,

and other descriptions of the beauty of the beloved,are

thus explained . The S iifis look at the internal featuresof things , exchange the corporeal for the spiritual

,and

thus to outward forms give an imaginary signification .

By wine they mean the love of God ; the wine - shop is

THE INNER LIGHT OF . sfiFfs 1 09

the excellent preceptor, to whoma strong spiritual attachment is formed . The ringlets of the beloved are the

praises of the preceptor, which bind the heart and affectionso f the disciple to him . In a similar way some mysticalmeaning is attached to all other descriptions of a more or

less amatory nature .

Siifis suppose that long before the creation of the world a

contract was made by the Supreme S ou l with the assembledworld of spirits

,who are parts of it . Each spirit was

addressed separately thus : A rt thou not with thy Lord ?”

that is , bound to him by a solemn contract. To this theyall answered with one voice

,

“Yes .

”

The principle underlying the Siifi system is that senseand reason cannot transcend phenomena

,or see the real

being which underlies them all ; so sense and reason mu stb e ignored in favour of the “ Inner Light , the divineillumination in the heart , which is the only faculty wherebymen perceive the Infinite . Thus when enlightened , theysee that all the external phenomena

,including man

,is b ut

an illusion,and as it is “

non - existent,it is an evil because

it is a departure from the one real being.

”The one great

duty of man is now plain ; it is to cast off the“not being,

”

to die to self, to live in this “ be ing.

”He must live in

God,and “ break through the one - ness. In addition to

reason ,man has a certain faculty (taur) whereby he per

ceiv es hidden mysteries 1 This faculty is the inner light ,the intuition which

,under certain conditions

,conveys to

him a knowledge of God by direct apprehension in a manner

similar to the evidences of the senses .

”

The following verse of the Quran is quoted by Siifisin support of their favourite dogma—the attaining to the

knowledge of God : “When God said to the angels ,‘ I am

about to place a vicegerent on the earth,they said

,

‘WiltThou place therein one who shall commit abom ination and

shed blood ? Nay ; we celebrate Thy praise and holiness . God answered them

,

‘ Verily I know that ye wot

1 Gulshan - i -Raz , S owal vi .

1 1 0 THE FA ITH OF I SLAM

not of (S . 1 1 . It is said that this verse provesthat

,though the great mass of mankind would comm it

abomination,some would receive the divine light and attain

to a knowledge of God . Siifis also. claim as on their sidethe following verse : Then found they one of our servantsto whom we had vouchsafed our mercy

,and whom we

had instructed wi th our knowledge”

(S . xviii . A Tra

d ition states that David said,

“ ‘ O Lord ! why hast Thoucreated mankind ? ’

God replied,I am a hidden treasure

,

and I would fain become known The bu siness of the

mystic is to find this treasure,to attain to the Divine light

and the true knowledge of God . The S Iifis are dividedinto those who claim to b e the Ilham iyah , or those inspiredby God

,and the Ittihadiyah, or those in union with God .

The earlier Muhammadan mystics sought to impart lifeto a rigid and formal ritual

,and though the seeds Of pan

theism were planted in the ir system from the first,they main

tained that they were orthodox .

“ Our system of doctrine,

says A l- Junaid

,

“ is firmly bound up with the dogmas of thefaith

,the Quran,

and the Traditions.

” There was a moralearnestness about many of these men which frequently re

strained the arm of unrighteous power, and their sayings,often full of beauty

,show that they had the power of appre

c iating the spiritual side of life . S ome of these sentencesare worthy of any age .

“ A s neither meat nor drink,

”

says one,profit the diseased body , so no warning avails

to touch the heart ful l of the love of this world .

” “ The

work of a holy man doth not consist in this,that he eats

grain and clothes him self in wool,b ut in the knowledge of

God and submission to His will . Thou deservest not

the name of a learned man,until thy heart is emptied of

the love of this world.

“ Hide thy good deeds as closelyas thou wouldst hide thy sins .

A nd he’l l ne’er take his flight towards heaven

'

s eternal KingWho holds at heart the thought that he

’s a perfect thing.

”

A famous mystic was brought into the presence of the



any progress can b e made on that road . A Stiff poetwrites

Plant one foot upon the neck of self,

The other in thy Friend’s domain

In everything H is presence see,

For other vision is in vain.

”

S a‘di in the Bostan says : “ A rt thou a friend of God ?

S peak not of self,for to speak of God and of self is infi

d elity.

”

Shaikh A br'i ’l - Faiz,a great poet and a friend of

the Emperor A kbar,from whom he received the honour

able title of Maliku’

sh - Shu ‘ara(Master of the Poets), says

“ Those who have not closed the door on existence and

non - existence reap no advantage from the calm of thisworld and of the world to come .

” Khusrau,another well

known poet,says

I have b ecome Thou Thou art b ecome I,

I am the b ody,Thou the sou l

Let no one henceforth say

That I am d istinct from Thee,and Thou from me .

The fact is,that Pers ian poetry is almost entirely Siifiistic .

Pantheistic doctrines are largely incu lcated .

1 Thus :

I was,ere a name had b een named upon earth

Ere one trace yet existed of aught that has b irthWhen the locks of the Loved One streamed forth for a sign,

A nd Being was none, save the Presence DivineNamed and name were alike emanations from Me

Ere aught that was‘ I ’

existed,or

‘We .

’

The poet then describes his fru itless search for rest and

peace in Christianity,Hindu ism

,and the religion of the

Parsee . Even Islam gave him no satisfaction,for

Nor ab ove nor b eneath came the Loved One to View,

I toi led to the summit, wi ld , path less, and lone,Of the glob e -

gird ing Kaf—b ut the ‘A nka had flown

1 “ Le Sp iritualisme d es S ofis, quoiqu’

il soit 1e contraire d u materialisme

,lui e st en réalité id ent ique . Mais si leur d octrine n

’

est pas plusraisonnab le , elle est d u moins plus élevée et plus poétique .

”

(Poésie Ph ilosophique et Religieuse chez les Persans , par M. Garcin d e Tassy, p.

THE SL’

IFI’

S TA GES ON THE ROA D 1 1 3

The sev ’nth heaven I traversed—the sev ’

nth heaven explored ,But in neither d iscern’d I the court of the LordI question

’d the Pen and the Tab let of Fate,But theywhisper

’d not where He pav ilions H is stateMy v ision I strain

’d b ut my God- scanning eye

No trace that to Godhead b elongs cou ld d escry.

Myglance I b ent inward w ithin my own b reast,

LO,the vain ly sought elsewhere, the Godhead confess’d

In the Whirl of its transport my spirit was toss’d,

Ti ll each atom of separate being I lost.”

These are the words of the greatest au thority among the

Siifis, the famou s Maulana Jalalu ’

d - din Rumi,founder of

the order of the Maulavi Darwishes . H e also relates thefollowing story One knocked at the door of the beloved

,

and a voice from within said,

‘Who is there ? Is this a

threshing - floor 2 Then he answered,It is I .

’

The voicereplied

,

‘ This hou se will not hold me and thee !’

S o the

door remained shut . The lover retired to a wilderness,and

spent some time in solitude , fasting, and prayer . One year

e lapsed,when he again returned and knocked at the door .

Who is there ? ’ said the voice. The lover answered , It

is thou .

’ Then the door was opened .

”

A nother ‘ form of the same story, given by Redhouse, is

“ Within the question’s heard

, Who knocks at my street door 2

He answered,Thy second self

,though all too poor.

’

The invitation fol lowed,Let myse lf walk in

My cot’s too small for two sel ves to find room therein,

The thread ’s not doub le in a need le’s single eye,

A s thou’rt now single, enter room thou’lt find pray try.

The great object of life is to escape from the hindrancesto pure love and to return to the divine essence . In

order to reach this higher stage of existence,the Talib, or

seeker, attaches himself to a Murshid,or teacher. If he

prosecutes his studies according to Sufiistic methods,he

now often enters one of the many orders of Darwishes .

A fter due preparation under his Murshid , he is allowed toenter on the road . He then becomes a Salik

,or traveller ,

whose business henceforth is srihik—that is,devotion to

H


one idea,the knowledge of God . In this road there

are eight stages S ervice Here he

must serve God and obey the Law,for he is still in

bondage . Love It is supposed that now

the D ivine influence has so attracted his soul that he reallyloves God . S eclusion (Zuhd). Love having expelledall worldly desires

,he arrives at this stage , and passes his

t ime in meditation on the deeper d octrines of Sufiismregarding the Divine nature . KnowledgeThe meditation in the preceding stage, and the investigat ion of the metaphysical theories concerning God

,H is

nature,H is attributes

,and the like

,make him an

‘Arifone who knows. Ecstasy (Wajd or Hal) . The m entalexcitement caused by such continued meditation on abstrusesubj ects produces a kind of frenzy

,which is looked upon

as a mark of direct illumination of the heart from God .

A rrival at this stage is highly valued, for it is the certainentrance to the next.

A maz ement fel l upon him ,stupor b athed each sense

,

Ecstatic trance then fol lowed,earth and Sky flew hence

S uch ecstasy,such words

,b eyond all mood and tense

,

Immersion total in God ’s glorious effulgence.

”

The next stage (6 ) is the Truth (Haqiqat) . The true

nature of God is revealed to the Traveller,who now learns

the reality of that which he has been for so long seeking.

This admits him to the highest stage in his journey,as

far as this life is concerned . That stage is union withGod (Wasl).

1

There was a door to which I found no keyThere was a ve il past wh ich I could not seeS ome l ittle talk of Me and Thee

There seemed - and then no more of Thee and Me.

He cannot,in this life

, go beyond that,and very few

1 This is d efined as“ the extinction of our own existence in the exist

ence of God , as snow melts in the s ea and as motes vanish in the sun

(Tamamiu’

l- A sami, quoted b y Tholuok.)



t ion of His own glorious natu re ? Moral laws and ceremonial Observances have only an allegorical signification .

Creeds are b ut fetters cunningly devised to lim it the flightof the sou l ; all that is obj ective in religion is a restraint tothe reason of the initiated .

1

The traveller on the mystic path finds much aid fromthree things : attraction (injazab ) , devotion e levation When the grace of God enters the heart them an is attracted toward S

'

God . He should then renounceeverything which hinders his being drawn Godwards ; hemust forget all else b ut God . He is now called the at

tracted (majz rib ) . Others use further aids for development . They pass their t ime in introspection and devotion .

They are called the“ devoutly attracted ”

(maj z iib - i - salik) .A ll teachers of Siifiism should b e of this rank at least .

The third aid,

“e levation

,

”

seems to mean steady progressin the upward path. The journey to God is completedwhen all existence save that of God is denied ; then com

menees the journey in God,when all the mysteries of

nature are made plain and clear . In due time God

guideth whom He pleaseth to H is own light—the Divinelight of H is own nature . Now the progress is complete,for

“ from H im they spring and unto Him they return .

Dogmatic religion is compared by Jalalu’

d - din to water

u sed for the purposes of a mill ; after it has turned the

wheel it is of no further u se,and may now b e rej ected .

S O to the S lifi the orthodox dogmas and the outwardforms of religion carry no authority,

for he sees the realmwhere his spirit thoughts may roam

,he careers over the

boundless fie lds of ecstasy,where fancy j oins reality in

entity.

”

In interpreting the mystical poems of Hafiz and other

S Iifiistic writers, it must b e borne in mind that the point1 “ Ils pensent que la Bib le et le Coran ont été seulement écrits pour

l ’homme qui se contente d e l’

apparenc e d es choses, qu i s

’

oc cupe d e

l’

extérieur, pour le zahir parast, comme ils le nomment, et non pour le

sofi qui sond e le fond d es choses .

”

(La Poés ie Philosophique et Religieusechez les Persans, par M . Garcin d e Tassy , p.

THE WEA KNES S OF suFi I SM 1 1 7

of view from which they discuss their views is generallythe second stage in which the Traveller is supposedto have attained to the “ love of God .

”

Pantheis tic in creed,and too often antinomian in prac

t ic e, S Iifiism possesses no regenerative power in Islam .

“ I t is not a substantive re ligion such as shapes the life of

races or of nations ; it is a state of opinion .

”No Muslim

S tate makes a national profession of S iifiism . The generalresult has worked for evil in Islam . The divorce betweenthe religiou s life and the worldly life has been disastrous.

S iifiism has separated between those who by renouncingthe world profess to know God

,and those whom it terms

the ignorant herd , who may nevertheless have been strivingto do their duty in their daily lives and avocations . Whenman’s apparent individuality is looked upon as a delusiono f the perceptive faculty

,there seems no room left for will

or conscience . Profligate persons may become darwishesand cover a licentious life by pious phrases ; emancipatedfrom ritual order and law

,they seem free also from moral

restraints . Thu s,to u se the words of Major Osborn

,

“ A

movement animated at its outset by a high and loftypurpose has degenerated into a fruitfu l source of ill . The

stream which ought to have expanded into a fertilisingr iver has become a vast swamp

,exhaling vapours charged

with disease and death .

”

In spite of all its dogmatic utterances,in spite of much

that is sublime in its“idea of the search after light and

truth, Sufiism ends in utter negation of all separate exist

ence .

1The pantheism of the Srifis, this esoteric doctrine of

Islam,as a moral doctrine leads to the same conclu sions as

materialism,the negation of human liberty

,the indifference

to actions,and the legitimacy of all temporal enjoyments .

”

1 “The Muhammadan mystics conce ive of an union o f essence ; b ut

they associate it w ith th e ann ih ilat ion of personal consciousness , so thatthe ind ivid ual is lost

,like a d rop in the ocean of D eity. A ccord ing to

the Christian view , consciousness , so far from b eing annih ilated in the

union w ith God , is , on the contrary, only thus perfected in its own pecu

liarity .

”

(Olshausen . )


This is plainly stated by Jalalu ’

d - din,who says that the

registers of good and b ad deeds are not to b e exam ined inthe case of holy men .

1

The resu lt of Sufiism has been the establishment of a

large number of religious orders known as Darwishes .

These men are looked upon w ith disfavour by the orthodox

,b ut they flourish neverthe less

,and in Turkey at the

present day have great influence . There are in ConstantinOple two hundred Takyahs or monasteries. Each orderof Darwishes has its own Special mysteries and practices

,

by which its members think they can obtain a knowledgeof the secrets of the invisible world . They are also calledFaqirs— poor m en

,not

,however

,always in the sense of

being in temporal want,b ut as being poor in the sight

of God . A s a matter of fact,the Darwishes of many of

the orders do not b eg,and many of the Takyahs are richly

endowed . They are divided into two great classes, the BaShara

‘

(with the Law) Darwishes,

and the Be Shara‘

(without the Law) . The former profess to rule their con

duct according to the law of Islam,and are called the

Salik, travellers on the path (tariqat) to heaven ; the latter ,though they call themselves Mu sl ims

,do not conform to

the law,and are called Azad (free), or Maj z iib (abstracted) ,

a term which signifies their renunciation of all worldlycares and pursu its . The latter do not even pay attentionto the namaz or other Observances of Islam . What littlehope there is of these professedly religious men workingany re form in Islam will b e seen from the following accountof their doctrines.

2

I . God only exists,—He is in all things, and all things

are in H im . Verily we are from God,and to Him shall we

return. (S . 11 .

1 The registers re ferred to are the“ Book of A ctions , to b e placed in

the hand s of all at the judgment - day. If placed in the right hand , theman is saved ; if in the left, he is lost ; b ut accord ing to the teach ing of

the Safis no inquiry is mad e into_the cond uct of saints .

2 La Poésie Philosoph ique et Religieuse chez lez Persans , per M. Garcind e Tassy, p . 7 .



out sleep,and repeated innumerable times the S iiratu

’

l

Ikhlas

Say He is God alone,God the eternalHe b egetteth not

,and He is not b egotten

A nd there is none like unto H im .

’

(S . exu . )

Whosoever repeats this Sarah one hundred times can

accomplish all his vows . I desired that the Shaikh shouldbestow on me his love . No sooner had I finished my taskthan the heart of the Shaikh became full of sympathy forme . On the following night I was conducted to his

presence . D uring the whole of that night he concentratedhis thoughts on me

,whilst I gave myself up to inward

meditation . Three nights passed in this way. On the

fourth night the Shaikh said,

‘ Let Mu lla S enghim and

Salih Beg,who are v ery susceptible to ecstatic emotions

,

apply their spiritual energies to Tawakku l Beg.

’

They did so,whilst I passed the whole night in medita

t ion,with my face turned toward Mecca. A s the morning

drew near,a little light came into my m ind , b ut I could

not distinguish form or colour. A fter the morning prayersI was taken to the Shaikh

,who bade me Inform him of

mymental state . I replied that I had seen a light with myinward eye . On hearing this , the Shaikh became animatedand said

,

‘ Thy heart is dark , b ut the time is come when

I will show myself clearly to thee.

’

He then ordered me

to sit down in front of him,and to impress his features on

my mind . Then,having blindfolded me

,he ordered me to

concentrate all my thoughts upon him . I did so,and in

an instant,by the Spiritual help of the Shaikh,

my heart

opened . He asked me w hat I saw. I said that I saw

another Tawakku l B eg and another Mulla Shah . The

bandage was then removed,and I saw the Shaikh in front

of me . A gain they covered my face , and again I saw him

with my inward eye . A stonished,I cried

, O master !

whether I look with my bodily eye or with my spiritualsight, it is always you I see .

’ I then saw a dazzling

THE I'

NITIA TION OF A’

NOVIOE 1 2 1

figure approach me . The S haikh told me to say to the

apparition,

‘What is your name ?’

In my spirit I putthe question , and the figure answered to my heart,

‘ I am‘A bdu’l - Qadir Jilanf ; I have already aided thee ; thy heartis opened .

’ Much affected , I vowed that in honour of the

saint I would repeat the whole Quran every Friday night .“ Mulla Shah then said ‘ The spiritual world has been

shown to thee in all its beauty .

’ I then rendered perfectobedience to the Shaikh . The following day I saw the

Prophet,the chief Companions

,and legions of saints and

angels . A fter three months,I entered the cheerless region

in which the figures appeared no more. During the wholeof this time , the Shaikh continued to explain to me the

mystery of the doctrine of the Un ity and of the knowledge of God ; b ut as yet he did not show me the absolutereality. It was not until a year had passed that I arrivedat the true conception of unity. Then in words such as

these I told the Shaikh of my inspiration :‘ I look upon

the body as only dust and water ; I regard neither my

heart nor my sou l ; alas ! that in separation from Thee

(God) so much of my l ife has passed . Thou wert I and

I knew it not .

’

The Shaikh was delighted, and said thatthe truth of the union with God was now clearly revealedto me . Then addressing those that were present

,he said ,

Tawakku l Beg learnt from me the doctrine of the Unity ;his inward eye has been opened

,the spheres of colours

and of images have been shown to him . A t length he

entered the colourless region . He has now attained to

the Unity,doubt and scepticism henceforth have no power

over him . No one sees the Unity w ith the outward eye

till the inward eye gains strength and power.

’ 1

1 The following interest ing note has b een given to me b y Dr. R. W.

Felkin, late of the S oudan . H e says :“ This account of the init iat ion of Tawakkul B eg is of consid erab le

interest , and quite accurately d escrib es many of the init iat ions wh ichoccur in Ind ia , in Egypt , and prob ab ly in Thib et and Ch ina too . I t

rem ind s one also to some extent of the initiations which took place inPeru and Yucatan,

and poss ib ly the old Druid ic initiations followed


The Rev . Dr . Imadu’

d - din in his au tobiography hasdescribed how

,in his search after truth

,which finally led

him to embrace Christian ity,he passed through a Somewhat

s imilar stage . He says , “ I u sed to shut my eyes and sit

in retirement,seeking, by thinking on the name of God

,to

write it on my heart. I constantly sat on the graves of

holy men,in hopes that by contemplation I might receive

some revelation from the tombs. I went and sat in the

assemblies of the e lders,and hoped to receive grace by

gazing on the face of the Sufis. I used to take my

petitions w ith joy to the shrine of Kalandar BO ‘A li,and

to the threshold of the saint Nizamu ’d - d in . I sought for

union with God from travellers and from faqirs,and even

from the insane , according to the tenets of the S iifi mystics .

”

He then describes how his D irector gave him a mysticalbook which contained the sum o f everlasting happiness

,

and how he followed the instructions given . He sat on

one knee by the side of a flowing stream for twe lve daysin perfect solitude

,fasting and repeating a certain form of

devotion thirty times a day. He wrote the name of God

thousands Of times on paper,wrapped each piece on which

the name was written in a small bal l of flour,and fed the

fishes of the river w ith them . Half of each night he sat

up and meditated on the name of God , and saw Him withthe eye of thought.

”

But all this left him agitated and

restless for some years,until

,having turned towards the

Christian religion,he was able to say,

“ S ince my entrance

sim ilar l ines. There can,I th ink , he no d oub t that hypnotism and auto

hypnot ism form the b as is on wh ich many init iat ions rest,and d oub tless

the Yoga practice in Ind ia is at first , at any rate,noth ing b ut ind uced or

auto - hypnotism . From what w e know of hypnot ism in its most mod e rn

d evelopment , there can ,I th ink , b e little d oub t that , apart from the rare

cases of natural clairvoyance , trained clairvoyance is certainly a fact . In

the hypnotic sleep , whether induced or’

self - ind uced,apparitions are far

from infrequent , and to mymind explain the apparition wh ich TawakkulB eg saw . In th is case it is rather curiou s to notice that a voice was notheard ,

b ut the figure seem s to have answered inaud ib ly to the querent .

In many other cases th is is not so ,and the novice really hears or is

conscious of d irect spoken word s.

”



Khayyam also compiled the astronomical tables calledZ ij - i - Malikshahi

,and wrote a treatise on A lgebra. The

S ultan Malik Shah esteemed him highly for his scientificattainments and “

showered favours upon him .

”

S till ,neither his attainments in this direction

, great for the

age in which he lived,nor the many marks of favour the

S ultan showed to him,could make ‘Umr Khayyam a

popular man. The reason of this will b e seen as we

consider in some detail the poem with which his name

will b e,so long as Persian literature shall last

,indissolubly

connected . I t is not as a man of science,b ut as a poet

that his name has come down with fame to posterity .

In the whole range of Pers ian literature there are few

books more attractive,though none more sad

,than the

Ruba‘iyat of‘

Umr Khayyam .

1The scathing sarcasm

,the

wit and the vigour of the expressions,the possible esoteric

teaching of many verses , the utter despair and despondencywhich runs through the whole

,render this short poem

unique of its kind . It possesses a special interest for all

students of human thought and life,for it shows how a

man,learned in his day, found no abiding consolation in

scientific researches,no rest in the pantheism of the Srifi ,

no satisfaction in the sterner creed of his orthodox Muslimfriends

,and no peace whatever in a cynical rej ection of

religious belief. He was a bold brave man,and gave free

u tterance to his thoughts. It is said that the Sufis hatedhim

,b ut later poets have u sed his figures of speech in a

mystical sense,and some have claimed him as a S li fi. This

he is not . The scorn for external rights shown by theS ti ff is one way of declaring his belief that all existence1 s illusion

,b ut he has no intention of destroying all re

ligious feeling. The amorous language of the mystic is

1 The term Rub a‘i is used for a quatrain in which the first

,second , and

fourth lines always rhyme, and sometimes the th ird as w ell. Ruba‘iyat

means a collect ion of such quatrains in one poem . No ed ition, so far

as I know ,contains more than

“ two hund red and fifty- three verses .

”

Khayyam is the Takhallus, or nom d e plume of the poet, and literallymeans

“tent -maker.

THE RUBA ‘IYAT OF

‘UMR KHA YYAM 1 2 5

meant to b e devout. ‘Umr Khayyam at times uses S ritilanguage , b ut only to Show his contempt for orthodoxyand his own epicurean tastes. The Sfifi does believesomething ;

‘Umr Khayyam believed nothing and was a

saddened man . This is the great lesson the Ruba‘iyatteaches u s . Unbelief in the twelfth

,as in the nineteenth

century , could give no peace , no settled calm to the rest

less soul of an earnest,thoughtful man . In order to

appreciate the beauty of the Ruba‘iyat, we must rememberthat the author was a man utterly wearied with the re

ligious conflicts of his day and the hollowness of manyprofessors of religion,

a man who turned from all in blankdespair, and who

,finding no Gospel to direct him to the

Light of the World,fel l into utter darkness. It may b e

the lot of many thoughtful men to pass through the earlierstages of

‘

Umr’

s mental career, yet none need follow him

into the gloom of despair,for now

,far and wide

,the good

news of the kingdom of God has reached,and life and im

mortality are brought to light .

Let u s now turn to the poem. There is no definiteorder or arrangement in it

,and ‘Umr

’

s views must b e

gathered here and there .

‘

Umr is looked upon as a Siifiby some ,

as a mere Epicurean by others,who speak of his

views as“ Rindana Maz hab .

”I t is the latter w ith whom

we agree , although we think that he only came to b e thiswhen he failed to satisfy the cravings of his nature for

higher truth . However, we may first notice some of the

verses on which Safis base their claim to him .

Once and again my sou l d id me imploreTo teach her

,if I m ight, the inspired lore

I b ade her learn the A lif well by heartWho knows that letter wel l need learn no more .

The letter A lif, the first letter of the alphabet,is u sed

in the numerical notation called A bjad to represent the

number one,and so

“to know the A lif ”

is a figurative

expression meaning to know God as the One , the sole


existent Being . I t is‘

a common expression amongst Sufipoets . Thus Hafiz says

My Loved one’s A lif form stamps all my thought,

S ave that, what letter has mymaster taught

That is,he who knows the God as One knows all— he

needs no other teaching“The search for that single A lif

’

was a great Spur to

inqu iry . It struck the imagination as a kind of v istawhich narrowed

,the further one advanced

,by the progres

sive elim ination of all unimportant accidents from the vastand complex phenomenon which had to b e investigated ,until at the far end the inquirer was brought to the philoS opher ’

s stone,the single A lif , the narrow portal which

gave admission to the temple of universal knowledge.

”

A belief in the Unity is supposed to cover a multitudeof sins

Khayyam strings not the fair pearls of good deeds,Nor sweeps from Off his sou l sin’

s noisome weeds

Nevertheless he humb ly hopes for grace ,S eeing that One as two he ne

’

er misreads.

”

I t is possible that ‘Umr Khayyam is here speaking satirically. A nyhow

,it is good Siifi doctrine . The doctrine of

the Tauhid is the central dogma of Islam . In ordinarylanguage it means

“there is no god b ut God ,

”

b ut in the

mystical language of the Sufis it means there is no Being- no real existence— b ut God .

”Everything e lse b ut God

is phenomenal and non - existent. Thus “ One as two he

ne’

er m isreads,means that he looks on all e lse b ut God

as illusion .

The final goal of all S ri fi aspiration 1s absorption in the

D ivine and this ‘Umr seems to teach in

O S ou l when on the Loved one’s sweets to feed

You lose your self , yet find your S elf indeedA nd when you drink Of His entrancing cup,

You hasten your escape from quick and d ead .

”

To d ie to self,to liv e eternally in God

,is the mystic

doctrine round which the Stiff system professedly gathers,



Thus far ‘

Umr is Sii fiistic , b ut yet he i s not a Sti ff.There is a certain calm in the life of the Siifi to which‘

Umr never attains . He is full of despair , in spite of the

rollicking mood in which many verses are written . Life

is not worth having,not worth l iving.

I never wou ld have come,had I b een asked

I wou ld as lief not go, if I were askedA nd

,to b e short, I wou ld annih i late

A ll coming, b eing, going, were I asked .

‘

Umr was,in reality

,a fatalist. His training as a youth

in the orthodox school under Imam Muaffik would natu

rally produce this result . Neither his scientific studies,nor

the lighter ones of literature,seem to have led him to a

brighter view of the universe.

The tab let ’ all our fortune doth contain,

Writ by the pen that heeds not b l iss nor b ane’

Twas writ at first whatever was to b e,

To grieve or strive is lab our all in vain.

We are b ut chessmen,who to move are fain

Just as the great Chess-

player doth ordainHe moves us on life’s chess - b oard too and fro

,

A nd then in Death ’s b ox shuts us up again .

” 1

S o he gives it all up. I t is u seless to contend against irre

sistib le decrees. It is useless to grieve over it, so

O heart this world is b u t a fleeting show,

Why let its emptygriefs d istress thee so ?

Bear up and face thy fate the eternal penWi l l not unwrite his roll for thee, I trow.

O S ou l,so soon to leave this soi l b elow

,

A nd pass the d read mysterious curtain through,Be of good cheer, and joyyou while you may,

You wot not whence you come,nor whither go.

”

The resu lt is that all sense of personal responsibility toa Personal God is lost. Good and evil are matters of in

1 Most of these verses are from the Rub a‘iyat of ‘Umr Khayyam , and

are taken,w ith perm iss ion,

from an excellent translation b y Whinfield(Trub ner

’

s Oriental S eries ).

THE RUBA ‘

IYAT OF‘

UMR KHA YYAM 1 2 9

difference to the fatalist. The restraint of a moral law istaken away. The man simply follows his own desires, and

casts the blame of the result on God .

Khayyam,whyweep you that your life is b ad

What b oots it thus to mou rn ? Rather b e glad

He that sins not,no title makes to grace

S in entails grace , then prithee why so sad ?

A recent Muslim commentator on the Ruba‘iyat explainsthis last l ine by quoting, as a well - known saying, the wordsMustahiq

- i - karamat gunahgaran and “ S inners are thosewho have a right to favour.

”

To eat,drink

,and b e merry is ‘

Umr’

s real creed . A ny

aspirations he may at one time have had after higher and

better things are destroyed . The constant teaching of the

Ruba‘iyat is— indulge the senses and let the future go, or,

as - fUmr puts it,

“nor cash in hand for promised credit

sell . A revel with boon companions is the true j oy

We make the wine jar’s lip our place of prayer ,A nd d rink in lessons of true manhood there

,

A nd pass our lives in taverns, if perchanceThe time m is- spent in mosques we may repair.

In Parad ise are Houris,as you know ,

A nd fountains that w ith w ine and honey flowIf these b e lawfu l in the world ab ove

,

What harm to love the like d own here b elow

Come fill the cup, and in the fire of SpringYour w inter garment of repentance fl ingThe b ird of Time has b ut a l ittle way

To flutter—and the Bird is on the wing.

To those who held out future j oys in Paradise for orthodoxbelief and right conduct here , the answer is ready to theeffect that cash payments are better than credit accounts

They preach how sweet these Houri b rides w i l l b e,

But look you , so is w ine sweet, taste and seeHold fast th is cash , and let the cred it b e,A nd shun the d in of empty drums with me.


No one can accuse ‘

Umr Khayyam of not having the

courage of his Opinions. In his position he could say and

do what men of lesser note could not. Mu lla and Pir,

Philosopher and Saint , all have to bear his bitter sarcasm .

He calls upon them to leave the ir dogmas, vigils, and

researches,and to join with hIm In the enjoyment of an

animal existence . To the Philosopher he says

S laves of vain wisdom and phi losophy,Who toi l at Be ing and Nonentity,

Parching your b rains l ike dry and Shrivel led grapes,Be wise in time

,and drink grape - juice like me l

”

To the Safi he says“ The joyous souls who quaff potations d eep,A nd S aints whom the mosque sad vigi ls keep,A re lost at sea al ike

,and find no shore

One onlywakes, all others are asleep.

”

To the Mulla,for whom he has no mercy

,he says

Mu l la give heed , if thou true Muslim b e,

Qu it saintly Show and feigned austerity,

A nd quaff the wine that b lessed ‘A li pours,A nd Sport with Houris

’neath this shady tree.

A Mu l laspied a harlot,and quoth he

,

You seem a slave to drink and lechery.

’

A nd she made answer,What I seem I am ,

But,Mul la

,are you all you seem to b e ?

There is a verse in the Quran which says,

“ Kill them

(your foes) wherever ye shall find them (S . xii . I 8 ‘

Umr

makes a curious use of this verse,and by it refutes and c on

founds the Mullas who objected to his use of wine.

From right and left grave Mu l las came and stood,

S aying, Renounce this w ine,th is foe of good

But if w ine b e my foe , as they declare,I swear b y A l lah I must drink his b lood .

The Mullas held out hopes to all the faithful of Hourisin Paradise .

‘

Umr,on his principle of ready cash

,

” cannotsee that what is morally right there can b e morally wronghere . The satire is perfect in


1 32 THE FA ITH OF‘

ISLAM

Whate’er thou doest,never grieve thy b rother,

Nor raise a fume of wrath his peace to smother.

Dost thou d esire to taste eternal b l iss ?Vex thine own heart

,b ut never v ex another.

It is qu ite natural that he should show a spirit of tolera

t ion,b ut this is merely the result of indifferentism, which

looked upon all system s of religion as equally true and

equally false .

Pagodas are, l ike mosques,true homes of prayer

’Tis prayer that church - b el ls waft upon the airKa‘b ah and temple, rosary and cross,

A ll are b ut d ivers tong ues of world - wide prayer.

Hearts with the l ight of love i l lum ined wel l ,Whether in mosque or synagogue they dwell,Have their names written in the b ook of love

,

Unvexed b y hopes of heaven or fears of hel l .”

S till,in spite of an occasional glimpse of a better nature

,

of more hopeful qual ities, the student of the Ruba‘iyat willcome to see that ‘Umr Khayyam was a saddened man

,that

he had no hope in the future or in God . What bitterwords are these with which the poem concludes

Khayyam of b urning heart, perchance to b urnIn hel l

,and feed its b alefires in thy turn ,

Presume not to teach A l lah clemency,

For who art thou to teach,or He to learn ?”

I s it any wonder that,in spite of his better nature

,he

should become cold and heartless,that he shou ld b e

callous and careless

Quoth fish to duck ”l’

would b e a sad affair

S hou ld this b rook ever leav e his channe l b are .

’

To whom the duck When I am dead and roasted,

The ocean may run dry for aught I care.

’

‘Umr Khayyam has with j ustice been compared to

Lucretius. Both were materialists , both believed not in a

future life . Lucretius built a system for himself in his

poem it has a professed practical aim— to explainthe world

’

s self- acting machine to the polytheist,and to

THE BABIS 1 33

disabuse him of all spiritual ideas ‘

Umar'

Khayyam

bu ilds up no system,he only shows forth his ow

‘

n doubtsand difficulties ;

“ he loves to balance antitheses of belief,

and settle him self in the equipoise of the sceptic .

”

The fact that there is no hereafter gives Lucretius nopain

,b ut ‘Umr

,who

,if only his reason could let him

,would

believe , records his u tter despair in words of p assionatebitterness . He is not glad that there Is no help anywhere.

1

A nd though he calls for the wine - cup, and listens to the

voice within the tavern cry

“ A wake,my little ones, and fill the cup

Before Life’s liquor in its cup b e dry,

yet he also looks back to the t ime when he consorted withthose who professed to know ,

and could say

“W ith them the seed of wisdom d id I sow,

A nd with my own hand lab oured it to grow.

The modern sect of the Babis is closely connected withthe teaching of the Shi‘ahs on the Imam

,his position and

functions,and with the mystical modes of thought of the

Sufis . I t is not strictly correct to call them a Muslim sect ,for they practically discard the Quran and supersede Mu

hammad . But the close connection of Bab iism with Muham

madan dogmas,its present - day importance and the devotion

of its followers claim for it more than a passing notice. Nonon - Christian sect in modern days has suffered such perse

1 “ That ‘Umr in his impiety was false to his b etter nature we may

read ily adm it,wh ile , at the ,

same t ime,we may find some excuse for his

errors if we rememb er the state of the world at that t ime . H is clearstrong sense revolted from the prevailing mystic ism where all the earnest

sp irits of his age found their refuge , and his honest ind epend ence wasequally shocked b y the hypocrites who aped the ir fervour and enthusiasmand at that d ark hour of man

’

s h istory,wh ither

,out of Islam ,

was the

though tful Muhammadan to repair ? No m issionary’s step, b ringing goodt id ings , had appeared on the mountains of Persia the few Christ ians whom ight cross h is path in his nat ive land would only seem to him id olaters .

”

Speaking, too , of S a ‘d i ’s life t he reviewer says “ A lmost the only point ofcontact w ith Christend om is his slavery und er the Crusad ers at Tripoli .The same isolation runs through all the gold en period of Pers ian literat ure.

”

(Calcu tta Rev iew, No. LI ! . )


cution and survived . The movement is one which illustratesthe mystical tendency of Persian thought, the fanaticism of

the Mullas, and the barbarity of the rulers ; b ut all the

efforts of the Mu slim Church and S tate have hitherto failedto suppress Babiism

,or to lessen the veneration in which

the Bab is held by all who accept his teaching.

A b ‘l- Qasim (A l- Mahdi) , the twelfth Imam,disappeared

in the year 329 A .H .

,b ut for a period of sixty - nine years

he is said to have held intercourse with his followers througha successive number of men

,who were called the Doors or

mediums of communication . A b ii ‘l- Hasan,the last of these

D oors,refused to appoint a successor

,saying that God hath

a purpose which He will accomplish.

” Many centuriespassed by, and it was not until the beginning of the presentone that this curious theory of intermediaries between the

concealed Imam and the Faithful again took definite shape.

Shaikh A hmad (1 7 5 3—1 82 6 the founder of the

Shaikhi sect , was a devout ascetic and a man of independentthought . He had a profound belief in ‘A lf

,and was devoted

to the memory of the Imams,whom he looked upon as

creative forces,arguing t

from the text,

“ God the best of

creators (S . xxiii . I 4) , that, if He he the best, He cannot b ethe only one . The special point of his teaching was thatGod is immanent in the universe which proceeds from H im ,

and that all the elect of God , all the Imams,and all just

persons are personifications of the divine attributes .

” 1

Shaikh A hmad was succeeded by a man who soon com

manded much respect and influence. H is name was Haj i

Syed Kazim . He died in the year I S43 A .D .,and left no

successor . A fter fastings, vigils, and prayers for guidance ,the Shaikhis b egan to consider what was to b e done in thematter of a Spiritual director. MullaHusain proceeded to

Shiraz, and there met with Mirza ‘A li Muhammad,who

produced before him the signs of his call to his divinem ission . For several days Mulla Husain pondered overthese matters, and, after a long and severe struggle, became

1 Journal A siatique, 6me S érie , tome VI I. p. 458.



from accepted Muhammadan ideas as to form a new sectaltogether .

Mirza ‘A li Muhammad,the Bab

,was born at Shiraz on

the 9 th of October 1 8 20 . When qu ite young he lost hisfather . For a time the youth assisted his uncle in mercantile pursu its

,b ut as his mind was more inclined to religious

meditation and speculative thought than to business affairs,he proceeded to Karbala, where he was brought into contactw ith Haj i Syed Kazim , the Shaikhi leader

,whose lectures

he occasionally attended. A t Karbalahe was distinguishedby his zeal for learning and by his remarkably austere life.

Visitors to Karbala, especially those from Shiraz,showed

him much consideration,and so his fame was spread abroad .

He now composed a commentary on S Iiratu’

l- Yrisuf .

The Babi historian 1says of this work

,that “ in it he

addressed him self to that person unseen,from whom he

received help and grace , sought for aid in the arrangement

of his preliminaries,and craved the sacrifice of life in the

way of love . A mongst others is this sentence : O residue'

of God,

2 I am wholly sacrificed to Thee ; I am content with

1 Maqalah- i - Shakhsi Saiyah

, p . 4.

2 The expression res idue (or remnant ) of God—B aqiyat Ullah—is a verypecul iar one . It is connected w ith a curious b elief of the S hi ‘ahs , v iz .

,

that God allowed some part or fraction of H im self in some way or other

to b e connected with the Imam . A s soon then as Mirz a ‘A li Muhammad

was raised b y his followers to the d ignity of the Bab , or as soon as the

id ea b ecame present to his own m ind,he could ad dress the Imam as the

Baqiyat Ullah , and set forth his complete d evot ion to him . H is followersthen gave him the t itles of th e servant of Baqiyat Ullah , the mystery ofBaqiyat Ullah ,

the friend of Baqiyat Ullah . Gradually as,d uring his

imprisonment,he b ecame more and more invis ib le to h is followers

,and

when he b ecame cred ited with the power o f working m iracles and more

or less a myth ical b eing; he was no longer called the servant, or

the mystery, or the friend of Baqiyat Ullah ,b ut h im self was esteemed

to b e the Baqiyat Ullah—the true Imam so long looked for. MirzaKaz imB eg says that und er the term mystery ”

th ey und erstood one who shared

the secrets of the Imam .

“ The name S irr - Ullah,Mystery of God

,was

given to‘A li

,as to one who knew the secrets of d ivine revelat ion ; and

so , in its new application, the t itle S irr - i - B aqiyat Ullah, now a name of

the Bab , would mean the one who knew all that was in the mind of the

concealed Imam ,who h imself was the remnant (or resid ue ) of God .

”

(Journal A siatigue, 1 866, vol. viii . p.

THE BAR 1 37

curses in Thy love , and God the S upreme sufficeth as an

eternal protection .

”

The Bab also wrote a commentary on other parts of the

Quran and some prayers. These writings he called“ in

Spired pages”

(asha’

if- i - ilhamiyah) and “ word of con

science (kalam - i - fitra) ; b ut he made no claim to the kindof inspiration called wahi, that is, the revelation broughtby an angel or in some mechanical way. He believed his

meditations to b e divinely inspired, b ut the inspiration wassubjective .

Thus it came to pass that on the 2 3rd of May 1 844

when he was about twenty - four years of age , Mirza‘

A lI

Muhammad more definitely formu lated his views and

announced himself as a du ly authorised teacher and guide .

He then assumed the name of the Bab . He said,

“Whosoever wishes to approach the Lord his God and to knowt he true way that leads to Him ought to do it throughme. Of this period of his career MirzaKazim Beg says“ The number of his adherents increased day by day, andwhen they demanded that he

,like the ancient prophets

,

shou ld give them a sign in proof of his mission,he relied

on this,that he could write a thousand inspired lines in

one day. By his pecu liarities and by his austere life,even

when still at Karbala,he was called the

“ Illuminated.

”

When the inhabitants of Shiraz returned from Karbalathey u sed to say,

“ Have you heard of our Syed ‘A li

Muhammad ? He is no longer as we are ; he has become

famous and has merited the name of the Chosen of God .

’

A ll people,small and great, flock around him.

”

He alsoadds that dreamers and mystics , and evil - disposed personsfrom self- interest joined him . NO doubt some did so from

mixed motives ; b ut Mr . E . G. Browne,who is now the

best European authority on this subject , seems to me to

give the fairest account. He divides the Bab’s first ad

herents into several classes . Firstly,rigorous and pious

Muhammadans, .who really believed that the signs of the

twelfth Imam were fulfilled in him ; secondly,all those who


desired reform in Persia,and thought that Babiism would

conduce to that end ; thirdly, the mystics, who consideredBabiism to b e sim ilar to their own pantheistic system ;

fourthly,those who were drawn by the personal influence

and character of the Bab .

1

On his return from Karbala he was heartily welcomed.

Until then,it is said

,he looked upon himself only as one

who had made some progress in the divine way (tariqat) ,b ut he soon began to consider himself a master

,appointed

by heaven to regenerate his country.

There is some difference of opinion as to what he exactlymeant by the title of Bab which he had assumed . MirzaKazim Beg says I do not know whether he was acquaintedwith the words of Christ

,

‘ I am the door,

’

b ut he doubtlessknew that Muhammad had said ,

‘ I am the city of knowledge and ‘A li is the gate of that city .

’

A Muhammadanhistorian

,an enemy of the Bab , says that the Bab , having

gathered some Shaikhis together, said,‘ I am the

“ door "

of

God . Whosoever desires to come to God,and to know the

religion of God,cannot do so till he sees me and receives

permission from His followers have now,however

,

discarded that name,and he is known amongst the Babis

by several titles,such as His Highness, His Highness the

Point of Revelation,H is Highness the First Point. More

recently the Beha’is cal l him His Highness the Evangelist .

Gobineau ,a good authority on the subject

,says : “Mirza

Muhammad ‘A lf said that he was not the Bab in the sense

in which they (his followers) had believed and as he himselfhad thought—that is to say, the

‘ door ’

of the knowledgeof truth— b ut that he was the Point , or the originator of

truth,a divine appearance

,a powerfu l manifestation

,

”and

so goes on to show that the t itle Bab was set free,and

could henceforth reward the pious devotion of one of the

Bab ’s followers. A s a matter of fact , it was bestowed on

MullaHusain,who is sometimes called His Excellency

,the

Gate of the Gate (Haz ratu’

l Babu’l - Bab ) . Having made1 Journal of the Royal A siatic Society, 1 889 , p. 504.


1 40 THE FA ITH ‘

OF ISLAM

by a woman ; b ut the Bab supported her,applauded her

zeal,and bestowed on her the title of Janab - i - Tahira (Her

Excellency the Pure) . From that time all acknowledgedher position . She was put to death in the massacre at

Teheran which followed on the attempt to kill the Shahin

,

1 8 5 2 . Kurratu’

l- ‘A yn was the most remarkable of the

Bab’

s disciples. She was a person of marvellous beauty,

possessed of high intellectual gifts, eloquent, devoted, and

fearless . She threw her whole sou l into t he cause she

advocated,and her martyrdom sheds a halo of glory round

her short and active career .

A Babi historian says : S uch fame did she acqu ire,that

most people who were scholars or mystics sought to hearher speech , and were eager to become acquainted with herpowers of speculation and deduction . She wrested pre

eminence from stalwart men,and continued to strain the

feet of steadfastness , until she yielded up her life at the

sentence of the m ighty doctors in Teheran .

” MirzaKazimBeg,

a most sober writer,waxes eloquent over the charms

of Kurratu’

l- ‘A yn, thus' This woman had an influence

over her hearers wholly Spiritual . She knew how to inspirethem with perfect confidence. She was well educated and

very beautiful . Everything retired before her . She raisedthe veil which covered her face , not to set at nought thelaws of chastity and modesty

,so deeply graven on the

tables of the orthodox law and in popular prejudice,b ut

much rather in order to give by her look more force to theinspired words she spoke. Her speeches stigmatised that

gross tyranny which for so many centuries had imprisonedliberty. She preached not

,as some have said

,to abolish

the laws of modesty, b ut to sustain the cause of liberty.

The eloquent words which fell from her mouth captivatedthe hearts of her hearers

,who became enthusiastic in her

praise.

”

S ome of her poems breathe the spirit of S I’

I fiism and

show how deeply her mind was imbued with mystic lore .

H er romantic career,her marvellou s power

,and her tragic

DEA TH OF THE BAR 1 4 1

end will continue to give for a long t ime to com e

strength to the Babi cause and the Spirit of endurance to

its followers .

1

In the year 1 84 8 Nasiru’

d - din Shah,the late ruler

of Persia,was crowned at Teheran

,and the position of the

Bab is became most critical . The Prime Minister hatedand persecuted them . A civil war broke out

,and the

Babis suffered a great deal ; b ut no persecution,however

severe,could restrain the ardour of the Babi teachers or

the devotion of their followers . It became plain to the

authorities that the Bab him self must b e put out of the

way. He was then condemned to death .

2A young disciple ,

Aka Muhammud ‘A li , who belonged to a noble fam ily of

Tabriz,was also condemned at the same time . Great

pressure was brought on him by his relatives to inducehim to recant and thus to save his life

,b ut

”

he remainedqu ite firm

,and shared the martyrdom of his beloved master.

It is a remarkable w itness to the power which the Bab had

over his disciples,a power which could lead this youth

,w ith

so prom ising a future before him,to give up home and l ife

,

to face . death and its terrors,rather than b e separated from

the master he loved so truly .

3

1 The following sonnet on Kurratu’

l-‘A yn b rings out some characterist ic

aspects of her influenceKurratu

’

l-

‘A yn 1 not famous far b eyondHer native shore . Not many b ard s have sung

Her praises, who ,her enem ies among,

Wield ing h er b eauty as a magic wand ,S trove for the cau se of him who had proclaimed

For poor down- trod d en womanhood the right

Of freed om . Lifting high her b eacon l ightOf truth , she w ent unve iled and unashamed .

A woman,in the land where women live

A nd weep and d ie, seclud ed and unknown

,

S he b roke the b ond s of custom ,and to give

The Bab her aid , she dared the world alone,

Only to fail d eath closed the unequal strife,

A nd Pers ia b lind ly wrecked a nob le life .

”

2 A d etailed account is given in the“New H istory of the Bab

,

”

pp. 299

3 Mr. E . G. Browne has given a translation of a very touch ing letter, in


I t may b e well at this point to give a summary of the

character of the Bab,as portrayed by Mirza Kazim Beg ,

always remembering that the critic,though eminently fair

,

does not believe in the claims of the Bab .

H e had some characteristics truly great and noble,and

was a man of firm and settled convictions . H is moralcharacter was high, and he aimed in his preaching to bringall his countrymen into a community united by intellectualand moral ties. He spoke with much earnestness on the

necessity for a religious and social reform in Persia,the

cessation of religious persecution,and the amelioration of

thelot of women. I t is said that much of what he preachedon these points had an esoteric

,meaning, known only to his

disciples b ut whether that is the case or not,the veneration

they felt for him was profound,and there can b e no doubt

that the teaching of the Bab was in the direction of freedom,

and that he personally was in favour of reform . MirzaKazim Beg sums up his reflections thus : We neither con

sider him an adventurer nor a fanatic,b ut an eminently

moral man,a dreamer brought up in the school of the

Shaikhis, and possessing some touch of Christianity . We

regard him also as a man troubled by the direct influence

wh ich Aka Muhammad ‘A li replied to an affectionate appeal from his

b rother, who urged him to give up the Bab and return to his family

He is the Compassionate .

O thou who art my Qib lah l My cond it ion, thanks to God , has no

fault, and ‘ to every d ifficulty suc c eed eth ease .

’You have written that

th is matter has no end . What matter, then,

has any end ? We,at least

,

have no d iscontent in th is matter : nay, rather , we are unab le sufficientlyto express our thanks for th is favour. The end of th is matter is to b e

slain in the way of God , and 0 what happiness is this I The w ill of Godw ill come to pass w ith regard to H is servants , ne ither can human plansavert the d ivine d ecree . O thou who art my Q ib lah th e end of the worldis d eath . I f the appointed fate wh ich God hath d ecreed overtake me

,

then God is the guard ian of my family, and thou art mine executor ;b ehave in such w ise as is pleasing to God , and pard on whatever has proc eed ed from me which may seem lacking in courtesy or contrary to therespect d ue from juniors : and seek pard on for me from all those of myhousehold and comm it me to God . God is mypatron, and how good is He

as a Guard ian ! (New History‘

of the Bath , p.



The father,lying down,

said that he was ready,and the

elder boy claimed by right of birth to b e the first to havehis throat cut. A t last n ight fell on a mass of shapelessflesh

,and the dogs of the suburbs came in troops to the

place .

”

So ended one important period in the history of

the Babis.

There has been since then no formal outbreak of Babirevenge, nor has there been any persecution like it . Eventhis altogether failed of its purpose

,for it gave to the

movement a vigour and vitality which otherwise it mighthave lacked . It is said that half a million Persians are

Babis , b ut the Hon. G. Curzon considers the total to b enearer one million . He says : “ They are to b e found inevery walk of life , from the ministers and nobles of the

court to the scavenger or the groom ,not the least arena

of their activity being the Musalman priesthood itself. It

will have been noticed that the movement was initiated bySyed s, Hajis, and Mullas .

” Whilst it is true that there hasbeen no persecution so terrible as the one in 1 8 5 2 , yet

now and again the hostility of the ‘Ulama shows itself.In 1 8 7 8 , 1 888 , and in 1 8 89 Babis were put to death .

The heroism and the devotion of the Babis is somethingvery wonderful . It is said that there is only one instanceof a Babi having recanted under pressure

,and he returned

again to his faith,and was afterwards put to death for his

renewed devotion to the Bab .

A fter the death of the Bab , the chief interest in the

movement circles round MirzaYahya and his half- brotherBeha

’

ullah, who became the respective leaders of the two

sects into which the Babis are now divided— the Ez elis

and the Beha’

is . There seems no doubt that the Bab inthe year 1 849 nominated the former

,

1whom he named

Subh- i - Eze l (Morning of Eternity) , as his successor,and

that for a short time he really held an undisputed positionas head of the Babi Church .

1 A copy of the original letter of nomination is given in the“New H istory

of th e Bab ,”

p. 426.

SUBH - I - EZEL A ND BEHA 1 4 5

In 1 8 5 2 ,when the attempt on the life of the Shah was

made,the Babis were bitterly persecuted , and Subh- i - Ezel

retired to Baghdad , which then became the headquarters

of the sect,and was for many years recognised , at least

nominally,

as its head . Mirza Husain ‘A li Beha’

ullah,

who was Subh- i - Ezel’s senior by thirteen years,and had

ju st been released from imprisonment , j oined him in 1 8 5 3 .

The Persian Governm ent,at length, obj ected to their resi

dence there,and prevailed on the Turkish authorities in

1 8 6 3—64 to deport them to Constantinople

,from whence a

few m onths later on they were sent to A drianople. Subh- i

Ezel led a very secluded life ,and the correspondence and

other matters were carried on by Beha,who acted for him .

The influence of Beha then grew ,and at last he began to

advance claims which afterwards,in the years 1 86 6—6 7 ,

culminated in the assertion that he was the person to whomthe Bab referred as H im whom God shall manifest.

”To

this claim the Ez elis replied that before the person of

whose advent the Bab had spoken cou ld com e,Babiism

mu st obtain general currency, and the laws laid down bythe Bab in his books must b e accepted by most of the

nations in the world . The Beha’

is,who adm itted that

S ubh- i—Ezel was the first vicegerent of the Bab,to all the

obj ections alleged replied that his r ule was only to lastuntil the manifestation of the new leader

,who was to come

suddenly,and the time of whose advent was known only

to God . They also u sed an argument well known amongst

Muhammadans,an argument based on the literary style of

the books given by means of a divinely appointed m es

senger, and u rged that the Lauh- i - Nasir,in which Beha

announced his m ission,fu lfilled this condition of a divine

revelation by its eloquence of diction and the wonderfulknowledge, unacqu ired by study , displayed by the writer .

A nyhow,the conflic ting claim s to the leadership led to

quarrels and blows . The Turkish Government then determ ined to separate the disputants . Behaand his followerswere sent to A cre

,and Mirza Yahya and his people were

K


exiled to Famagusta in Cyprus. S ince then the followers

of Beha have increased very much,while those of Subh- i

Ezel,or Yahya, have decreased . This is an unlocked - for

d evelopment of the work of the Bab , for Beha c laims to

b e the messenger of a new dispensation altogether .

The question at issue now became something more thana mere struggle for leadership , for Beba

’s claim v irtually

d eposed the Bab from his position as the “ Point of

Revelation ”

and made him the mere forerunner of “ Him

whom God shall manifest.” The Ez elis are , however , nearly

extinct , and it is not likely that they will ever attain to

power again. A ssuming that Beha had right on his side,

it is stated that the changes he made were in a practicald irection and beneficial .The Babi doctrines are to b e found in the writings of

the Bab called the Beyan,a name sometimes apparently

applied to them collectively , b ut more generally to a par

ticular book . Many of the dogmas are very mystical,b ut

the following is a brief summary .

God is eternal and unapproachable . A ll things comefrom H im and exist by Him . Man cannot approach Himexcept through some appointed medium . So

,distinct from

God there is a Primal Will 1 who becomes incarnate in the

1 There is an evident connect ion b etween this d ogma of the Brib is and

the Si’

I fi system , in wh ich the First Intelligence”or Primal E lement is

represented as a manifestation of God . To the Sii fi , as to the Bab i , Godis “

sterile in H is inaccessib le height . Men can never b e more than

s laves, nearness to H im is imposs ib le . B ut men longed for communionw ith some one or something ab ove them. They felt the need of some

intermed iary,and found it in a revival of the old Gnost ic notions of the

JEons , form s of manifestat ion of the Ineffab le and Incomprehensib le .

Neand er thus d escrib es the Gnostic view :“ S elf- lim itat ion is the first

b eginning of a communicat ion of life from God—the first passing of the

h id d en d e ity into manifestat ion and from th is proceed s all further selfd eveloping manifestation of the d ivine essence. Now ,

from this primallink in the chain of life there are evolved , in the first place , the manifoldpowers or attrib utes inherent in the d ivine essence , wh ich ,

until that firs tself - comprehension, w ere all h id d en in th is ab yss of H is essence.

” Thisintermed iary is the Primal Will of the Bab i and the Primal Element of

the Safi, who also calls it b y the names of the Pen,the First Principle ,

the spirit of Muhammad, Universal Reason (‘aql- i - kull ). God ’

s voice is



Each dispensat ion of the Primal Will thus become incarnatesupersedes a preceding one

,and so Islam has ceased to b e

the true religion for this age .

“ S ince it is impossible forcreated beings to know the D ivine Essence , the Primal Willhas

,for their guidance and instruction

,incarnated itself from

t ime to t ime in a human form . These incarnations are

known as Prophets .

’ That which spoke in all the Prophetsof the past now Speaks in the Bab

,and will speak through

‘ H im whom God shall manifest ,’

and after him throughothers

,for there is no cessation in these manifestations .

“ That which spoke in A dam,Noah

,Moses

,David

,Jesus

,

and Muhammad was the one and the same Primal Will .In each manifestation news has been given of the followingone . Thus the Jews were told to expect a Messiah

,b ut

they rej ected him ; the Christians to expect Muhammad,

b ut,as a rule

,they did not accept him ; so the Muham

madans are taught to look out for Imam Mahdi . Yet now

he has come in the Bab ) they persecute him .

” 1

A nother point on which the Beyan lays much stress isthat no revelation is final . This is entirely Opposed to theordinary Muhammadan view

,which is that

,as Muhammad

was the seal of the Prophets (Khatamu’

l - anb iya) , hisrevelation closed the series . The Bab taught that, as the

human race progresses, the Primal Will, the teacher of

men,speaks In each new revelation more fu lly and more

clearly. A ll these successive and progressive revelationsand dispensations are simply to prepare the world for the

fu ller teaching of Him whom God shall manifest .

“ A new prophet is not sent until the development of

the human race renders this necessary . A revelation is

not abrogated till it no longer suffices for the needs of

mankind . There is no disagreement between the prophetsall teach the same truth, b ut in such measure as men can

rece ive it. A s mankind advance and progress they needfuller instruction . The instruction given by A braham was

su itable and suffic ient for the people of his day, b ut not

1 Journal of the Royal A siatic S ociety, vol. xxi . p . 9 14.

BABI THEOLOGY 1 49

for those to whom Moses was sent,while this in turn had

ceased to meet the needs of those to whom Christ was sent .

Yet we mu st not say that their rel igions were opposed toone another

,b ut rather that each man ifestation is more

c omplete and more perfect than the last .

” 1

The great point in the Babi theology is that the teacheris one and the same

,though he man ifests himself according

to the capacity and needs of those to whom he is sent .

The outward form changes b ut the Universal S pirit remains .

2

It then follows that now,during the long intervals which

separate one prOphetic dispensation from the next,there

mu st b e in the world some silent manifestation of the

S pirit not less perfect than that in prophets .

The Beyan speaks w ith confidenc e of the future successof Babiism,

the government of which is to b e tolerant .

The Muhammadan doctrines of the exam ination in the

grave , the resurrection,S irat

,heaven and hell

,are all treated

allegorically . The views of the Bab on a future state are

not very clear . In any case , the hope of a future rewardwas not placed before his followers as an inducement

‘

to

follow him . This is in direct contrast to the practice and

teaching of Muhammad . In the Beyan the Bab wrote thefollowing striking words : “ S o worship God that , if the

recompense of thy worship o f Him were to b e the fire,

no alteration in thy worship of Him would b e produced .

If you worship from fear,that is unworthy of the threshold

of the holiness of God,nor will you b e accounted a b e

liever ; so also,if your gaze is on Paradise

,and if you

worship in hope of that ; for then you have made God ’screation a partner with H im .

”

By a very large number of Babis,Behawas during the

latter part of his life 3 looked up to as a d ivinely appointed

gu ide . Before he assumed that position he wrote a book

1 A Year amongst the Persians , b y E . G . Browne , p . 1 03.

2 For a good account of primit ive Bab i d octrines see“New H istory of

the Bab,

”

pp . 327—338. This is a most valuab le work.

3 He d ied in exile on May 1 6, 1 892 .

1 50 TH E FA ITH OF ISLAM

called the Iketn,which is held in great esteem . In this

book he seems to acknowledge the then superior positionof Subh- i - Ezel

,b ut writes bitterly of some who were hostile

to himself. Two years after the Turks had banished himto A drianople he boldly asserted his claim and called on all

the Ez elis to submit to his direction. He then wrote othert reatises in which his position is dogmatically set forth.

A few extracts 1 from some of Beba’s writings will showto som e extent what he taught his followers . A s for

those who comm it sin and cling to the world , they assuredlyare not of the people of Beha.

” With perfect compassionand mercy have we guided and directed the people of the

world to that whereby the ir sou ls shall b e profited . I.

swear by the sun of truth that the people of Behahave not

any aim save the prosperity and reformation of the worldand the pu rifying of the nations .

” “ The heart mu st b e

sanctified from every form of selfishness and lust,for the

weapons of the worshippers o f the Unity and the saintswere and are the fear of God .

”

Every one who desirethvictory ’

must first subdue the city of his own heart withthe sword of spiritual truth and of the word .

”

A good many changes in religious ceremonies are made .

Prayer is said three times a day instead of five,and the

worshippers no longer turn towards Mecca. The fast of

Ramazan is discarded,and the last month of the Babi year

is substituted for it . The traffic in S laves is forbidden .

Shaving the head is not allowed,b ut the beard may b e cut

off. Legal impurity is abolished and intercourse withpersons of all religions is enjoined . Music is permitted

,

w ine and opium are prohibited. The furniture of housesshould b e renewed every nineteen years . It is recom

mended that chairs should b e used . No one must carryarms except in times of tumult or war . A ll are to readthe sacred books regu larly , to b e kind and courteous in

their conduct,to approve for others what they would l ike

1 “ A Traveller’s Narrative , translated b y Mr. E . G . Browne in the

Episod e of the Bab ,”

pp. 70 ,1 1 4 .



days it was brought into conflict with the civil power ; b utthat it is a religious revolt against orthodox Islam ,

so far

as that is represented by the Shi ‘ah sect. I t raises women

to a higher level , it professes to lim it many of the socialevils of Islam

,it tends to give liberty of thought and to

d evelop a friend ly spirit to others .

“ Brotherly love,kind

ness to children,courtesy combined with dignity, socia

b ility, hospitality, freedom from bigotry, friendliness evento Christians are included in its tenets .

”If men are some

times better than their creed,they are sometimes worse

,and

not every Babi l ives up to this ideal . It is perhaps too

soon to speculate on the future of the movement. Thosewho think it will gradually take the place Of Islam in

Persia base a strong argument on the fact that its recru itsare won from the best soldiers of the garrison it is attacking.

”

It certainly appeals to the traditionary instincts of

many Persians. The S tiff needs a Pir or living guide ;the Shi ‘ah meditates on the Imam

,and the high position

accorded to that person in Babiism is at least attractive .

The life and death of the Bab,and the magnificent heroism

of his followers,all help forward the movement . Whether

,

when the victory is won , the Babis in the day of powerw ill b e as gentle and as liberal as they are in the night of

adversity is perhaps doubtful . To all who take an interestin Christian missions in Persia

,the movement is one o f

great interest . I t betrays a longing for a real,living ,

loving,personal guide , the revealer of God to man

,which

c an b e best met by the acceptance of the Eternal Word .

In any case , if only liberty of conscience can b e secured,

there seems to b e a wide and open door .

1

The founder of the Wahhabi sect was Muhammad - ib n

1 I am ind eb ted to a well - known m issionary who has spent a long t ime

in Persia for the following ad d it ional facts“ The Beb a’is adm it that the Lord Jesus Christ was the incarnate

S on b ut claim that Beha was the incarnate Father—each incarnat ionb eing greater than the preced ing one .

”

“S ome of the B eha

’

is have said to me ,‘We are Christians others ,

We are almost Christians others , The only d ifference b etween us is

THE WA HHABIS 1 5 3

‘A bdu ’l -Wahhab, who was born at a village in Nejd in

the year 1 6 9 1 A .D. ,and died at an advanced age in the

year 1 7 87 A D. The Wahhabis speak of themselves as

Muhhid—Unitarians b ut their opponents have given to

them the name of the father of the founder of their sectand call them Wahhabis . Muhammad was a bright intelligent youth, who , after going through a course of A rabicliterature

,studied jurisprudence under a teacher of the

Hanifi school . A t length, full of knowledge , he returnedto his native village and became a religious teacher. He

was shocked to see how the A rabs had departed from what

seemed to him the strict unchanging precepts of the

Prophet . H e saw,or thought he saw

,that in the venera

tion paid to saints and holy men the great doctrine of the“ Unity was being obscured . The reason was very plain .

The Quran and the Traditions of the Companions had beenneglected , whilst the sayings of men of lesser note and

the j urisprudence of the four great Imams had been too

readily followed . Here was work to do . He wou ld reformthe Church of Islam

,and restore men to their allegiance to

the Book and the S unnat, as recorded by the Companions .

I t is true that the S unn is wou ld rise up in opposition,for

thus the authority of the four Imams,the “ Canonical

Legists”

of the orthodox sect,would b e set aside ; b ut

what of that ? Had he not been a follower of A buHanifa ?

Now he was prepared to let A b I'

I Hanifa go, for none b uta Companion of the Prophet could give an authoritativestatement with regard to the S unnat— the Prophet’s wordsand acts. He must break a lance with the glorious Imamand start a school of his own .

He said : “ The Muslim pilgrims adore the tomb of the

that we accepted Christ when He came to us fifty years ago in Beha)and you rejected Him .

”

“ They constantly invite the Christian m issionary to their houses ,and are most hospitab le and kind .

”

The B eha’

is adm it that the New Testament is the uncor rup ted

Word of God .

“ Many Jew s in Pers ia have b ecome Bab is , and , on the other hand ,

some Bab is have b ecome Christians .

”


Prophet, and the sepulchre of ‘A li,and of other saints who

have died in the odour of sanctity . They run there to paythe t ribute of their fervent prayers . By this means theythink that thev can satisfy their spiritual and temporalneeds. From what do they seek this benefit ? From wallsmade of mud and stones

,from corpses deposited in tombs.

New,the true way o f salvation is to prostrate one

’

s selfb efore H im who is ever present

,and to venerate H im ,

the

One without associate or equal .” S uch outspoken languageraised up opposition , and he had to seek the protection of

Muhammad - Ibn - Sa‘

ud,a chief of some importance . He was

converted :to Wahhabiism about the year 1 7 4 2 A .D .,and was

a stern and uncompromising man . A s soon as you seizea place

,

”he said to his soldiers

, put the males to the

sword : Plunder and pillage at your pleasure,b ut spare

the Iwomen,

'

a

'

nd do not strike a blow at their modesty .

”

The traveller Burckhardt says that the rule o f the Wah

habis was to kill all their enemies whom they found inarms . On the day of battle the Chief u sed to give eachsoldier a paper

,a safe - conduct to the other world . This

letter was addressed to the Treasurer of Paradise . It was

enclosed in a b ag which the warrior suspended to his neck .

The soldiers “were persuaded that the souls of those who

died in battle would go straight to heaven ,w ithout being

examined by the angels Munkir and Nakir in the grav e .

The widows and orphans of all who fell were supported bythe survivors . Nothing could resist men who

,fired with a

burning zeal for What they deemed the truth,received a

share of the booty,if conquerors ; who went direct to Para

dise i f they were slain . In course of time,Muhammad - Ibn

S a‘ud married the daughter of I b n -

‘A bdu ’l -Wahhab , and

founded t he Wahhabi dynasty,which to this day rules at

Ryadh.

1

1 The follow ing are the names of the Wahhab i ch iefs Muhammad Ib n

Sa ‘ud

,d ied A .D . 1 765 ;

‘A b d u

’l - ‘A z iz , assassinat ed b y a Persian in 1 803 ;

S a ‘ud Ib n ‘A b du

’l - ‘A z iz , d ied 1 8 14‘A b d u

’llah ib n S a ‘ud

,b ehead ed 1 8 1 8

Turki ib n S a‘ud

,assassinated 1 834 ; Fayz ul, d ied 1 865

‘A b du’llah .


1 5 6 THE FA ITH OF ISLAM“

the fourth Wahhabi ru ler , was captured by Ibrahim Pasha

and afterwards executed at Constantinople in the year 1 8 1 8

A .D . The p olitical power of Wahhabis has S ince been con

fined to parts of A rabia, b ut their religious Opinions havew idely Spread .

On the death of Fayz ul in 1 86 5 A .D.,his two sons

,

‘A bdu ’llah and Sa‘

ud,the former a bigot, the latter a com

paratively liberal man,disputed the succession . Finally

,

Sa‘ud established himself as Emir . In 1 87 1

‘A bdu ’llah

put himself into communication with Midhat Pasha,then

Governor of Baghdad , who at once appointed him Kaimm akan or Deputy - Governor of Nejd .

‘A bdu ’llah ,however

,

failed to get possession . A little later on,Midhat Pasha

deposed the whole fam ily,and issued a proclamation to the

effect that a Turkish Gov ernor wou ld b e appointed . Thisscheme failed

,and in 1 8 7 2 S a

‘

ud returned to Riadh,where

he died .

‘A bdu ’llah then became the Emir. The TurkishGovernment wished him to rule as its nominee

,b ut this

position he declined to accept. He had in 1 8 8 1 , the

latest date up to which I have any information,very little

power ou tside Riadh. Wahhabiism i s now in its own

stronghold rapidly declining,and the power of the once

warlike and prosperous family that gu ided its destinies inCentral A rabia is at an end .

The leader of the Wahhabi movement in India was SyedA hmad . He soon gained a large number of disc iples

,and

in 1 8 2 6 A .D . preached a Jihad against the S ikhs , b ut fiveyears after the Wahhabis were suddenly attacked by theS ikhs under Sher S ingh, and Syed A hmad was slain . Thisdid not

,however

,prevent the spread of Wahhabi principles ,

for he had the good fortune to leave behind him an en

thusiastic disciple . This man,Muhammad Isma‘il

,was

born near Delhi in the year 1 7 8 1 A .D . When qu ite a

youth,he met w ith Syed A hmad

,who soon acquired great

influence ov er his new disciple . Isma‘il told him one

evening that he could not offer up his prayers with Hu z rir

i - qalb,or presence of heart . The Syed took him to his

WA HHABIISM A ND ORTHODox ISLAM 1 5 7

room,where he instructed him to repeat the first of the

prayers after him,and then to conclude them alone . He

did so,and was able to so abstract himself in the con

templation of God that he remained engaged in prayer till

the morning. Henceforward he was a devoted adherent

of his spiritual teacher . In the public discussions,which

often took place,none were a match for Isma‘il. Th is

fervent preacher of Wahhabiism is now chiefly rememberedby his great work , the Taqwiatu

’

l- Iman,the book from

which the account of Wahhabi.

doctrine given in thischapter is taken . In one sense it is a struggle againstthe traditionalism of later stages, b ut in no sense can it

b e said that the Wahhabis reject Tradition. The travellerBurckhardt says : “ The Quran and the Traditions of Mu

hammad are acknowledged as fundamental and as comprising the laws ; the opinions of the best Commentators are

respected , though not implicitly followed . They acknowledge , then ,

as the foundation of the faith,first

,the Quran ;

secondly,the Traditions which are recorded on the authority

of the Companions ; and third ly , the Ijma‘of the Compan ions.

Thus to the Wahhabi as to the Sunni,Muhammad is in all

his acts and words a perfect gu ide .

S o far from Wahhabiism being a move onward becau seit is a return to first principles

,it rather binds the fetters

of Islam more tightly . It does not originate anything new ;

it offers no relaxation from a system which looks upon theQuran and the Traditions as a perfect and complete law,

social and political,moral and religious . The Wahhabi

places the doctrine of the “ Tauhid ,”or Unity

,in a very

prom inent position . It is true that all Musalman sects

put this dogma in the first rank,b ut Wahhabis set their

faces against practices common to the other sects,becau se

they consider that they Obscure this fundam ental doctrine .

It is this which brings them into collision with other Musalmans. The greatest Of all sins is Shirk polytheism) .A Mu shrik (polytheist) is one who so offends . A ll Mu salmans consider Christians to b e polytheists

,and Wahhabis


consider all other Musalmans also to b e polytheists,because

they look to the Prophet for intercession,pray to saints

,

visit shrines,and do other unlawful acts

The Taqwiatu’

l- Iman says that “two things are neces

sary in religion—to know God as God,and the Prophet as

the Prophet .” The two fundamental base s of the faith are

the “ Doctrine of the Tauhid and obedience to the S unnat .

”

The two great errors to b e avoided are Shirk and Bid‘at

(innovation or change) .Shirk is defined to b e of four kinds : Shirku

’

l- ‘ilm,

ascribing knowledge to others than God ; Shirku’

t - tasarruf,

ascribing power to others than God ; Shirku’

l- ‘Ib adat,

offering worship to created things ; Shirku’

l- ‘adat,the

performance of ceremon ies which imply rel iance on othersthan God .

The first,Shirku

’

l- ‘ilm,is illustrated by the statement

that prophets and holy men have no knowledge of Secret

things unless as revealed to them by God . Thus somewicked persons made a charge against

‘Ayesha. The Pro

phet was troubled in mind, b ut knew not the truth of the

matter till God made it known to him . To ascribe,then

,

power to soothsayers,astrologers, and saints is polytheism .

The second kind,Shirku

’

t - tasarruf,is to suppose that

any one has power w ith God . He who looks up to any one

as an intercessor with God comm its Shirk. Thus : “But

they who take others beside H imas lords,saying,

‘We

only serve them that they may bring u s near God ,’—God

will j udge between them (and the Faithful) concerning thatwherein they are at variance (S . xxxix . Intercessionmay b e of three kinds . For example , a crim inal is placedb efore the king. The Vizier intercedes. The king,

havingregard to the rank of the Vizier

,pardons the offender.

This is called Shafa‘at - i -Wajahat, or

“ intercession fromregard .

”But to suppose that God so esteems the rank of

any one as to pardon a sinner merely on account of it is

Shirk. A gain, the queen or the princes intercede for thec riminal. The king,

from love of them,pardons him . This


1 6 0 THE F A ITH OF ISLAM

bow ing down , standing w ith folded arms,spending money

in the name of an individual,fasting out of respect to his

memory,proceeding to a distant shrine in a pilgrim

’

s garband calling ou t the name of the saint while so going ,

is

Shirku’

l—‘Ibadat . It is wrong to“c over the grave with

a sheet (ghilaf) , to say prayers at the Shrine,to kiss any

particular stone , to rub the mouth and breast against thewalls of the Shrine .

” This is a stern condemnation of the

very common practice of visiting the tombs of saints and of

some of the special practices of the pilgrimage to Mecca.

A ll such practices as are here condemned are called Ishrakfi

’

l ‘Ibadat association in worship.

”

They quote the following Tradition ,recorded by Bukhari

,

to show that pilgrimages should b e made to three placesonly : “ Pilgrims do not go except to three mosques—the

mosques in Mecca,Madina

,and Jerusalem .

”

The fourth Shirk is the keeping up of superstitiouscustoms

,such as the Istikhara

,i .e.

, seeking guidance frombeads

,trusting to omens

, good or b ad,bel ieving in lucky

and unlucky days,adopting such names as

‘A bdu ’

n - Nabi

(S lave of the Prophet) , and so on . The denouncing of

such practices brings Wahhabiism into daily conflict withthe other sects

,for scarcely any people in the world are

such profound believers in the virtue of charm s and the

power of astrologers as Musalmans. The difference b e

tween the first and fourth Shirk,the S hirku

’

l—‘ilm and the

S hirku’

l- ‘

adat,seem s to b e that the first is the belief , say

in the knowledge of a soothsayer,and the second the habit

of consulting h im . To swear by the name of the Prophet,

of ‘A li , of the Imams,or of Pirs (Leaders) is to give

them the honour due to God alone . I t is Ishrak fi’

l

adab Shirk in association . A nother common be liefwhich Wahhabis Oppose is that Musalmans c an performthe Hajj , say prayers , read the Quran

,abide in medita

t ion, give alm s

,and do other good works

,the reward of

which shall b e credited to a person already dead .

The above technical exposition of Wahhabi tenets Shows

WA HHABI IDEA OF GOD 1 6 1

how much stress they lay on a rigid adherence to the

doctrine of the“ Unity .

” “ La Ilaha illa’

llahu”—there is

no God b ut God—is an eternal truth. Yet to the Musalman God is a Being afar off. In rejecting the Fatherhoodof God he has accepted as the object of his worship

,hardly

of his affections, a Being despotic in all He does,arbitrary

in all His ways . He has accepted the position of a slaveinstead of that of a son.

Palgrave, who knew the Wahhabis better than any otherperson , says in this connection

There is no God b ut God’are word s S imply tantamount in

English to the negation of any deity save one alone ; and thus

much they certainly mean in A rab ic , b ut they imply mu ch more

also. Their full sense is,not only to d eny ab solutely and unre

serv edly all plurality, whether of nature or of person in the

S upreme Being, not only to estab lish the unity of the Unb egettingand the Unb egot, in all its simple and incommunicab le oneness

,

b ut b esides this, the word s, in A rab ic and among A rab s, implythat this one S upreme Being is the only A gent, the only Force

,

the only A ct existing throughout the universe, and leave to all

b eings else,matter or spirit, instinct or intelligence, physical or

moral,nothing b ut pure uncond itional passiveness , alike in mov e

ment or in quiescence , in action or in capacity. Hence in this one

sentence is summed up a system which,for want of a b etter name

,

I may b e permitted to call the Pantheism of Force.

’God is

One in the totality of omnipotent and omnipresent action,which

acknowledges no°

rule,standard

,or limit save one sole and ab solute

will. He communicates nothing to His creatures, for their seeming power and act ever remain His alone, and in return He re

ceives nothing from them .

’

It is His singular satisfaction to letcreated b eings continually feel that they are nothing else than Hisslaves

,that they may the b etter acknowledge H is superiority.

’

He H imself, sterile in His inaccessib le height, neither loving norenjoying aught save H is own and self-measured decree, withoutson

, companion , or councillor, is no less b arren for Himself thanfor His creatures

, and His own b arrenness and lone egoism in

H imself is the cause and rule of His indifferent and unregard ingdespotism around .

’


Palgrave allows that such a notion of the Deity is monstrous

,b ut maintains that it is the “

truest mirror of the

m ind and scope of the writer of the Book (Quran) , andthat

,as such

,it is confirmed . by authentic Tradition and

learned commentaries,a knowledge of the literature

,and

intercourse with the people . Men are often better thantheir creeds. Even the Prophet was not always con

sistent. There are some redeeming points in Islam . But

the root idea of the whole is as described above,and from

it no system can b e deduced which will grow in grace and

beauty as age after age rolls by. The A rab proverb statesthat the worshipper models himself on what he worships .

”

Thus a return to first principles,

”sometimes proclaimed as

the hOpe of Turkey, is b ut the putting back the hour - handof Islam to the place where

,indeed

,Muhammad always

meant it to stay,for

,as Palgrave says

,

“ Islam is in its

essence stationary, and was framed thus to remain . S terile ,l ike its God

,lifeless like its first Principle , and supreme

Original in all that constitutes true life—for life is love,

participation , and progress, and of these the Quranic Deityhas none—it j ustly repudiates all change , all advance

,all

development .

Muhammad Ib n ‘A bdu ’l Wahhab was a man of great

intellectual power and vigour. He could pierce throughthe m ists of a thousand years

,and see w ith an eagle eye

how one sect and another had laid accretions on the Faith.

He had the rare gift of intuition,and cou ld see that

change (bid‘at) and progress were alien to the truth . Thi s

recognition of his ability is due to him ; b ut what a sad

prostration of great gifts it was to seek to arrest,by the

worship of the letter , all hOpe of progress , and to make“the starting- point of Islam its goal .

” That he was a

good Musalman in so doing no one can doubt,b ut that his

work gives any hOpe of the rise of an enlightened form of

Islam no one who really has studied Islam can believe .

Wahhabiism simply amounts to this,that while it de

nounces all other Musalmans as polytheists, it enforces the /



can find no place in it Isma‘il quotes with approval thefollowing Tradition . Ayesha said

,I purchased a carpet

on which were some figures . The Prophet stood in the

doorway and looked displeased.

’ I said, O messenger of

God,I repent to God and His Messenger ; what fault have

I committed that you do not enter ?’ His Highness then

said,What is this carpet ?’ I replied

,

‘ I have bought‘ it

for you to sit and rest upon.

’ Then the messenger of God

replied,

‘ Verily,the makers of pictures will b e punished

on the day of resurrection ,when God will desire them to

bring them to life . A house which contains pictures isnot visited by the angels .

’

In a Tradition quoted by Ib n‘A bbas, the Prophet classes artists with murderers and

parricides. Wahhabiism approves of all this, and thus byforbidding harmless enj oyments it would make society an

organised hypocrisy. It would spread abroad a spirit of

contempt for all mankind except its own followers,and

,

where it had the power,it would force its convictions on

others at the point of the sword .

Wahhabiism was reform after a fashion in one direction ;in the history of Islam there have been attempts at reform inother directions there will yet b e such attempts

,b ut so long

as the Quran and the S unnat (or, in the case of the Shi‘ah,

its equ ivalent) are to form,as they have hitherto done for

every sect,the sole law to regulate all conditions and states

of life,enlightened and continued progress is impossible .

From the account given in this chapter,it is plain that

Musalmans are not all of one heart and sou l .1 In the nextchapter I hope to show that Islam is a very dogmatic and

complex system in spite of the simple form of its creed .

1 “ Mr. Finlay, the clever b ut partial author of The Byz antine Empire , ’has d eclared in a sweeping way that there is no greater d elusion than tospeak of the unity of the Christian Church .

’However this may b e , I can

affirm the perfect applicab ility of this sentence to Islam in the East. In

no part of the world is there more of secret d ivision,aversion, m isb e lief

(taking Muhammadanism as our standard ), and unb el ief than in those

very land s which to a superficial survey seem ab solutely id ent ified in the

one common creed of the Quran and its author.

”

(Palgrave’s A rab ia

,vol. i .

p .

CHA PTER IV

THE CREED OF I S LAM I

FA ITH is defined by Muslim theologians as“ Confession

with the tongue and belief with the heart .” 2I t is said to

“ stand midwaybetween hope and fear.

”It is subdivided

into Iman - i - mujmal and Iman - i - mufassal. The former is an

expression of the following faith :“ I bel ieve in God

,H is

name and attributes , and accept all His commands . ” The

latter is the acceptance of the following dogmas :“ I b e

lieve in God , A ngels, Books, Prophets , the Last Day, the

Predestination by the Most High God of good and evil ,and the Resurrection after death.

” These form the articlesof faith which every Musl im must believ e

,to which belief,

in order to render it perfect, he must add the performanceof the acts of practice ,

”v iz (I ) Tashahhud—the recital

of the Kalimah or creed : There is no God b ut God ,

and Muhammad is the A postle of God .

” 3

(2 ) Salat—thefiv e daily prayers . (3) Bozah—the thirty days’ fast of

1 S trictly speaking, th is chapter shou ld b e ent itled the “ Faith of

Islam ,as the sub ject of it is technically called Iman, or faith . The

creed , or Kalimah ,is s imply the expression of b elief , in one God , and in

Muhammad as H is apostle. I us e the word creed here in th e usual senseof a b od y of d ogmas .

2 There is much d ispute as to whether faith can increase or not . Imam

A b u Hanifa says It d oes not change . I t is not affected by sin or the

om ission of religious d ut ies , though such m iscond uct w ill b e punished .

”

Imam A s - S hafi ‘i says that faith d oes d ecrease if religious d ut ies are

neglected . A b uHanifa replies that women d o not,at certain t imes

,say the

Namaz , nor the poor give alms. Is the ir faith d ecreased ? The word s“ it increased the ir faith (S . ii i. 1 67 ) seem to support A s

- S hafi‘i .

3 The first clause is called the nafi wa isbat , rejection and affirmat ionthere is no God

”is the nafi ,

“ b ut God”is the ishat.

1 65

1 6 6 THE FA ITH or ISLAM

Ramazan. (4) Zakat—the legal alms . (5 ) Hajj—the

pilgrimage to Mecca.

I . GOD—This article of the faith includes a belief inthe existence of God , His unity and attributes, and has

given rise to a large number of sects . Tauhid, or unity,is

said by A buMuntahato b e of two kinds—Tauhidu’

r- rub iyatand Tauhidu

’

l- uluhaiyat. The first means that God whocreates and sustains all is one ; b ut bel ief in this d oes notnecessarily make a man a believer, for Kafirs, it is said ,can accept this dogma ; so, to b e a true believer

,a man

must accept as an article of faith the Tauhidu’

l- uluhaiyat,

that is,worship only one God , and look upon Him as the

only object of worship,the one without a second . Thus it

is wrong to worship angel s and saints .

The author of the Pt isalah- i - Berkevi,1 speaking of the

divine attributes,says

(L ) Life (Hyatt). God Most H igh is alone to b e adored . H e

has neither associate nor equal . H e is neither b egotten nor does

H e b eget. H e is immu tab le,inv isib le, without figure , form,

colour,or parts. H is existence has neither b eginning nor end .

I f H e so w ills,H e can annihilate the world in a moment or re

create it in an instant. If all the infidels b ecame b elievers, H e

would gain no advantage ; if all b elievers b ecame ‘

infidels,H e

would suffer no loss.

Knowledge God has knowledge of all things

hidden or manifest,whether in heaven or on earth. Ev ents past

and future are known to Him. He knows what enters into theheart of man and what he utters with his mouth . He is free from

forgetfulness, negligence, and error. H is knowledge is eternal : itis not posterior to H is essence.

Power (Qudrat) . God is almighty. I f He wills,H e

can raise the dead,make stones talk, trees walk, annihilate the

heavens and the earth, and re - create them. H is power is eternald prion

'

and ap osteriori . I t is not posterior to H is essence .

M . Garcin d e Tassy, in his “ L’Islamisme d

’apres le Coran (p .

speaks of th is b ook thus : “ L’

ouvrage élémentaire d e la religion Musalmane le plus estimé et le plus répand u en Turquie .

”



numerical unity,b ut absolute

,for the number one is the

first of a series and implies a second, b ut God has not a

second . He is “ singular without any-thing like H im

,

separate,havmg no equal ; for

,

“ had there been either

in heaven or earth gods beside God , both surely had goneto ru in ”

(S . xxi. God is not a substance, for sub

stance has accidents,b ut God has none : otherwise His

nature would b e that of “ dependent existence.

”God is

without parts,for otherwise He would not exist till all the

parts were formed,and H is existence wou ld depend on the

parts,that is

,on something beside Himself.

The orthodox strictly prohibit the discussion of mlnute

particulars,for

,say they

,

“ just as the eye turning to the

brightness of the sun finds darkness intervene to preventall observation

,so the understanding finds itsel f bewildered

if it attempts to pry into the nature of God . A ll the

attributes of God are declared to b e beyond explanation

(b ilakeif), and so cannot b e understood either by reason or

by analogical deduction.

The Prophet said : “We did not know the reality of the

knowledge of Thee ; and to his followers he gave thisadvice : “ Think of God’s gifts, not of H is nature : certainly

you have no power for that .

”The Khalif A kbar is reported

to have said : To b e helpless in the search of knowledge isknowledge, and to inqu ire into the nature of God is Shirk

A moderate acquaintance with Musl im theology shows that neither the injunction of the Prophet nor

the warning of the Khalif has been heeded .

A ccording to the early Muslims, the Companions and

their followers,inquiries into the nature of God and H is

attributes were not lawful . The Prophet,knowing what was

good for men , had plainly revealed the way of salvation and

had taught them

“ S ay He is God aloneGod the eternalHe b egetteth not

,and He is not b egotten

A nd there is none like unto Him.

”

(S . cm .)

US fIL A ND EA HI’

I‘

I69

This was sufficient for them to know of the mystery of

the Godhead . God is far beyond the reach of the humanunderstand ing. Men should therefore mistrust their own

perceptive facul ties and notions,and should obey the in

spired legislator Muhammad , who loving them better than

they love themselves , and knowing better than they dowhat is truly u seful

,has revealed both what they ought

to believe and what they ought to do . I t is true thatmen must exercise their reason,

b ut they must not do sowith regard to the divine attributes .1

D ogma is divided into two portions , u S I’

Il and far1’

1‘

roots and branches) . The former include the doctrineabout God ; the latter consist of truths which result fromthe acceptance of the former. The orthodox belief is thatreason has only to do with the far1

’

1‘

, for the u sI’

Il beingfounded on the Quran and S unnat have an objective basis .D ifferences of opinion about various branches of the faru‘

led to discussions which did not stop there, b u t went on

to the“usul

,

”

and so paved the way for the rise of

scholastic theology (‘Ilm- i - kalam) . I have already in the

chapter on the exegesis of the Quran explained the d ifference in meaning between muhkam and mutashab ih v erses .This difference lies at the v ery foundation of the presentsubject. It is

,therefore

, _necessary to enter a l ittle into

detail . The question turns v ery much on the interpretation of the sth v erse of the 3rd S i

’

lrah : “ He it is whohath sent down to thee

‘the Book .

’

S ome of its S ignsare of themselves perspicuous (muhkam) : these are the

basis of the Book,and others are figurative (mutashab ih) .

1 The ab ove statements form the sub stance of several pages in the“ Prolégomenes d

’Ib n Khaldun,

”in wh ich also occurs the follow ing

Cela n’

est pas toutefois un mot if pour d éprécier notre intelligence et nos

facultés perceptives ; l’

intelligenc e est une b alance parfaitement justeelle nous fournit d es résu ltats certains sans nous tromper. Mais on ne

d oit pas employer cette b alance pour peser les choses qui se rattachenta l ’unite d e D ieu, ala v ie future , a la nature d u prophétisme , au véritab lecaractere d e s attrib uts d ivins et a tout c e qui est au d ela d e sa portée.

Vouloir le faire , c c serait une ab surd ité (vol. iii. p.

.I 7 O THE EA ITH or ISLAM

B ut they whose hearts are given ,to err follow its figures ,

craving discord,craving an interpretation ; yet none

knoweth its interpretation b ut God . A nd the stable inknowledge say,

‘We believe in it : it is all from our

Lord .

’

But none will bear this in mind save men enduedwith understanding.

” 1 Here it is clearly stated (I ) thatno one except God can know the interpretation of muta

shab ih verses,and (2) that wise men

, though they knownot their interpretation, yet bel ieve them all. Manylearned men

,however, say that the full stop should not

b e placed after the word “ God, b ut after

“ knowledge .

”

The d ifference will b e seen thus

FIRST REA DING. S ECOND REA D ING .

None knoweth its interpreta» None knoweth its interpreta

tion b ut God . A nd the stab le in tion b ut God and the stab le inknow ledge say

“We b elieve in it : knowledge. They say“We b e

it is all from our Lord .

” lieve in it : it is all from our

Lord .

”

On this slight change in punctuation ,

2 which shows thatthe

“ stable in knowledge can interpret the mutashab ih

v erses, opposite schools of theology have arisen in Islam.

The latter reading opens the way to a fearless investigation of subjects which all the early Muslims avoided as

beyond the ir province. In the early days of Islam it was

held that all parts of the Quran,except the muhkam verses

and the purely narrative portions , were mutashab ih ; thatis , all v erses which related to the attributes of God , to theexistence of angels and genii, to the appearance of A ntichrist

,the period and S igns of the day of judgment, and

generally all matters which are beyond the daily experience

1 Bukhari relate s how ‘Ayesha said,

“ One day the Prophet recited thesth verse and said to me ,

‘When thou seest those who follow its figures,these are they whom God has named men of error—avoid them.

’

2 The commentator Bukhari says : “ S ome cons ider that the letter waw

(and ) after the word‘God

’is a Copulat ive conjunction (waw - i -

‘atfl, and

that consequently there is no full st after God ; others , however, treatthe waw as waw - i - isti

’naf, t.e. , it commences a sentence , and is therefore

preceded by a full stop. This is the opinion of most commentators .


THE FA ITH OF ISLAM

tion,it could not have claimed the position it does as a

book absolutely perfect in form as well as in matter.

Bearing in mind this fundamental difference of opinion,

we can now pass on to the consideration of the attrib utes .The essential attributes are Life

,Knowledge , Power, Will ,

for without these the others cou ld not exist . Then the

attributes of Hearing, S eeing, S peech give us a furtheridea of perfection. These are the Sifat - i- S abutiah

,or affir

mativ e attributes,the privation of which would imply loss ;

there are also S ifat - i- Salb iah,or privative attributes

,such

as God has no form,is not l imited by place

,has no equal . ‘

The attributes are also called S ifatu’

z - z atiah and S ifatu’

l

fa‘liah . The former are those which have no opposite, asLife

,for death cannot b e predicated of God ; the latter are

those which have an opposite, as Mercy,for God can have

its opposite—anger. The acts of sitting, rising, descending,the possession of face

,hands

,eyes , &c .

,being connected

with the idea of corporeal existences, imply imperfection,

and apparently contradict the doctrine of“exemption ”

(tanzib ) , according to which God is, in virtue of His essence,

in no way like the creatures He has made. This was a

difficulty , b ut the four great Imams all taught that it was

impious to inquire into these matters,for all such allusions

were mutashab ih.

“The Imam Hanbal and other early

divines followed in the path of the early Muslims and said :We believe in the Book and the S unnat, and do not desire

explanations . We know that the High God is not to b e

compared to any created object : nor any creature withImam A S - Shafi

‘

i said that a man who inquiredinto such matters shou ld b e tied to a stake and carriedabout

,and that the fol lowing proclamation should b e made

before him : This is the reward of him who left the Quranand the Traditions for the study of scholastic theology .

”

Imam Hanbal says : Whosoever moves his hand when hereads In the Quran the words ,

‘ I have created with myhand

,

’

ought to have his hand c ut off ; and whoeverstretches forth his finger in repeating the saying of

THE SIEATIA NS .I 7 3

Muhammad, ‘ The heart of the believer is between two

fingers of the Mercifu l ,’ deserves to have his finger cut

off.

”

A t - Tirmiz i, when consu lted about the statement of

the Prophet that God had descended to the l owest of the

seven heavens,said : The descent is intelligible, the

manner how is unknown ; the belief therein is ob ligatory ;and the asking about it is a. blamable innovation.

”But

all such attempts to restrain discussion and investigation

failed .

The two main points in the discussion of this question

are (I ) whether the attributes of God are internal or ex

ternal ? whether they are part of His essence or not ? and

(2 ) whether they are eternal or not ?

The two leading sects were the Sifatians and the

Mu‘taz ilas. The S ifatians, according to Sharastani (p.

taught that the attributes of God are eternally inherent inHis essence, without separation or change . Every attributeis conjoined with H im as life with knowledge or knowledgewith power. They also taught that the mutashab ih verseswere not to b e explained. S o at first they did not attemptto give the meaning of the terms “ hands

, eyes, face,”

&c .

,

when applied to God . They simply accepted them as theystood .

The Mu‘tazilas were the great opponents of the Sifatians .

They rejected the idea of eternal attributes, saying thateternity was the formal attribute of the essence of God .

“ If,

” said they,

we admit the eternal existence of an

attribute,then we must recognise the multiplicity of eternal

existences . They also rejected the attributes of hearing,see ing, and speech , as these were accidents proper to cor

poreal existences. They looked upon the d ivine attributes asmental abstractions

,and not as having a real existence in

the divine essence . The expression hand of God,

”they said ,

meant simply H is power or His favour . To this the orthodox replied , that in this case then the Devil (Iblis) could saythat he had been created by the “ favour of God ,

”for God

had said,“ I created thee with my two hands .” A gain,


they urged , if“ hand means power

, then God has two

powers ; and as the Prophet gave no explanation of sucha mutashab ih expression,

it is clear that none is possible,and therefore the Mu

‘

tazila explanation is not to b e ac

c epted .

The Mu‘tazilas were emphatical ly the Free - thinkers of

Islam. The origin of the sect was as follows —A l Hasan,a famous divine

,was one day seated in the mosque at

Basrah when a discussion arose on the question whethera believer who committed a mortal sin became thereby an

unbeliever. The Kharigites affirmed that it was so . The

orthodox denied this,saying that

,though guilty of S in

, yet

that as he believed rightly he was not an infidel.

1One

of the scholars , wags I bn‘A ta(who was born at Madinah

,

A .H . then rose up and said : I maintain that a Muslimwho has committed a mortal sin should b e regarded neitheras a believer or an unbeliever, b ut as occupying a middlestation between the two .

”He then retired to another part

of the mosque,where he was j oined by his friend ‘Umr

I bn Obaid and others . They resumed the discussion . A

learned man,named Katada, entering the mosque , went up

to them ,b ut on finding that they were not the party in

which A l Hasan was,said

,

“ These are the S eceders (A lMu

‘tazila) . A l Hasan soon expel led them from his school .

Waisil then founded a school of his own,of which

,after the

death of his master,‘Umr I bn Ob aid became the head.

Weis il felt that a believer, though sinful , did not meritthe same degree of punishment as an infidel , and thusstarting off on the question of degrees of punishment

,he

opened up the whole subject of free - will . This soon broughthim into conflict with the orthodox on the subject of predestination, and that again to the subject of the inspiration

,

the interpretation and the eternity of the Quran,and of the

divine attributes . His followers rej ected the doctrine of

the “ divine right of the Imam,and held that the entire

body of the Faithful had the right to elect the most suitable1 Ib n Khallikan

’

s“ Biographical Dictionary, vol. iii. p. 343.


1 7 6 THE RA ITH OF ISLAM

A hmad b in Nasru’

l- Khuza’

i to Baghdad , and questionedhim regarding the creation of. the Quran and the vision of

God at the day of judgment . A hmad replied,

“ Thus

goes the tradition,‘Ye shal l see your Lord in the day of

j udgment, as ye see the moon .

’ 1 A l- Wathik said,

“ Thoul iest to which A hmad replied

,

“ Nay, it is thou that l iest.”

The Khalif added,

“What ! wil l He b e seen as a circumscrib ed and corporeal form which space can contain and

the eye observe ? Verily,I deny a God with such attri

butes. What say ye ?” Then some of the Mu

‘tazilas

who were present said,It is lawful to put him to death.

”

The Khalif said ,“When I u se against him,

let no one risewith me ; for v erily I throw the burden of my sins on thisinfidel , who worships a God whom I do not worship

,and

whom I do not recognise with such attributes . The

Khalif then,with his own hand , slew A hmad .

A hmad b in Hayat, a Mu‘

tazila,tries to explain away the

tradition thus : “ It is not God,b ut the

‘ primary in

telligence’

(‘aql

- i- kul) which will b e seen.

” This ‘

aql- i

kul is another name for the“ primary reason (jauhar- i

awwal), which in the Sufi cosmogony is the first thingcreated. However

,the orthodox v iew

,as opposed to that

of the Mu‘tazilas

,is that God will b e seen

,b ut that it

cannot b e said that He will appear on this side or that,

in this manner or that. They hold that all Musalmans

(though some exclude women) will see God,and that

those persons before Muhammad’s time who followed theteaching of the prophets will al so see Him. There is

a difference of opinion about angel s and genii ; some

say they also will see God,and some deny this privilege

to them .

D uring the reigns of the ‘A bbasside Khal ifs MamI’

In,

Mu‘

tas im,and Wathik 1 9 8

—2 32 A .H .) at Baghdad, theMu

‘

tazilas were in high favour at court . Under the

1 The narrators say,

“ We were s itting on the fourteenth night of the

month w ith the Prophet , who said,

‘ Certainly, you w ill see your Lordj ust as you see this moon.

’

(S ahih- i - Bukhari, chapter on S I’

Irah oar. )

THE PERSECUTION OF THE ORTHODOX I 7 7

‘A bbasside dynasty 1 the ancient A rab society was revolu

tionised ; Persians filled the most important offices of state ;Persian doctrines took the place of A rab ones . The

orthodox suffered bitter persecution . The fol lowing storyw ill Show how

,at length,

the Khal if Wathik relented .

A n old man,heavily chained, was one day brought into his

presence . The prisoner obtained perm ission to put a few

questions to A hmad Ib n A b I’

I Daud, a Mu‘tazila and the

President of the Court of Inquisition. The following dialoguetook place .

“ A hmad , said the prisoner ,“ what is the

dogma which you desire to have established ? That the

Qurau is created , replied A hmad .

“ This dogma, then,

iswithout doubt an essential part of rel igion, insomuch thatthe latter cannot withou t it b e said to b e complete ? ”

“ Certainly ,Has the A postle of God taught this to men

,

or has he left them free ?“ H e has left them free .

”

“Was the A postle of God acquainted with this dogma or

not ?”

He was acquainted with it. ” “Wherefore,then

,

do you desire to impose a belief regarding which the A postleof God has left men free to think as they please ? A hmadremaining silent, the old man turned to Wathik and said ,O Prince of Believers

,here is my first position made good .

”

Then turning to A hmad, he said , God has said,This day

have I perfected religion for you, and have filled up the

measures of my favours upon you , and it is my pleasurethat Islam b e your religion (S . v. But according to

you ,Islam is not perfected unless we adopt this doctrine

that the Quran is created . Which now is most worthy of

credence—God,when He declares Islam to b e complete and

perfect, or you when you announce the contrary ?” A hmadwas stil l S ilent. “ Prince of Bel ievers

,

” said the old man,

“there is my second point made good .

”

He continued ,

A hmad , how do you explain the following words of God

1 “ C’

était l’

époque d e la plus grand e Splend eur extérieure d e l’empired es A rab es

,OI

‘

I leur pouvoir, et en meme temps leur culture intellectuelleet littéraire , atteignirent leur point culm inant . (Journal A siatique, 4me

S érie, tome xii . p.


in His Holy Book — ‘ O A postle ! proclaim all that hathbeen sent down to thee from thy Lord ; for if thou dostnot

,thou hast not proclaimed H is message at all.

’

Now

this doctrine that you desire to spread among the Faithful,

has the A postle taught it, or has he abstained from doingso ? A hmad remained silent . The old man resumed,“ Prince of Believers

,such is my third argument.

” Thenturning to A hmad he said,

“ If the Prophet was acquaintedw ith the doctrine which you desire to impose upon us

,had

he the right to pass by it in silence ?” “ He had the

right.

” “ A nd d id the same right appertain to A bu Bakr,Omar

,Osman

,and

‘A li It did .

”Prince of Believers

,

”

said the prisoner,God will , in truth

,b e severe on us if

He deprives us of a liberty which He accorded to the

Prophet and his Companions .

”The Khalif assented

,and

at once restored the old man to l iberty. So ended one of

the fiercest persecutions the orthodox have ever had to

endure, b ut so also ended the attempt to break through thebarriers of traditional ism . The next Khalif, A l Mutawakkil,

a ferocious and cruel man,restored the orthodox party to

place and power. He summoned the Traditionists to Samarra,

loaded them with presents,honoured them

,and commanded

them to bring forward traditions on the attributes of God,

and on the personal v ision of Him at the day of judgment .

This was done to refute the views of the Mu‘

tazilas on thesepoints . The people were much pleased

,and one man said

,

The Khal ifs are b u t three—A bu Bakr for his waging waron the apostates

,Omar for his removal of abuses

,and

Mutawakkil for his revival of traditional doctrine . Now,

to - day orthodoxy has been honoured as if it had neverbeen in reproach

,and the innovators in rel igion have fled

into hell - fire disgraced and unaccepted of God .

”The Khalif

also issued a fatva (decree) declaring that the dogma that

the Quran was created was an u tter falsehood . He in'

stituted severe measures against Christians, Jews, Shi‘

ahs,

and Mu‘taz ilas .

lA hmad Ibn A bu Daud was one of the

1 The non -Muslim population had to wear yellow head - c overings'

and



him,Thou must have known what awaited me ; why then

didst Thou act for his advantage and not for

A l- Jub b ai was silent,though very angry with his pupil , who

was now convinced that the Mu‘tazila dogma of man

’s freewil l was false

,and that God elects some for mercy and some

for punishment without any motive whatever. D isagreeingwith his teacher on this point

,he soon began to find other

points of difference,and soon announced his bel ief that the

Quran was not created . This occurred on a Friday in the

great mosque at Basrah . S eated in his chair he cried out

in a loud voice,They who know me know who I am ; as

for those who do not know me,I Shall tel l them : I am ‘

A li

I bn Isma‘il A l- A sh ‘ari , and I u sed to hold that the Quranwas created , that the eyes (of men) shall not see God ,

and

that we ourselves are the authors of our ev il deeds ; nowI have returned to the truth : I renounce these Opinions

,

and I take the engagement to refute the Mu‘

tazilas and

expose their infamy and turpitude .

”

A nother account says that,standing on the steps of the

pulpit in a mosque at Basrah,he threw away his kaftan

and said,

O ye who are here met together ! Like as Icast away this garment

,so do I renounce all I formerly

believed .

”

I t is no uncommon thing in the history of re

ligious beliefs for a man to give up broad and liberal viewsand to return to the narrower ways of orthodoxy , b ut it isan uncommon thing for such an one to retain in the new

sphere the methods of the old ; b ut this is just what A lA sh‘

ari did . He enlisted on the side of orthodox Islam all

the dialectical Skil l of the Mu‘

tazilas , and gave to the sideof the orthodox the weapons of the sceptic . He then

adopted the scholastic methods,and started a school of

thought of his own,which was in the main a return to

orthodoxy. He thus overthrew the l iberal school,and his

principles and methods have ruled the greater part of theworld of Islam ever : since . His own dying word s are saidto have been ,

The curse of God b e on the Mu‘

tazilastheir work is delusion and lies. The result of this retro

THE ASH‘

A RIAN DOCTRINES l 8 I

gression of so able a man is to b e regretted , for it undoubt

edly retarded the progress of free thought, and helped tomake Islam still more conservative and immobile. I t is

this which makes the defection of A l- A sh‘

ari from the

Mu‘

tazila ranks S O important an event in Mu slim history.

Had it been otherwise, and had A l- A sh‘ari maintained hisl iberal v iews

,it may b e that the system of Islam would

have been largely modified, its fierce bigotry softened,its

culture less pedantic , its susceptibility to foreign and outsideinfluences greater, and the lands in which it has flourishedmore progressive and enlightened . But so it has not been,

and all has become hard and fast,and apparently immobile

and unprogressive .

The A sh‘

arian doctrines differ slightly from the tenets of

the Sifatians , of which sect A l- A sh‘ari

’

s disciples form a

branch. The A sh‘

arfans hold

(i ) That the attributes of God are distinct from His

essence, yet in such a way as to forbid any comparison being

made between God and His creatures . They say that theyare not

‘ain nor ghair , not of His essence

,nor distinct from

it they cannot b e compared with any other things .

(ii .) That God has one eternal will from which proceedall things, the good and the evil

,the useful and the hurtful .

The destiny of man was written on the eternal table beforethe world was created . S o far they go with the Sifatians ,b ut in order to preserve the moral responsibility of man

they say that he has power to convert will into action .

1

But this power cannot create anything new,for then God ’s

sov ereignty wou ld b e impaired ; so they affirm that God in

His providence so orders matters that whenever a man

desires to do a certain thing, good or b ad,the action corre

sponding to the desire is,there and then,

created by God ,and

,as it were , fitted on to the desire . Thus it seems as

1 Thu s, if a man b ecomes an infid el, it is not to,

b e said that it is b yth e d ecree of God

,although it is written on the ‘ Concealed Tab let i t

is not b y the d ecree or w ill of God,b ut b y Kasb and choice. (Hashiyah

of ‘A qaid

- i - A b u’l -Muntaha,

”

p.


if it came natural ly from the wil l of the man,whereas it

does not . This action is called Kasb (acquisition) , b ecauseit is acquired by a special creative act of God .

“ The

servant of God,with his actions , confession,

and knowledge ,is created ; so when he is a doer

,the thing done is the

creation of God , for to the servant there is no power, b utKasb is lawful . S harastani states that the Mu

‘tazilas

entirely denied this idea o f Kasb. They said,For servants

there is no’

Kasb,only intention ; the actions of a servant

are produced from his own nature . Kasb,then

,is an ac t

directed to the obtaining of profit or the remov ing of

injury ; the term is , therefore , inapplicable to the Deity .

The Imam A l- Haramain (4 1 9—47 8 A . H .) held“that the

actions of men were effected by the power which God hascreated in man.

”

A b I’

I Ishaqu’

l Isfarayain says ,“ That

which maketh impression,or hath influence on action

,is a

compound of the power of God and the power of man .

”

(iii ) They say that the word of God is eternal , though thev ocal sounds used in the Quran, which is the manifestationof that word

,are created . They say that the Quran c on

tains the eternal word which existed in the essence of God

before time was,and the word which consists of sounds and

combinations of letters . This last they cal l the created word .

Thus A l- A sh ‘ari traversed the main positions of the

Mu‘

tazilas,denying that man can by the aid of his reason

alone rise to the knowledge o f good and ev il . He mu stexercise no judgment, b ut accept all that is revealed . He

has no right to apply the moral laws which affect men to

the actions of God . It cannot b e asserted by the humanreason that the good will b e rewarded or the b ad punishedin a future world . Man must always approach God as a

slave,in whom there is no l ight or knowledge to judge

of the actions of the Supreme . Whether God will acceptthe penitent sinner or not cannot b e asserted

,for He is

an absolute S overeign, above all law.

1

1 Ib n Khald i’

m says : “ L’

étab lissement d es preuves (fond ées sur la

raison) fut ad opté par les (premiers) scolastiques pour le sujet d e leur



other titles are names based on qual ities or attributes

(A sma- as - S ifat) . A ll sects agree in this,that the names

“the Livmg, the Wise, the Powerful , the Hearer, the S eer,

the S peaker, and so on,are to b e applied to God ; b ut the

orthodox belief is that all such names must b e“tauqifi,

”

that is,dependent on some revelation . Thus it is not

lawful to apply a name to God expressive of one of H is

attributes , unless there is some statement made or order

given by Muhammad to legalise it. God is rightly cal ledShafi (Healer) , b ut He cannot b e called Tab ib

,which means

much the same thing, for the simple reason that the wordTabib is never applied in the Quran or the Traditionsto God . In like manner the term ‘Al im (Knower) islawful, b ut not so the expression ‘Aqil (Wise). Mu

‘

tazilassay that if in the Quran or Traditions there is any praiseof an attribute , then the adj ective formed from the name

of that attribute can b e applied to God even though the

actual word does not occur in any revelation. A i - Ghazzalisays

,The names of God not given in the Law

,if expres

sive of His glory, may b e used of H im,b ut only as expres

s ive of His attributes, not of His nature .

”

On the groundthat it does not occur in the Law

,the Persian word

“ Khuda has been objected to,an objection which al so

holds good with regard to the use of such terms as God ,

D ieu,Gott. To this it is answered

,that as

“ Khuda”

means one who comes by himself,”it is equ ivalent to the

term waj ib u’

l-Wajfid ,“one who has necessary existence

,

”

and therefore,so long as it is not considered as the Ism- i

z at, it may with propriety b e used.

The opinion now seems to b e that the proper name equalto the term A llah current in a language can b e used ;provided always that such a name is not taken from the

language of the Infidels ; so God , Dieu ,Gott

,still remain

unlawful . The names of God authorised by the Quran and

Traditions are, exclusive of the term A llah,ninety - nine in

number . They are cal led the A sma’- i - Husna

,according to

the verse, Most excel lent names has God : by these call ye

THE NA MES ‘

OF GOD 1 8 5

on Him,and stand aloof from those who pervert His t itles

(S . v ii . There is a Tradition to the effect that theIsmu - l- A

‘zam is known only to prophets and to saints ,and that whosoever cal ls upon God by this name will

obtain all his desires . The result is that Sufis and Dar

wishes profess to spend much time in the search for thisname

,and

,when they say they have found it, they acquire

much influence over the superstitious .The fol lowing texts of the Quran afe adduced to prove

the nature of the divine attributes

(L ) Life .

“ There is no God b ut He,the Liv ing, the

Eternal (S . ii . “ Put thy trust in H im that l ivethand d ieth not

”

(S . xxv .

Knowledge . Dost thou not see that God knowethall that is in the heavens

,and all that is in the earth ”

(S .

lviii . “With H im are the keys of the secret things ;none knoweth them b ut He : He knoweth whatever ison the land and in the sea ; and no leaf falleth b ut He

knoweth it ; neither is there a grain in the darknesses o f

the earth,nor a thing green or sere, b ut it is noted in a

d istinct writing”

(S . v i .

Power .

“If God pleased, of their ears and of their

eyes would He surely deprive them . Verily God is al

m ighty”

(S . ii . “ Is He not powerful enough to

qu icken the dead ? ” (S . lxxv. God hath power overall things (S . iii . 1

Will . “ God is worker of that He willeth (S .

lxxxv .

“But if God pleased , He would surely bring

them, one and all, to the gu idance”

(S . v i.“ God

m isleadeth whom He will,and whom He

'

will He guideth

God doeth H is pleasure ”

(S . xiv . 4 ,A s this last

attribute is closely connected with the article of the Creedwhich refers to Predestination

,the different opinions re

gard ing it will b e stated under that head.

There has never been any difference of opinion as to the

existence of these four attributes so clearly describ ed in the

Quran : the d ifference is with regard to the mode of their


existence and their operation. There is the ancient S ifatiandoctrine that the attributes are eternal and of the essenceof God

,the Mu

‘

tazila theory that they are not eternal , andthe A sh

‘

arian dogma that they are eternal b ut distinctfrom His essence .

There is great difference of opinion with regard to the

next three attributes of hearing, sight , speech. For the

existence of the two first of these the fol lowing versesare quoted He truly heareth and knoweth all things

”

(S . xliv .

“No vision taketh in Him , b ut He taketh inall v ision ”

(S . v i. The use of the terms sitting,rising, hands , face, eyes, has also given rise to much difference of opinion . The commentator Baizav i says : “ Cer

tainly‘ sitting on the throne ’ is an attribute of God

,b ut

its manner is not known .

”

He considers the v erse whichspeaks of it to b e metaphorical (mutashab ih) . A l- Ghazzal isays : “ He sits upon His throne after that manner whichHe has Himself described

,and in that sense which He

Himself means,which is a sitting far remote from any

notion of contact or resting upon,or local situation.

” Thisis the A sh‘

arian idea. The followers of Imam Ibn Hanbalsay that such words represent the attributes existing in

God . The words “God sits on H is throne ”

mean that He

has the power of sitting. They say, We keep the l iteralmeaning of the words we allow no figurative interpretation .

To do so is to introduce a dangerous principle of interpre

tation,for the negation of the apparent sense of a passage

may tend to weaken the authority of revelation. A t the

same time we do not pretend to explain the act, for it is

written , There is none l ike unto H im (S . Noughtis there l ike H im ’

(S . xlii. ‘ Unworthy the estimate

they form of God’ ”

(S . xxii. To prove that God

occupies a place,they produce the following Tradition

“ Ib nu’

l- Hakim wished to give liberty to a female slave ,Saouda, and consu lted the Prophet about it . Muhammadsaid to her,

‘ Where is God ? ’ ‘ In heaven,

’

she replied .

‘ S et her at lib erty ; she is a true bel iever. Not,say



for servants of God . He who says the Kalam is createdis a Kafir.

”

A b I'

I’

l- Muntaha in the‘A qaid (p. 1 5 ) says

“A l Kalam is not created , b ut the letters , paper , and

writing are , being the work of men ; these letters are the

instruments of the Qurau . If a person says the Word of

God’

is created,he is a Kafir : if he says ‘ it is created

,

’

m eaning the Kalam - i - nafsi,he too is a Kafir

,because he

denies an eternal attribute : if he says i t is‘

created ,

’

mean

ing thereby only the words, &c . ,b ut not the eternal attri

bute, he comm its a fault by this way of speaking, for hisorthodoxy may b e doubted .

The orthodox believe that God is really a speaker : the

Mu‘

tazilas deny this , and say that He is only called a

speaker because He is the originator of word s and sounds .They also bring the following objections to bear againstthe doctrine of the eternity of the Quran I t is writtenin A rabic

,it descended

,is read

,is heard

,and is written .

I t was the subject of a miracle. It is divided into parts,

and some verses are abrogated by others. Events aredescrib ed in the past tense

,b ut if the Quran had been

eternal the future tense would have been u sed . The

Quran contains commands and prohibitions ; if it is eternal ,who were commanded and who were admonished (4 ) Ifit has existed from eternity

' it. must exist to eternity,and

so even in the last day,and in the next world , men will

b e under the obligation of performing the same religiousduties as they do now

,and of keeping all the outward

precepts of the law . If the Quran is eternal,then

there are two eter'

nal s . Men could produce its l ikein eloquence and arrangement.

The position thus assailed was not at first a hard and

fast dogma of Islam. I t was more a speculative Opinionthan anything else

,b ut the opposition of the Mu

‘tazilas

soon led all who wished to b e considered orthodox to

become stout assertors of the eternity of the Quran,and

to give up their l ives In defence of what they bel ieved tob e true. The Mu

‘tazilas

,by asserting the subjective nature

ETERNA L NA TURE OF THE QURAN 1 89

of the Quranic inspiration,brought the book itself within

the reach of criticism. This was too much for orthodoxIslam to bear

,even though the Khalif Mamun in the

year 2 1 2 A .H . issued a fatvadeclaring that all who assertedthe eternity of the Quran were guilty of heresy. Jalalu

’

d

d in A s - SyI’

Iti,in his History of the Khal ifs

,says : “ In the

year 2 1 2 A .H . A l- Mamun made public his doctrine on the

non - creation of the Quran,b ut the people shrank from it

with aversion, so for a while he remained quiet ; b ut in theyear 2 1 8 he wrote to his prefect in Baghdad , Ishaq b inI b rahimu

’

l- Khuza’i , as follows : Verily the Prince of the

Faithful is aware that the public at large, and the generalherd of the rabble and vulgar mob

,who have no insight

nor knowledge , nor seek illumination from the l ight of

wisdom and its demonstration,are a people ignorant of God

and blind in regard to H im , and in error as to the truthof His doctrine , and fail to estimate H im according to thereal ity of His transcendence, and to arrive at a true knowledge of H im

,and to distinguish between H im and His

creature,and that inasmuch as they have formed an il l

opinion of the difference between Him and His creationand what He hath revealed in the Quran

,for they are

agreed upon its being from the beginning,not created by

God,nor produced by Him

, yet the Most High hath said :‘ Verily we have made the same an A rabic Quran ’

(S .

xl . I 1 Now,indeed, whatever He hath made He hath

created, as the Most High hath said :‘ A nd hath created

the darkness and the light’

(S . and‘We relate unto

thee the histories of the apostles (S . v iz .

,of what had

previously occurred,wherefore He announceth that He

relateth events subsequent to which H e produced the

Quran . A gain H e says : This book, the v erses of whichare guarded against corruption, and are also distinctlyexplained ’

(S . Therefore is He the guardian of thisbook and its expounder. He is therefore its maker and

originator . The Khal if goes on to accuse those who differfrom him of spiritual pride

,and calls them “

vessel s of


ignorance and beacons of fal sehood,men whose testimony

Should b e rejected .

”He says to Ishaq b in Ibrahim : A s

semble the Qaz is that are with thee, and read to them myletter

,and question them as to what they maintain

,and

discover from them what they bel ieve in regard to the

creation of the Quran,and inform them that I seek no

assistance in my service, nor do I put any confidence in

one who is untrustworthy in his faith. If they allow it,

and are of one accord,then command them to interrogate

those witnesses that come be fore them as to their beliefin the matter of the Quran.

”S even famous Qaz is were

accordingly sent for to hold a personal interview with A lMamun. Many

,including Hanbal , Wal id

,and other famous

doctors,were also summoned to the presence of Ishaq b in

Ibrahim and examined. The following is a fair sample of

what then took place. Ishaq said to I bnu’

l- Baka,

“Whatdost thou say Bakareplied

,I declare

,on the authority

of the revealed text , that the Quran was made and broughtinto existence . Ishaq said

,

“ A nd what is made iscreated ?” “ Yes .

“ Therefore , rej oined Ishaq,

“the

Quran is created .

”

S o nothing satisfactory came out of

this inquiry,and A l Mamun wrote yet again .

“What thepretenders to orthodoxy and the seekers after the authorityfor which they are unfitted have replied has reached me .

Now ,whoso doth not admit that the Quran is created ,

suspend his exercise of judicial powers and his authorityto relate traditions .” Individual messages were al so sent :Tel l Bishar that if he denieth that the Quran is created ,

that his head shal l b e smitten off and sent to me . Toanother he said

,

“ The sword is behind thee. A ll werethreatened , and were in mortal fear lest they should losetheir l ives

,for A l- MamI

’

In,hearing that they had assented

under compulsion only , had summoned them to his pre

sence ; b ut on their way they heard that he was dead.

“ Thus,says the historian

,

“the Lord was merciful to

them and banished their fear .

I t was during the persecution carried on by the next


1 9 2 THE FA ITH OF IS LAM

Then,said Shafi‘

i,

“all things, according to you ,

werecreated by a created being, which is a gross inconsistencyand manifest impiety .

” Thus he too proved to his own

satisfaction that the Quran was not created . Hafs,who

had asserted that it was created , was reduced to silence, andsuch an effect had Shafi‘

i’

s logic on the audience that they

pu t Hafs to death as a pestilent heretic. Thus did theA sh ‘

arian opinions of the subject of the D ivine attributesagain gain the mastery.

The Mu‘

tazilas failed, and the reason why is plain .

They were, as a rule,influenced by no high spiritual

motives ; often they were mere quibblers . They sough tno l ight in an external revelation. Driven to a reactionby the rigid system they combated , they would have madereason alone their chief guide . The nobler spirits amongthem were impotent to regenerate the faith they professedto follow. I t was

,however, a great movement, and at one

time it threatened to change the whole nature of Islam .

This period of Muslim history,famed as that in which the

effort was made to cast off the fetters of the rigid systemwhich Islam was gradually tightening by the increasedauthority given to traditional ism and to the refinementsof the four Imams , was undoubtedly a period of

, com

paratively speaking, high civilisation. Baghdad , the capitalof the Khal ifate, was a busy

,populous

,well - governed city .

This it mainly owed to the influence of the Persian familyof the Barmecides, one of whom was Vizier to the Khal ifHarunu

’

r - Rashid . Harlin’

s fame as a good man is quiteundeserved . It is true that he was a patron of learning,that his empire was extensive , that he gained manyv ictories, that his reign was the culminating point of A rab

grandeur. But for all that,he was a morose despot, a cruel

man,thoroughly given up to pleasures of a very question

able nature . D runkenness,in this bril liant period of

Muslim history,is said to have been common at court. -1

1 It is , however, only fair to state that Ib n Khaldun (vol. i. pp . 35—36 )

maintains that what they drank was date - wine or date - wort (nab id ) ,

THE MODERN MU ‘

TA Z ILA S 1 9 3

Imam A hmad I bn Hanbal says : A man came to me and

said,

‘May I say Namaz behind an Imam who drinksw ine ?’ I replied ‘ No .

’

He again said,

‘ May I say it

after one who says that the Quran is created ? ’ I replied ,‘What ! have I forbidden you to say it after a Musalman ,

and w ilt thou say it after an The man who drank

remained a Muslim,the man who exercised freedom of

thought became an infidel— a curious il lustration of the

relative value attached to what was deemed moral and

speculative error. Plots and intrigues were ever at work .

S uch was the state of one of the greatest periods of Mu slimrule

,a time most favourable for the development of any

good which Islam might have possessed . Whatever gloryis attached to this period is

,however, connected with an

epoch when heresy was specially prevalent and orthodoxywas weak in Baghdad . The culture of the time was in

Spite of,not on account of

,the influence. of orthodox

Islam .

Colonel Osborn,in his v aluable work

,

“ Islam under theKhalifs

,

” says : “ The freethinkers (Mu‘tazilas) left no

traces of themselves except in the controversial treatisesthey had written. These were destroyed, and with theirdestruction, the last v estiges of the conflict between free

thought and the spirit of Islam were obliterated . Thiswas true a few years ago, b ut recent movements In IndiaShow that the influence of the Mu

‘tazilas is not altogether

lost. Thus,a recent writer, speaking of the development

and growth of new ideas amongst Ind ian Musalmans, goes

on to use these words : “ Belonging, as I do , to the l ittleknown

,though not unimportant

,philosophical and legal

school of the Mu‘tazilas

,and thus occupying a vantage

ground of observation as regards the general progress of

ideas among other sections of the Musalmans in India,

wh ich , accord ing to the tenets of the Hanifite sect , is not unlawful . H e

consid ers that d runkenness was a crime of wh ich they were not capab le ,

b ut the effort wh ich he makes to avert the suspicion seems to Show that it

was very generally b elieved .


I cannot b ut observe the movement which has been goingon for some time among them. The advancement of cultureand the development and growth of new ideas have begunto exercise the same influence on them as on other racesand peoples. The younger generation is tending uncon

sciously towards the Mu‘

tazila doctrines ” 1 I have alreadyShown that the general tendency of the Mu

‘tazila movement

was towards a more l iberal v iew of inspiration and the use

of reason in matters of religion . This v iew is now re

asserted with much force by Maulav i Cheragh‘A li Sahib,

a great scholar in both Eastern and Western learning,and a distinguished official in the service of the Nizamo f Haidarabad. He says : “ A prophet is neither imma

culate nor infallible. A prophet feel s that his mind isillumined by God , and the thoughts which are expressedby him and Spoken or written under this influence are to

b e regarded as the words of God . This il lumination of the

mind,or effect of the divine influence, differs in the prophet

according to the capacity of the recipient,or according to

.

the circumstances— physical and moral and rel igious—inwhich he is placed.

” 2 This is quite c ontrary to the

orthodox v iew of inspiration,or wahi

,and is not in accord

ance w ith the received teaching of the orthodox divines ;nor

,so far as I know

,has this liberal v iew ever been

propounded by a Musalman scholar unacquainted withWestern and Christian modes of thought . A nother writer

,

approaching the subj ect from a different standpoint,says

“ The present stagnation of the Muhammadan communityis principal ly due to the notion which has fixed itself in them inds of the generality of Muslims that the right to the

exercise o f private judgment ceased with the early legists,that its exerc ise in modern times is S inful

,that a Muslim

,

in order to b e regarded as an orthodox follower of Muham

mad,shou ld abandon his judgment absolutely to the

interpretations of men who l ived in the ninth century

1 Personal Law of the Muhammadans , b y Syed A mir ‘A li, p . xi .2 Critical Exposit ion of Jihad ,

”b y Cheragh

‘A li, p . lxix.



countries . A social system for barbarism ought not to b eimposed on a people already possessing higher forms of

civilisation .

” 1

These quotations fully support all that I have said inprevious pages on this subject . I t is true that all this isnot approved ; indeed it is severely condemned . S till thesestatements do bear witness to the accuracy of the c on

elusions at which European writers competent to deal withthe subject have arrived. These statements also show that

the deductions made by such European writers from the

history of the past and from Muslim theological literaturehave been correct . Palgrave , for example

,says nothing

stronger than these Indian Muhammadan writers state when,

speaking of the stagnation of Islam,he says : “We cannot

refrain from remarking that the Islamic identification of

religion and law is an essential defect in the system,and

a serious hindrance to the development of good government and social progress .From the writings of these enlightened Musalmans it is

clear that to the Shari ‘at, as v iewed in its finality by theorthodox

,the following objections more or less apply

,v iz . :

that an imperfect code of ethics has been made a permanent

standard of good and evil and a final irrevocable law ; thatthe S hari

‘

at deal s with precepts rather than with principles ;that it has led to formality of worship ; that by it Islam is

rendered stationary and unable to adapt itself to the varyingcircumstances of time and place . In order to remove thesedifficulties

,it is said that the S hari‘at is not really the sacred

and final code which the canonical legists have stated itto b e ; b ut that it is Common Law which can b e changedwhen circumstances require it. Thus

,Maulav i Cheragh

‘A li says : “The -Muhammadan Common Law

, or Shari‘at,if it can b e called Common Law,

as it does not contain any

S tatute Law ,Is by no means unchangeable or unalterable.

” 2

The legislation of the Muhammadan Common Law cannot

1 Reforms und er Moslem Rule , ” p. i i .2 “Critical Exposition of Jihad ,” p . xcii .

THE MODERN MU ‘TA ZILA S 1 9 7

b e called immutable ; on the contrary,it is changeable and

progressive.

” 1 I am not aware that any responsible Muham

madan ruler holds this View that the Shari ‘at is CommonLaw and therefore changeable, nor has any Musalman state ,

so far as I know,exc ept when compelled by some stronger

and more c ivilised non- Muslim Government,attempted to

make any such changes . The S ultan o f Turkey , who, asthe nominal Khalif

,is the religious head and guide of the

S unni Musalmans has,at times

,to bend to the superior

w il l and power of his stronger neighbours and to makedepartures from the S hari‘at ; b ut this , which to the

orthodox mind is a dereliction of duty,is excused because

he must submit to force maj eure. It is indeed fully ad

mitted by the men of what we may call the New Islam in

India that the great body of the authorised teachers of the

past is against them ; b ut it is said that no“regard is to

b e paid to the Opinions and theories of the Muqallids .

” 2

The movement of the ancient Mu‘tazilas was almost

entirelya n intellectual one ; they left moral questions alone.

Inthis respect the modern Mu‘

tazilas are far ahead of theirpredecessors. It would take me far beyond my subject topursue this aspect of the case ; b ut the opinion of some of

the most cultured and enlightened of the Indian Musalmans

is in fu ll accordance with the words of Syed A mir ‘A li,

who says : The conv iction is gradually forcing itself on all

sides,in all advanced Muslim communities , that polygamy

is as much opposed to the teachings of Muhammad as it isto the general progress of civilised society and true cu lture .

” 3

The statement that polygamy is opposed to the teachingsof Muhammad cannot b e substantiated ; b ut the fact thatmany enlightened Musalmans now repudiate the practiceis correct. A lthough the l iberal v 1ews of these writers towhom I have referred do not alter the fact of the non

progre ssive nature of Islam,nor show that the Opinions of

1 Reforms und er Moslem Rule , p. xi ii .2 Ib id ., p. vii.3 “ Spirit of Islam, p. 327.


the orthodox theologians are not correct ; yet this movement,

on the part of men,deeply influenced by Western culture

and affected by the env ironment of a higher civilisation,

towards freedom of thought and a truer moral l ife,is one

of the deepest interest. It is not in lands under Muslimrule where the Law and Faith of Islam have full sway

,b ut

in British India we find men of these advanced v iews .They are entirely out of touch with the many millions of

Indian Muslims who repudiate entirely all such liberalideas .1 The popular opinion

,which classes them as persons

who have rejected a revealed rel igion for a mere religion of

nature,is not correct ; b ut the fact that they are so looked

upon detracts materially from their claim to b e regardedas trustworthy exponents of Islam as it has been,

and is

now, known and received in all Muslim lands . I f Islampossesses in itsel f all the regenerative power claimed for it

,

if the wonderful words of the Prophet breathed new forceand infused new l ife into the dormant heart of Humanity

,

if the A rabs went forth inspired by the teaching of Muham

mad to elevate and civ ilise,

”

we may surely look to A rabiato see some fruit of it all. Yet that land

,the centre of

Islam under its most revered teachers, the Muftis of the

great legal systems,the home of its most sacred spot

,a

pilgrimage to which ensures salvation ; the land in whichits sacred language—the language of the uncreated Quranand so of heaven— is the mother- tongue of the people ;this land is now hopelessly behind almost every other land

,

1 “ A remarkab le instance of enlightened Muhammadanism has recentlyb een seen in Mr. Just ice Syed A m ir ‘

A li ’s “ S pirit of Islam,

”in which the

Ijma‘

,or scholastic trad it ion ,

is wholly set asid e the right of private interpretat ion of the Quran is maintained

,and the adaptab ility of Islam to

the most ad vanced id eas of c ivilisat ion is warmly upheld . B ut such men

as S yed A m ir ‘A li are very rare, and cannot strictly b e called Muslim s no

respectab le memb er of the ‘Ulamaor religious jurists would tolerate them .

They may b e I slamitical theists—just as there is a Theism formed upon

Christ ianity—b ut they are not orthodox Muslims . To the true Muham

madan,authority is everyth ing, and his authority , the Quran, S unnat, and

I jma‘ , tells them . S tud ies in a Mosque ,”by S tanley Lane - Poole

,

p .



to see that all created beings have what is needful for theirsustenance . Israfil is said to have a v ery pleasant voice ,to which an allusion is made in the Masnav i of Jalalu’

d - din

Rumi, where a good minstrel is spoken of as one whosesong is

Like voice of Israfil , whose trump on Judgment DayWil l wake the dead to life his made the sadd est gay.

The one desire of angels is to love and to know God .

A ll beings in the heaven and on the earth are His : and

they who are in His presence disdain not H is serv ice ,neither are they wearied : they praise H im day and night

(S . xxi. 1 9 , They are free from all sin. It is truethat they did not wish for the creation of A dam

,and this

may seem like a want of confidence in God . I t is said ,however

,that their object was not to oppose God

,b ut to

relieve their minds of the doubts they had in the matter.

Thus “When the Lord said to the angels,‘ Verily

,I am

about to place one in my stead on earth,

’

they said,Wilt

thou place there one who wil l do il l therein,and shed

blood when we celebrate thy praise and extol thy holiness ? ’

God said ,‘ Verily I know what ye know not.

I t is also true that Iblis was disobedient,b ut then he

belonged not to the angel ic order, b ut to that of the j inn.

When we said to the angels,‘ Prostrate yourselves before

A dam,

’

they all prostrated themselves save Iblis, who wasof the j inn

,and rev olted from his Lord’s behest ”

(S . xviii.

4 8 ; ii. 33)A ngels sometimes appear in human form

,b ut usually

they are invisible. They intercede for man :“ The ange l s

celebrate the praise of their Lord and ask forgivenessfor the dwellers on earth

”

(S . xlii . They al so act

as guardian angels :“Each hath a succession of angel s

before him and behind him,who watch over him by God’s

behest (S . xiii . “ Is it not enough for you that

your Lord aideth you with three thousand angel s sentdown from on high ?

”

(S . iii. “ S upreme over

A NGELS 20 1

His servants, He sendeth forth guardians who watch over

you ,until , when death overtaketh

'

any one of you ,our

messengers take his soul and fail not (S . v i . In

the Traditions it is said that God has appointed for everyman two angel s to watch over him by day, and two bynight. The one stands on the right - hand side of the man

,

the other on his left. They are called the Mua‘

qqibat,

i .e.

,those who succeed one

“

another. They also bear the

name of Kiramu’

l- Katib in,

“the illustrious recorders ” (S .

lxxxii . They are referred to‘

in the Quran “ Theythink that we hear not their secrets and their privatetalk ? Yes

,and our angel s who are at their sides write

them down (S . xliii. A lso,

“ Truly they are the

guardians‘

over you,illustrious recorders

,cognisant of your

actions.

” “When the two angels charged with takingaccount shal l take it, the one S itting on the right hand ,the other on the left (S . l . A l- Baizav i says thatTradition records that the angel on the right hand ismore merciful than the angel on the left. I f the latterhas to record a b ad action

,the other says

,

“Wait a littlefor seven hours ; perhaps he may pray for or ask pardon .

”

There is an angel who rolls up the record taken by theKiramu

’

l- Katib in :“ On that day we will rol l up the

heavens as S ij il rolls up the books ” (S . xxi . The

commentator Baizav i says that S ij il is the name of the

angel who rolls up the Book of A ctions ; b ut adds it is alsothe name of a written scroll

,in which case the translation

would b e “as the rolling up of the written scroll .” The

opinion of the Commentators is divided as to the true

interpretation.

There are eight angels who support the throne of God .

A nd the angels shall b e on its sides,and over them on

that day eight shal l bear up the throne of thy Lord”

(S . lxix . Nineteen have charge of h ell . “ Over itare nineteen. None b ut angel s have we made guardiansof the fire (S . lxxiv .

There is a special arrangement made by Prov idence to


mitigate the evils of Satanic interference. Iblis,says

Jab ir Maghrabi, though able to assume all other forms,is

not permitted to appear in the . semblance of the Deity,or

any of His angels or prophets . There wou ld otherwise b emuch danger to human salvation,

as he might, under the

appearance of one of the prophets,or of some superior

b eing, make use of this power to seduce men to sin.

”

The story of HaI-I’

I t and Mari’i t is of some interest fromits connec tion with the question of the impeccability of the

ange ls. Speaking of‘

those who rej ec t God’s A postle,the

Quran says : “ A nd they followed what the S atans read inthe reign of S olomon ; not that S olomon was unbelieving,b ut the Satans were unbe liev ing. S orcery did they teachto men

,and what had been revealed to the two angel s

HarI’

It and MarI’

I t at Bab el . Yet no man d id these two

teach until they had said ,‘We are only a temptation. Be

thou not an unbeliever ’

(S . ii. The story goes thatin the time of the prophet Enoch

,when the angel s saw the

b ad actions of men , they said : “ O Lord ! A dam and his

descendants, whom Thou hast appointed as Thy v icegerentson earth

,act disobediently .

” To which the Lord replied :

“ If I were to send you on earth,and to give you lustful

and angry dispositions, you too would sin.

”The angels

thought otherwise ; so God told them to select two of theirnumber who Should undergo this ordeal . They selectedtwo renowned for devotion and piety. God having implanted in them the passions of lust and anger, saidA ll day go to and fro on the earth , pu t an end to the

quarrels of men,ascribe no equal to Me

,do not commit

adultery, drink no wine,and every night repeat the Ismu

’

l

A ‘zam,and return to heaven .

” This they did for some

t ime,b ut at length a beautiful woman named Zuhra

(Venus) led them astray. One day she brought them a

cup of wine. One said,

“ God has forbidden it ;”the

other,“ God is merciful and forgiving.

”

S o they drankthe wine, killed the husband of Zuhra

,to whom they

revealed the “exalted name

,

”and fel l into grievous sin.



To this solution of the difficulty , however, the great body'

of the Traditionists do not agree . They declare that thestory is a Hadis - i - Sahih, and that the Isnad is sound and

good. S uch div ines are Imam Ib n Hanbal,I bn Ma

‘

si’

i d,

I bn ‘

Umr,Ibn

‘A bbas,Hafiz ‘A sqallani, and others . They

say that angel s are immaculate only so long as they remainin the angelic state ; that

,though confined , Harrit and

Marat can teach magic, for a word or two is quite sufficientfor that purpose ; that some men have no fear

,and

,if they

have,it is quite conceivable that the two angels may teach

through the instrumentality of devils or j inn. With regardto the woman Zuhra

,they grant that to b e changed into a

bright star is of the nature of a reward ; b ut they say the

desire to learn the“exalted name

”

was so meritorious an

act that the good She desired outweighs the evil she did .

With regard to the date of the creation of the star Venus,

it is said that all our astronomical knowledge is based on

observations made S ince the Flood , whereas this story re

lates to the times of Enoch,who l ived before the days of

Noah . So the dispute goes on,and men of great repute for

learning and knowledge bel ieve in the story,although it

seems to discredit the orthodox theory of the sinlessness ofangels.Munkar and Nakir are two fierce - looking black angels,

who visit every man in his grave, and examine him withregard to his faith in God and in Muhammad . The deadare supposed to dwel l in ‘A lam - i - b arz akh, a state of existence intervening between the present life and the life of

mankind after the resurrection . This is the meaning of

the word “

grave” when used in this connection . Unbe

lievers and wicked Muslims suffer trouble in that state ;true bel ievers who c an give a good answer to the angel sare happy. There is a difference of opinion with regardto children . The general belief is that the children of

bel ievers will b e questioned , b ut that the angel s w ill teachthem to say,

“ A llah is my Lord , Islam my religion ,and

Muhammad my Prophet.” With regard to the children of

THE JINN OR GENII 20 5

unbel iev ers being questioned , Imam A b I‘I Hanifa hesitated

to give an opinion. H e also doubted about their punish

ment. S ome think they wil l b e in A ‘raf

,a place between

heaven and hel l ; others suppose that they will b e servants

to the true believ ers in Paradise . The v erse,

“ Twice,O

our Lord,hast thou given us death, and twice hast thou

given us life ”

(S . x1. is said to refer to the v isit of

these angel s . Thus it is said in the Tafsir- i - Ibn ‘A bbas ,that death takes place in the world

,and again a second

time after the corpse has been raised to answer. the questioning in the grave : l ife is thus given temporarily in the

grave , and will also b e given at the general resurrection.

D istinct from the angels there is another order of beingsmade of fire, called j inn (genii) . It is said that they werecreated thousands of years before A dam came into existence .

“We created man of dried clay , of dark loam moulded,and

the j inn had been before created of subtle fire (S . xv.

2 6,

They eat,drink , propagate their species

,and are

subj ect to death, though they generally l ive many centuries .

S ome are bel ievers in Islam ; some are infidels,and will b e

punished .

“ I wil l wholly fill hel l with j inn and men (S .

xi . The Saratu’l - Jinn (lxxii.) refers to their belief in

Islam . The passage is too long to quote . Their earnestdesire to hear the Quran is referred to in the v erse

,When

the servant of God stood up to cal l upon him,they almost

j ostled him by their crowds (S . lxxii. A ll the com

mentators say the phrase “ S ervant of God”

refers to

Muhammad and the word “they ”

to the j inn. Some tryto hear what is going on in heaven.

“We guard themmen) from every stoned Satan

,save such as steal a

hearing”

(S . xv . They were under the power of

S olomon and served him (S . xxxviii. A n ‘Ifrit of thej inn said

,

“ I wil l bring it thee (Solomon) ere thou risestfrom thy place : I have power for this, and am trusty (S .

xxvii . A t the last day the j inn also will b e questioned .

A b I’

I Hanifa doubted whether the j inn who are Muslims

will b e rewarded . The unbelieving j inn will assuredly b e


punished . Tradition classifies them in the following order

(I ) Jann, (2 ) Jinn , (3) Shaitan , (4)‘Ifrit

, (5 ) Marid .

Many fables have been invented concerning these beings ,and though intelligent Muslims may doubt these wonderfulaccounts

, yet a belief in the order of j inn is imperative , atleast as long as there is bel ief in the Quran. Those whowish to know more of this subject will find a very interesting chapter on it in Lane’s Modern Egyptians .

”

The teaching of Islam about the angels , the work and

nature of evil spirits and the Houris, is derived from Zoroastrian or Magian sources directly, or indirectly through the

medium of later Jewish legends, and shows how muchMuhammad borrowed from Pagan sources .

3. THE BO0KS .

—A l Berkev i says .

It is necessary to b elieve that the b ooks of God have b eensent through the instrumentality of Gab riel to prophets upon the

earth . The Quran was sent to Muhammad portion by portiond uring a space of twenty- three years. The Pentateuch came toMoses

,the Inj il to Jesus , the Zahur to David

,and the other b ooks

to other prophets. The whole numb er of the D ivine b ooks isone hundred and four. The Quran

,the last of all

,is to b e fol

lowed till the day of judgment. It can neither b e ab rogated nor

changed . S ome laws of the previous b ooks have b een ab rogated

by the Quran, and ought not to b e followed .

”

The one hundred to which no distinctive name is givenare known as the S uhI

'

I fu’

l A nb iya,- Books of the Pro

phets. The Quran is al so known as the Furqan,the d is

t inguisher the Quran- i - Sharif, noble Quran ; the Quran- i

Maj id, glorious Quran ; the Mushaf, the Book . I t is said

to b e the compendium of the Taurat, Zab I’

Ir,and Inj il ; so

Muslim s do not requ i re to study these books. The orthodoxbel ief is that they are entirely abrogated by the Quran

,

1

though S yed A hmad , in his commentary on the Bible

1 Sharh- i - ‘A qaid- i -Jam i

, p . 147 :“ Manusukh shud t ilawatan wa Kita

batan ,

”t.e. ,

ab rogated b oth as regard s read ing and writ ing. A lso Takmilu

’l Iman, p. 64 :

“ Th is religion ab rogates all religions”—Din - i - wai

nasikh - i - jami ‘ ad ian ast.


THE FA ITH OF ISLAM

(S . v .

“ A nd let the people of the Gospel judge ao

cording to that which is revealed therein,and whoso j udgeth

not according to that which God hath revealed,these are the.

wicked ones ”

(S . v . We also caused Jesus,the son

of Mary, to follow the footsteps of the prophets

,confirming

the law (Taurat) which was sent before him,and we gave

him the Inj il with its guidance and l ight, confirmatory

of the preceding law ; a gu idance and a warning to thosethat fear God (S . v .

“ We believe in God,and that

which hath been sent down to us,and that which hath

been sent down to A braham and Isaac and Jacob and the

tribes , and that which hath been given to Moses and to

Jesus , and that which was given to the prophets from theirLord . No difference do we make between any of them :

and to God are we resigned”

(S . ii . I In truth hath

He sent down to thee the Book , wh ich confirmeth thosethat precede it, for He had sent down the Law and the Inj ilaforetime as man

’s guidance ; and now hath He sent downthe Furqan (S . iii.Practically , Musalmans reject the Old and New Testa

ments. To do so is manifestly against the letter of the

Quran,and

,as some reason for this neglect of previous

S criptures must b e given, Muslim divines say that the

Jewish and Christian S criptures have been corrupted . The

technical expression is tahrif,”

a word signifying to change,to turn aside anything from the truth . Then tahrif may

b e of two kinds : tahrif- i - ma‘nav i

,a change in the meaning

of words ; tahrif- i - lafg i, an actual change of the writtenwords . Most Musalmans maintain that the latter kind of

corruption has taken place , and so they do not feel bound

to read or study the previous revelations so frequently re

ferred to in the Quran. The charge brought against theJews of corrupting their S criptures is based on the follow

ing v erse of the Qurau : S ome tru ly are there among you

who torture the S criptures with their tongues , in order that

ye may suppose it to b e from the S cripture, yet it is not

from the S cripture. A nd they say, This is from God,

’

yet

PROPHETS 20 9

it is not from God ; and they utter a lie against God ,

and they know they do so (S . iii. A ll the ancientcommentators assert that this only proved tahrif- i- ma

‘navi ;

that is,that the Jews referred to misinterpreted what they

read,or

,whilst professing to read from the S cripture , used

expressions not found therein . I t does not mean that theyaltered the text of their S criptures . This

,however, does

not excuse Musalmans for their neglect o f the previousS criptures

,and so the orthodox divines of modern times

maintain that the greater corruption,the tahrit- i - lafg f, has

taken place . Yet the Quran is said to b e confirmatory of

previous S criptures and their safeguard (S . v . The

question is fully discussed , and the opinion of the earliercommentators endorsed by Syed A hmad in his Commentaryon the Bible .

4 . PROPHETS .—Muhammad A l Berkev i says

“ It is necessary to confess that God has sent prophets ; that

A dam is the first of the prophets and Muhammad the last ; thatb etween A dam and Muhammad there were a great numb er of

prophets that Muhammad is the most ex cellent of all ; that eachof the preced ing prepli ets was sent to a special people , some withb ooks, some without

,b ut that Muhammad was sent to all men

and also to the genii that his law will remain until the end of

the world ; that one night he was transported from Mecca to

Jerusalem,and from thence to heav en, where he saw b oth Parad ise

and Hell,conversed with the Most High, and returned to Mecca

b efore morning. A fter him no other prophet will come,for he is

the seal of the prophets”

(S . xxx iii.

Tradition records that there have been about two hundredthou sand prophets . Twenty - five are mentioned by name in

the Quran , of whom six are distinguished by special titles.

A dam , Safiyu’

llah, the chosen of God ; Noah, Nab iyu’

llah,

the prophet o f God ; A braham,Khalilu

’

llah,the friend of

God ; Moses,Kalimu

’

llah,the one with whom God speaks ;

Jesus , Ruhu’

llah,the spirit of God Muhammad

,Rasu

lu’

llah the messenger of God . These are called the A nb iyaUlu

’

l - ‘A zm (possessors of purpose) because they were the

O


heads of their respective dispensations, and because theywill b e permitted by God to intercede in the day of judgment for their followers . They are the greatest and mostexalted of the prophets .There are degrees of rank amongst the prophets

,for

S ome of the A postles have we endowed more highly thanothers. 1 Those to whom God hath spoken

,He hath raised

to the l oftiest grade , and to Jesu s,the S on of Mary

,we

gave manifest signs , and we strengthened him with the

Holy S pirit ”

(S . ii . It is said that the “ first appearance of prophetship was in A dam

,and its perfection in the

S eal of the prophets . ’ In the Masnav i it is said“ The name of A hmad includes the names of prophets all,Just as one hundred

,when received

,includes ninety all.

A Tradition,as usual

,supports this position. I am the

chief of the sons of men.

”A dam and all beside him will

b e ranged under my flag in the judgment- day.

”

I t is saidthat the law given by Moses was harsh

'

and severe ; thatby Christ was mild and graciou s ; b ut that the law givenby Muhammad is perfect

,for it combines both the quality

of strictness and that of graciousness ; according to the

Tradition :“ I always laugh and by laughing kill . Each

prophet is said to have been sent to his own tribe,b ut

Muhammad was sent for all men. A Tradition states : “ Iwas raised up for all men whether white or black

,other

prophets were not,except for their own tribe.

”

The Quran

also says : We have sent thee (Muhammad) for all men.

”

Many Sunnis hold that prophets are superior to angels,and sometimes quote the verse,

“ Verily, God chose A damand Noah and the family of A braham and the family of

Imran out of the worlds (S . iii. as a proof of it. The

Mu‘tazilas say that the angels are superior to the prophets.

A l- Jub b ai,a Mu

‘tazila

,quotes the verse, Neither do I say

unto you ,

‘ Verily I am an angel’ ”

(S . v i. to prov e

,

1 This , however, is contrary to the verses , “We make no d ifferenceb etween them

”

(S . iii . “We make no d istinct ion b etween any of

His A postles”

(S . ii .



The soul s of men may b e divided into three classes. The

first kind of soul is too feeble by nature to attain to a per

ception of the spiritual : it has to content itself with movingin the region of sense and imagination. Thus it can understand concepts and affirmations . I t can raise itself high inits own category, b ut cannot pass its l imit.The sou ls of the second class are carried by a reflective

movement and a natural disposition towards a Spiritualintel ligence. They can enter into a state of contemplationwhich results in ecstasy . This is the intuition of the saints

(A ul iya) ,1to whom God has given this divine knowledge.

The soul s of the third class are created with the powerof disengaging themselves altogether from their human

bodies in order that they may rise to the angelic state,where they become like angel s . In a moment of time sucha sou l perceives the sublime company (of angels) in the

sphere which contains them . It there and then hears thespeech of the sou l and the divine v oice . Such are the

souls of the prophets . God has given to these soul s thepower of leaving the human body . Whilst thu s separatefrom it

,God gives to them His revelat ion . The prophets

are endowed by God with such a purity of disposition,such

an instinct of uprightness , that they are naturally inclinedto the spiritual world . They are animated by an ardourquite peculiar to their order. When they return ' from the

angel ic state they del iver to men the revelations they havereceived . The journey to

,the journey from the angelic

state,and the comprehension of the revelation received

there , occupy less time than the twinkling of an eye. So

rapidly do the souls of prophets move . S o instantaneou slydo they receive and understand God

’

s revelations . This iswhy inspiration is called Wahi, a word which, according to

Ibn Khaldun,means to make haste.

1 That the “ A uliya are d istingu ished ab ove ord inary mortals is

maintained on the authority of : “ A re not the friend s (A uliya) of Godthose on whom no fear shall come

,nor shall they b e put to grief

”

(S . x.

THE S INLES SNESS or PROPHETS 2 1 3

A Nabi (who must b e a wise and a free man,that is,

one who is not a S lave of another,and one also who is free

from imperfection either of body or mind) receives wahf,b ut has not necessarily to del iver to men the orders o f

God . A Rasul , who must possess the same qualificationsas a Nabi

,is one who is commanded to del iver God

’

s

message to men,though he does not necessarily abrogate

what preceding Rasuls have del ivered . S ome Rasuls doso

,b ut the distinguishing mark of the Rasul is that he

d elivers to men commands d irect from God , and is speciallycommissioned so to do. Thus every Rasul is a Nabi, whilst

every Nab i is not a Rasul . 1

The orthodox belief is that prophets are free from sin.

2

The A sh ‘arians bel ieve that the power of sinning is not

created in them. The Mu‘tazilas deny this, b ut admit the

existence of some quality which keeps them from evil .These theories do not agree with actual facts. Prophets

,

l ike other men,commit faults

,b u t here comes in the

Mu slim distinction of sins into gunah - i - kabira, great sins ,”

and gunah- i - Saghira, little S ins .

”The gunah

- i- kabira are

murder,

adultery,disobedience to God and to parents

,

avoiding fighting against infid els, drunkenness, u sury,

neglecting the Friday prayers and the Ramazan fast,for

getting the Quran after reading it, swearing falsely or byany other than God , magic, gambling, calling on the names

of deceased persons and beating the breast at such times ,3

dancing, musrc,d isrespect to a Hafiz

,shaving the beard

,

omitting to say the dari’

Id on whom and on whosefamily b e the peace and mercy o f God) whenev er the name

1 There is some d ispute as to whether a woman can attain to the ranko f prophets . The A sh ‘

arians say she can, and mention as po ss ib le prophetesses the Virgin Mary

,the w ife of Pharaoh , Sarah ,

Hagar , and some

ad d the names of Eve and of the mother of Moses .

2 S ome of the sub sections of the Shi ‘ahs , in order to exalt the Imams,

ho ld that prophets can sin. The Hasham iyah , for example , say :“ The

prophe ts sin, b ut the Imam s are pure Milal wa Nihal,”b y Sharastzini,

p .

3 Th is is an orthod ox b low at the S hi ‘ah pract ices in the month of

Muharram. Shi ‘ahs consid er this a good ac t.


of Muhammad is mentioned ; These are all “

great sins ,and can only b e forgiven after due ' repentance ; the

“ littlesins ” are forgiven if some good actions are done. Observeprayer at early mornin <r at the close of day, and at the

O ,

approach of night ; for the good deeds drive away the evil

deeds”

(S . xi . I t is the universal b el ief that a

prophet never commits the greater S ins,b ut there is a

difference of opinion with regard to the lesser sins . S omel imit even this frailty to the period before wahi comes uponthem . The general opinion, however, is that the frailtieswhich they show are merely faults and sl ight imperfectionsnot amounting to sin .

This,to the Muslim mind

, at once disposes of a difficultythe Quran itself raises on this point. With the exceptiono f Jesus Christ

,the A nb iya

-Ulu’l - ‘A zm are spoken of as

doing what every one except an orthodox Musl im wouldcal l S in . A dam’

s transgression1is referred to in Surah ii.

2 9—37 , and in Surah v ii . 1 0 - 24 .

“ They said ,

‘ O our

Lord ! with oursel ves have we deal t unjustly ; if Thou for

give us not and have not pity on us , we shall surely b e of

those that perish .

’

The sin of Noah is plainly hinted at

in Unless Thou forgive me and b e merciful to me,I shal l

b e one of the lost ”

(S . xi . There IS a similar requestin Surah lxxi . 29 . A braham also is represented as saying,“When I am S ick , He healeth me, and who will cause me

to d ie and again quicken me , and who, I hope , w il l forgiveme my sins in the day of reckoning (S . xxv i. 80Moses is described as having done

“a work of S atan in

k il ling a man, and as saying, O my Lord , I have sinned

to my own hurt ; forgive me .

’

S o God forgave him ; for

H e is the forgiving, the merciful . He said : Lord,because

Thou hast showed me

’

this grace, I will never again b e thehelper of the wicked (S . xxv iii. I 5 ,

1 It is said A dam ’s sin was a mere slip, b ut it b rought good to the world .

Had he remained in Parad ise the world would not have b een peopled ;and the word of God ,

“ I have not created men and j inns except for worsh ip , would not have b een fulfilled .



have won for thee an undoubted victory , in token that Godforgiveth thy earlier and later fault ”

(S . xlviii . 1 It

is not quite clear what v ictory is here referred to . A ccording to the Tafsir- i - Husaini

,some commentators say that it

is the taking of Mecca, the past tense being propheticallyu sed for the future. The following explanations are givenof the expression “

earlier and later fault .”

God has

forgiven thy sin committed before and after the descent ofwahf, before and after the tak ing of Mecca, or

before the descent of this S I’

Irah . The commentatorS almi says : “

The earlier sin refers to the sin of A damcomm itted when Muhammad was in the loins of his greatancestor and thus connected with him ; the later sin refers

to the followers of the Prophet, and in that way is con

nected with him,just as the sin of A dam was the prede

cessor and cause of their sin.

” Imam A b i’I ’l- Lais says“ The words refer to the sin of A dam, and to those of the

followers of the Prophet. Both are connected with Muham

mad,because the former is forgiven by the blessing, and

the latter by the intercession of Muhammad .

”

From these extracts from the Quran it appears that sinis imputed to the prophets , though Muslims evade the

charge by the casuistry l have already referred to . Be

that as it may,it is a striking fact that the one sinless

member of the A nb iya- Ulu

’

l - ‘

A z m, the one sinless prophetof Islam

,is none other than the Lord Jesus Christ. There

is no passage in the Quran which hints at sin, ev en in themodified form in which Muslims attribute it to other pro

phets, being committed by him : no passage which speaksof his seeking for pardon.

In the Traditions (Sahihu’

l Bukhari,v ol. i ii. 1 9 4) there

is the same absence of any imputation of evil to Christ .

There is a very marked instance of this in the Sahihu’

l

Bukhari . Muhammad is reported to have said : “ The

people will b e gathered together at the day of j udgmentand w ill say, I f some one wou ld only intercede for us withour Lord .

’ They will go to A dam and say, Thou art the

PROPHETS WORK MIRA CLES 2 1 7

father of men . God'

created thee with . H is own hand .

A ngels made sijdah to thee and taught thee the names of

everything. Intercede for us with thy Lord , so that we

may b e happy in one place .

’

A dam replied,

‘ I am not fit

for this work for you ,’

and he remembered his sin (ganh) ,and was ashamed . Then they went to Noah . Certainly hewas the first prophet raised up by God for the ruler of the

world . He replied ,‘ I am not fit for this work for you,

’

and remembered his questioning of God on that which wasnot for him to know . He will b e ashamed and will say,

GO to the friend of God’

A braham) . They will then

go to A braham ,who will say, I am not fit for this ; go to

Moses,to whom God spake and gave the Taurat.

’ Theywill go to him,

and he will say,‘ I am not fit for it,

’

and

will remember his kil ling a man,and will b e ashamed , and

will say,‘ Go to Jesus

,the servant of God and the messen

ger, the word of God and H is spirit ; b ut Jesus w ill say,‘ I am not fit for this ; go to Muhammad , the servant towhom God hath forgiven the former and the latter sin

’

(ganb ) . In sharp contrast to the case of Muhammad and

the other prophets , reference to sin is omitted in the caseof Jesus .I t is the universal belief that prophets work miracles

A miracle is defined to b e “ Kharq- i - ‘

adat,

that is,something contrary to the u sual course of nature.

The object for which a miracle is performed must b e a

moral one,and chiefly to attest the truth of the statements

made by the prophet. Muhammad makes,in the Quran,

no distinct claim to the power of working m iracles ; on

the contrary, he seems to disclaim such a power . The

Quraish said : “ By no means wil l we believe on thee til lthen cause a fountain to gush forth for us from the earth ;or till thou have a garden of palm - trees and grapes , and

thou cause forth -

gushing rivers to gush forth in its midst ;or thou make the heaven to fal l on us

,as thou hast given

out,in pieces ; or thou bring God and the angels to v ouch

for t hee, &c . Say, A m I more than a man, an A postle


(S . xvn . 9 2“ The unbelievers say,

‘Why hath not

a S ign been given him by his Lord ? ’

Nay, b ut thou art

only a Warrior,and unto every people hath been given

a guide (S . xiii. The commentator Baizawi says :When the people demanded m iracles such as those wroughtby Moses and Jesus, Muhammad is told that he is only a

warrior. The demand was withheld because it was madeperversely and net with sincerity. Other passages on thispoint are Surahs v i . 37 ; v ii. 204 ; xv ii . 5 8 xix . 48 .

Former prophets,Muhammad used to say, were sent to

their own sect, b ut he was sent for all. Their miracleswere confined to their own times . The Quran,

the great

m iracle of Islam,was for all ages . He needed no other S ign

than this . B ut his followers maintain that in this,as in all

other respects , he was equal to all and superior to some pro

phets , and produce various passages of the Quran in support

o f their v iew . Thus,accord ing to S haikh Jalalu

’

d - din Syuti’

,

i f to A dam was given the power of naming eve rything, Mu

hammad also possessed the same power . Enoch was exaltedon high, b ut Muhammad was taken to the Baqah- i -

qausain,

the“two bows’ length,

”where Gabriel

,

“one mighty in

power ,”appeared to him (S . l iii . 5 Ishmael was ready

to b e sacrificed, b ut Muhammad endured the splitting of his

chest ;1 Joseph was to some extent handsome , b ut Muham

mad was the very perfection , of beauty ; Moses broughtwater from the rock

,b ut Muhammad produced it . from his

fingers. The sun was stayed in its course by Joshua,and

so it was by Muhammad . S olomon had a great kingdom,

Muhammad a greater, for he possessed the keys of the

treasuries Of the earth . Wisdom was given to John the

Baptist whilst yet a child , so also were wisdom and understanding granted to Muhammad at an early period of his

l i fe . Jesus could raise the dead,so also could Muhammad .

In - addition to all these, the special miracles of the Prophet

1 Have we not opened th ine heart for thee (S . xciv. I ) . Trad it ion relates that when young, two angels cut Open h is b reast and took ou ta b lack d rop. Many other marvels are also connected with this event .



Be that as it may,all orthodox Muslims maintain the

superiority of Muhammad as a worker of m iracles overall other prophets .1

5 . THE RES URREOTION A ND THE LA ST DAY.—These two

articles of the faith may b e considered together. The

fol lowing is a summary of the remarks of Muhammad A lBerkev i on this point . It is necessary to acknowledge

I . That the torments of the tomb are real and certain,and that

Munkar and Nakir will interrogate the d ead person concerninghis God

,his Prophet, his faith, and his Qib lah . The faithful will

reply,“ Our God is God ; our Prophet is Muhammad our religion,

I slam ; our Qib lah, the Ka‘b ah.

2 . That all the signs of the last daymentioned by the Prophetwill come to pass ; such as the appearance of Dajjal

,or A nti

christ ; the descent of Jesus from heaven ; the appearance of

Imam Mahd i and of Gog and Magog the rising of the sun from

the west, &c .

3. That all living things will d ie ; that the mountains will flyin the air like b irds that the heavens will melt away that after

some time has thus passed , God Most High will raise the d ead ;that prophets, saints, doctors of the law, and the faithful w ill findnear them the rob es and the horses of Parad ise. They will puton the rob es

,and mount the horses

,and go into the shade of the

throne of God . Other men,hungry, thirsty, and naked

,will go

on foot. The faithful will go to the right, the infidels to the

left.

4 . That there will b e a b alance, in which the good and b ad

actions of men will b e weighed . Those whose good d eed s out

weigh the b ad will go to Paradise ; if the b ad predom inate, they

the Prophet saw h imself , in a vision ,transported from Mecca to Jerusalem ,

and that in such a vision he really b eheld some of the greatest signs ofh is Lord .

”

(Essays b y Syed A hmad , Essay vi . p . Th is , though a

legitimate,is not

,however, an orthod ox op in ion ,

wh ich is , that he whod enies an actual b od ily migration from Mecca to Jerusalem is a Kafir

(infid el ), as he d en ies the statement of a“nass ,

”or plain text of the

Quran. He who d enies the ascension to heaven and the wond erfulaccount of the night

’

s proceed ings preserved in the Trad itions is a fasiq

(sinner), though he remains a Musl im .

1 The m iracle worked b y a prophet is called mu‘

j i z ah ; b y a saint,

karamat ; b y an evil spirit or an Opposer of God , istid rzij .

EVENTS OF THE LA ST DA Y 2 2 1

will go into the fire, unless God has mercy on them,or the pro

phets or saints interced e for them . If,however

, they were not

Muslims,there will b e no intercession for them ,

nor will they come

ou t from the fire. The Muslims who enter the fire will, after

having purged their crimes,enter Parad ise .

5 . That the b ridge Sirat , which is sharper than a sword , is

raised ab ove the fire ; that all men must pass over this. S ome

will pass over with the speed of lightning, some will go veryslowly over others w ill fall and certainly enter into the fire .

6 . That each prophet has a pool where he, with his people , willquench their th irst b efore entering Paradise ; that the pool of

Muhammad is the largest of all. Its water is sweeter than honey,

whiter than m ilk.

7 . That Parad ise and Hell actually exist ; that the chosenremain for ever in the former ; they neither die nor grow aged .

The Houris and the females are exempted from the infirmities

of their sex . They will no longer b ear children. The elect willfind there the meat and the drink they require , without takingupon themselves any troub le. The ground of Paradise is of

musk the b ricks of its edifices are of gold and of silver.

The unb elievers and the demons will remain for ever in hell,

tormented b y serpents as thick as the neck of a camel,by

scorpions as large as mules,b y fire and by scald ing water. Their

b odies will b urn till they b ecome reduced to a coal,when God

will revive them so that they may endure fresh torments. Thiswill last for ever.

The following additional remarks are based on the Sharhi -

‘A qaid—i - Jami. They fall under four headsThe sounding of the trumpets (Nafkhatain- i - Sii r) .

The Prophet said : The last hour will not b e till no one isfound who calls on God . Then “ There shal l b e a blaston the trumpet

,and all who are in the heavens and all who

are in the earth shal l expire,save those whom God shal l

v ouchsafe to live . There shal l b e another blast on it,and

lo ! arising they shal l gaze around them”

(S . xxxix.

A buHuraira,a Companion

,relates that the Prophet, speak

ing of the trumpet, stated as follows : “ A fter the creationof the heavens and the earth

,God created the trumpet and

22 2 THE'

FA ITH ~ OF ISLAM

gave it to Israfil, who, with his mouth placed to it, is everlooking up and waiting for

"

the order to blow it. He willblow three times. 1 The first time, the blast of consternation

,to terrify ; the second , the blast of examination

,to

slay ; the third,the blast of resurrection,

to quicken the

d ead . Most persons believe that everything, save God

and H is attributes , will perish .

The resurrection of the body is clearly proved by the

Quran . Thus,

“ They say,‘Who will bring us back ? ’

S ay :‘ He who created you at first (S . xvii .

“ ‘Who shall give life to bones when they are rotten ? ’

Say :‘ He shal l give l ife to them who gave them being

at first,for in all creation is He skilled ’ ”

(S . xxxvi .“ Man saith :

‘What ! after I am dead,shall I in the end

he brought forth alive ? ’

Doth not man bear in mindthat we made him at first, when he was nought ? (S . xix .

“ The infidels will say,Shall we indeed b e restored

as at first ? What ! when we have become rotten bones ?’

This then,

’

say they,will b e a return to loss .

’

Verily,it

w ill b e b ut a single blast, and lo ! they are on the surfaceof the earth ”

(S . lxxix . 1 0“ I s He not powerfu l

enough to quicken the dead ? (S . lxxv. Thisresu rrection will b e to judgment . say the

unbeliev ers ,‘ wil l the hour come upon us .

’

Say :‘ Yea

,

by my Lord who knoweth the unseen,it wil l surely come

upon you ,to the intent that God may reward those

who have bel ieved, b ut as for those who aim to

invalidate our signs, a chastisement of painful tormentawaiteth them

’ ”

(S . xxxiv. 3,

“ A terrible chastiseme

'

nt doth await them on the Day when faces shall turnwhite and faces shall turn black .

‘What ! after yourbel ief have ye become infidels ? Taste , then ,

the chastise

ment for that ye have been unbelievers.

’

A nd as to thosewhose faces shall have become white , they Shal l b e within

the mercy of God”

(S . iii. The Prophet knew not

1 S ome commentators make no d istinction b etween the first and secondb last

,as only two are d istinctly mentioned in the Quran.



Paradise. The Prophet said : “ I will also put on a dress,

and will stand near the throne,where no one else will b e

allowed to stand,and God will say :

‘ A sk and it shall b e

granted to thee ; intercede, thy intercession shall b e ao

c epted . Each book flies from the treasury under the

Throne of God,and is given to its proper owner.

“ Everyman

’

s fate have we fastened about his neck ; and on the

day of resurrection will we bring forth to him (every man)a book which shall b e proffered to him wide open : Readthy book ; there needeth none b ut thyself to make out an

account against thee this day (S . xvii. A portionof v erse 7 8 of Surah xxviii .

,But the wicked shal l not b e

asked of their crimes,

” seems to contradict this ; b ut commentators say that th is verse simply means that God knowsall, or that their sinfulness will appear on their foreheads .

“ One day we will summon all men with their leaders

(Imams) . They whose books shall b e given into their righ thands

,shall read their book

,and not b e wrong a thread

(S . xvii . He into whose right hand his book shal lb e given shall b e reckoned with an easy reckoning, and

shal l turn rejoicing to his kindred . But he whose bookShal l b e given behind his back into his left hand) shal linvoke destruction

” 1

(S . lxxxiv. 8“ He who shal l

have his book given into his left hand will say :‘ 0 that

my book had never been given me,and that I had not

known my reckoning’

(S . lxix . But the command

goes forth ,“ Lay hold of him and chain him ; then at the

hell - fire burn him”

(S . lxix . It is said that wickedMusalmans w ill b e seized by the right hand before theyare cast into the fire , which is held a proof that they are notalways to remain there . S ome consider that the expression“ Read thy book implies a l iteral reading ; others, that it

is a metaphorical expression , which S imply means that all

the past actions will b e known. Those who believe in a

l iteral reading say that each bel iever will read the account

1 The former are cal led A shAb u’l-Yamin,

men of the right ; the latter,A shab u - sh - Shamal , men of the left.

THE BA LANCES 2 2 5

of his faults only, and that other persons will read that of

his good deeds . The face of the believer as he reads will

Shine resplendently, b ut black wil l b e the face of the infidel .Sufis , according to the Masnav i, claim exemption from this

exam ination . S peaking of these books,Jalalu

’

d - din says

that they are abolished in the case of saints .

The Balances (Mizan) . This bel ief is based on the

authority of the Quran, Sunnat, and the Ijma‘

; no Musl im,

therefore, can have any doubt about it . Thus ° “ Theywhose b alances shall b e heavy Shal l b e the blest ; b ut

they whose balances Shal l b e light, these are they who

Shal l lose their soul s,abiding in hell for ever (S . xxiii .

1 04)“ They whose balances shal l b e heavy

,these are

they who shal l b e happy ; and they whose balances shal l

b e light, these are they who have lost the ir souls , for that

to our signs they. were unjust ”

(S . v ii. 7 , A s to him

whose balances are heavy , his shal l b e a life that shal lplease him wel l : and as to him whose balances are light,his dwel ling- place Shal l b e the pit . A nd who shall teach

thee what the pit (A l- Hawiyah) is ? A raging fire (S . c i.

5 In the Sahihu’

l- Bukhari it is said that the bel ieversw il l not b e weighed in the balances , for

“ God will say,

O Muhammad ! make those of thy people from whom no

account is taken enter into Paradise .

’

Prophets and

angel s will also b e exempt . S uch a test also is not re

quired for the unbel ievers , for their state is very evident“ By their tokens shal l the sinners b e known ,

and theyshall b e seized by their forelocks and their feet ”

(S . lv.“ Vain

,therefore

,are their works

,and no weight will we

allow them on the day of resurrection ”

(S . xviii .S ome

,however, say that all that is here denied is the

fact of “a weighing in their favour .

”

The place where theweighing will take place is s ituated m idway between heavenand hell . Gabriel

,standing by , watches the movement of

the scales , and Michael guards the balance . There is a

d ifference of Opinion as to whether the “ works themselves,

or the books will b e weighed . The latter opinion is sup


ported by a Tradition recorded by Tirmiz i . “The Prophet

said : ‘Ninety - nine registers wil l b e distributed . God willsay :

‘What ! dost thou deny this , or have the recordingangels treated thee unjustly ? ’

Each w ill say :‘ No

, O

Lord .

’ ‘ Hast thou then any excuse ? ’ ‘ NO,O Lord .

’

Then God will display a cloth on which the Kalima i s

written. This will b e put into one scale,and God will

say :‘ TO thee will b e no evil if thou hast a register in

one scale and this cloth in the other , for the first scalew ill b e light.

’ This is considered conclusive testimonyw ith regard to the weighing of the books . The Mu

‘tazilas

obj ected to statements such as these,for said they

,

“A ctions

are accidents,and the qualities of l ightness and heav iness

cannot b e attributed to accidents. They explained the

verses of the Quran ,and the statements of the Traditions

on this point , as being a figurative way of saying that

perfect justice will b e done to all in the day of judgment.To this the orthodox reply

,that “ it is not known how

God will do this the weighing of the books) , b ut thisignorance does not make God ’s actions—1S O clearly madeknown—vain.

”

The Bridge (Sirat) .1The meaning of the word S irat

is a road,a way. It is so u sed in the Quran “ If we

pleased , we would surely put out their eyes : yet even then

would they speed on with rivalry in their path (Sirat)”

(S . xxxv i. “ Gather together those who have actedunjustly , and their consorts (demons) , and the gods whomthey have adored beside God , and gu ide them to the road

(Sirat) for hel l ” (S . xxxvii . I t is nowhere in the

Quran called a bridge , b ut Tradition is very clear on thispoint. The Prophet said : There will b e a bridge sharperthan the edge of a sword , finer than a hair

,suspended over

hell . S ome will pass over it in the twinkling of an eye ,

1 Muhammad was ind eb ted to Zoroastrianism for th is id ea. The ancientPersians called th is b ridge or road over hell the Chinavat . The word

Sirét d oes not come from an A rab ic root . (“ Religion of the Crescent

,

p . 1 73)



and these,say they, will on the last day b e adm itted into Parad ise,

after they shall have performed an act of adoration,which will b e

imputed to them as a merit,and will make the scale of their good

works to overb alance . O thers suppose this intermediate space

w ill b e a receptacle for those who hav e gone to war withou ttheir parents

’ leave, and therein suffered martyrdom ; b eing ex

cluded from Parad ise for their d isob edience, and escaping hellb ecause they are martyrs.

”

There is also an interval between the death of the bodyin this world and the Last Day,

called A l- Barz akh .

“ Behind them shal l b e a barrier (b arz akh) , until the daywhen they shal l b e raised again

”

(S . xxiii. Whendeath takes place , the sou l is separated from the body bythe A ngel of Death ; in the case of the good with ease

,in

that of the wicked with v iolence. It then enters into A lBarz ak

'

h.

1

The Mushrik,one who ascribes plural ity to God

,will

remain in hel l for ever, for as Kufr,infidel ity, is an eternal

crime , its punishment must also b e eternal . “The nu

bel iev ers among the people of the Book,and among the

Polytheists , shal l go into the fire of Gehenna,to abide

therein for aye . Of all creatures are they the worst ”

(S . xcviii . Cast into he l l every infidel,every har

dened one , the hinderer of the good , the transgressor, thedoubter who set up other gods with God . Cast ye himinto the fierce torment (S . 1. 2 3

Musl ims who commit great (kabira) sins , though theyd ie unrepentant, will not remain in hell for ever

,for

“who

soever shall have wrought an atom'

s weight of good shal lbehold it ”

(S . xcix. It is asserted that the fact of

believing- in Islam is a good work and merits a reward .

The commentator Baizav i says that the teaching of the

verse,

“Every sou l shall b e paid what it wrought

”

(S . iii .

is that “ S ervice done is not lost. The believer wil lnot b e left in hel l for ever

,because , as the reward for his

1 For some curious Opinions with regard to the state of the soul there ,see Sale’s Preliminary Discourse, S ection iv. p . 5 5 .

THE INTERCES S ION OF MUHA MMA D 2 2 9

faith and his works Cannot b e paid in hel l or before heenters it, it can only b e given after he is released from it.“ Perfect faith (Iman - i - kamil) consists in believing withsincerity of heart and acting in accordance thereto, b ut theactions are not the faith itself. Great S ins , therefore

,

prevent a man from having‘ perfect faith,

’

b ut do not

destroy faith (iman), nor make the Muslim an infidel,b ut

only a S inner.

”

The Mu‘

tazilas teach that the Muslimwho enters hel l will remain there for ever. They maintain that the person who , having committed great sins

,

dies unrepentant though not an infidel , ceases to b e a

believer,and hence suffers as the infidels do

,t hough the

punishment is l ighter than that which an infidel receives .A l—A sh ‘

ari held the following v iews The S inner who diesunrepentant is at the mercy of God , b ut the Prophet wil lintercede for him,

as he said,

‘ My intercession is for

those among my people who commit great sins .’

A t

last they enter Paradise , and , whilst being punished, theymust not b e in the same fire as the infidels .

“

H e in whoseheart is one atom of faith cannot b e finally lost .

”

I f

any man should repent,I (A sh

‘

ari) do not by my reason

say,

‘

God must pardon him b ut so it is revealed .

” 1

The orthodox belief is that Muhammad is now an intercessor

,and will b e S O at the Last Day. The intercession

then is of several kinds . There is the great intercession,

”

to which the words “I t may b e that thy Lord wil l raise

thee to a glorious station”

(S . xv ii. ' 8 1 ) are supposed to

refer. The Maqam - i - mahmud (glorious station) is said tob e the place of intercession

,in which all persons w il l praise

the Prophet. The people will b e in great fear. Muhammadwill say,

“ O my people ! I am appointed for intercession.

Their fear will then pass away. The second intercession ismade so that they may enter into Paradise without rendering an account . The authorities differ with regard to this .

The . third intercession is on behalf of those Muslims whoought to go to hell . The fourth for those who are already

1 S harastdni in Milal wa Nihal , p. 73.


there. No one b ut the Prophet can make these intercessions. The fifth intercession is for an increase of rank tothose who are in Paradise . The Mu

‘

tazilas,however

,main

tained that there would b e no intercession for Mu sl ims

guilty of great S ins,and quoted the v erse

,

“ Fear ye the

day when sou l shal l not satisfy for sou l at all,nor shall

any ransom b e taken,neither shal l they b e helped ”

(S . ii .The orthodox bring in reply this Tradition “

The

Prophet said,My intercession is for the men of my follow

ing who have committed great sins .

’

If this Tradition isdisputed

,they then say that the v erse in the Quran just

quoted does not refer to Musl ims at all,b ut to the infidels.

The orthodox hold that the Prophet wil l intercede for

Muslims who comm it the greater s ins,and this is clear

from the Quran,S umnat , and the Ijma‘ - i - ummat . Thus

God said,

“ Who is he that can intercede with H im b ut

by His own permission ?”

(S . ii . I t may here heremarked that this verse only proves that intercessi on may

b e “ by permission,

”

not that Muhammad is an intercessorin his own right ; a dogma which cannot b e proved fromthe Quran

,though Traditions may b e quoted to support it .

A ccording to a Tradition related by A nas,the Prophet

said,

In the day of resurrection Musalmans will not b eable to move ; they will b e greatly d istressed and say,

Would to God that we had asked H im to create some one

to intercede for us,that we might b e taken from this place

,

and b e del ivered from tribulation and sorrow.

’

The Tra

dition goes on to state how they sought help from A dam

and the prophets of the old dispensation,who one and

all excused themselves on account of their own sinfulness .

“ Then,

” said the Prophet,“the Musalmans w ill come to

me,and I will ask permission to go into God

’s presenceand intercede for them.

”

The second adv ent of Christ is a sign of the last day.

Jesus is no more than a servant whom We favouredand he shal l b e a S ign o f the last hour (S . xliii . H e

will not,according

'

to the Quran,come as a judge, b ut, l ike



names of these divisions , does not state what classes of persons will b e sent to each ; b ut Muslim commentators havesupplied the needed information .

1 They classify themthus Jahannam

,for sinners who d ie without repent

ance . This includes Muslim s,for “ There is not one of

you who w il l not go down to it (hell) (S . xix .

Laza,for the infidels Christians) .

“ For Laza,drag

ging him by the scalp , shal l claim him,&c . (S . xcv ii .

Hutamah, a fire for Jews,and according to some for

Christians . Sa‘

ir,for devils

,the descendants of Ib lis

,

for“ Those who devour the property of orphans unjustly

only devour into their bellies fire , and they broil in

Sa‘

ir”

(S . iv. S aqar,for the Magians ; al so for

those who neglect prayer .

“ Taste ye the touch of saqar

(S . liv . Jahim, a boiling caldron for idolaters ;also for Gog and Magog.

“ Thou shalt not b e questioned asto the fol lowers of A l Jab im (S . ii . 1 I Hawiyah,

a bottomless pit for hypocrites.“ A s for him whose b al

ance is light, his dwelling shal l b e Hawiyah ”

(S . ci .It is said that heaven has one division more than hell , toShow that God

’

s mercy exceeds H is justice.

A t the last day hel l will b e brought to the seat of judgment .

“ A nd hell on that day shall b e moved up”

(S .

xxxix . In the Tafsir- i - Husaini it is said that seventythousand angel s with seventy thousand chains will hoistheaven up. The commentator Ib n - i - ‘A bbas

,and most

others , bel ieve that this passage is to b e interpreted literal ly .

Muhammadans are to enter hell . No one is there of you

who Shall not go down into it”

(S . xix .

The Mu‘tazilas say that heaven and hell are not in

existence now,b ut wil l b e created after the day of judg

ment ; for they maintain that if both are now in existence ,

they must b e destroyed with the heavens and the earth

at the last day. The orthodox declare that both do exist

1 There is noth ing in the Quran to just ify this classificat ion of those

who go to hell . The Quran s imply says that a separate party w ill b e at

each d oor.

THE PREDESTINA TION OF GOOD A ND EVIL 2 33

now,and quote this verse : There shal l b e a blast on the

trumpet,and all who are in the heavens and on the earth

S hall expire, save those whom God Shal l vouchsafe to l ive ”

(S . xxxix . The“those whom ”

are said to b e thosein heaven and in hell , and therefore heaven and hell must

exist now,and also then. A gain we read : “ Near the

S idrah tree which marks the boundary near which is theGarden of Repose ”

(Jannatu’

l- Mawa) (S . liii . The

Mu‘

tazilas say for“ Jannat ”

we shou ld read Janah — a

wing—which by metonomy stands for Gabriel , and so there

is no reference to heaven'

at all. 1 The orthodox reply thatno Qari has ever adopted the reading Janah for Jannat.The Muhammadan writers give v ery full and m inute

accounts of the events connected with the resurrection,

judgment,and future state of those who are l ost and of

those who are saved . S ale gives such an excellent sum~

mary of these opinions that it is not necessary to enter intodetails here . The orthodox belief is that the statements inthe Quran and the Traditions regarding the pleasures of

Paradise are to b e taken literal ly .

6 . THE PREDESTINA TION OF GOOD A ND EVIL—I havealready in the section in which the attribute will ” isdescribed given some account of the dogmatic statements

concerning the doctrine of predestination b ut as it alwaysform s a distinct chapter in Musalman books, I treat itseparately here . Hav ing, however, in the passage referredto

, given A l Berkev i’

s words on the attribute “ wil l , it is

only necessary to make a short extract from his dogmaticstatement concerning predestination . H e says

I t is necessary to confess that good and ev il take place by the

pred estination and predetermination of God , that all that has b een

and all that will b e was d ecreed in eternity and written on the

preserved tab le ; 1 that the faith of the b el iever, the piety of the

1 This , th e Lauhu’

l-Mahfuz , is referred to in S firah lxxxv. 22 , as that onwh ich the Qurén is wri tten. In S I

’

I rah xxxvi . I I , the act ions of men are

said to b e written in the clear b ook of our d ecrees .

” This is called theImamn

’

l-Mub in, the clear prototype .


pious and good actions are foreseen, willed , predestinated , d ecreedb y the writing on the preserved tab le, produced and approved b yGod ; that the unb elief of the unb eliever

,the impiety of the

impious and b ad actions come to pass with the fore - knowledge ,w ill

, predestination and d ecree of God,b ut not with H is satis

fac tion and appro val . Should any ask why God willeth and

produceth evil,we can only reply that He may have wise end s in

v iew which we cannot comprehend .

There are three wel l - defined schools of thought on thissubj ect of predestinationFirst

,The Jab rians

,so called from the word “ jabr

,

compul sion,deny all free agency in man

,

land say that man

is necessarily constrained by the force of God ’s eternal andimmutable decree to act as he does .2 They hold that as

God is the absolute Lord,He can

,if He so wills

,admit all

men into parad ise or cast all into hel l . This sect is one of

the branches of the A sh‘

arians,with whom on most points

they agree . There are several subdivisions of the Jabriansect ; those who say man has absolutely no power at all

over his actions ; those who say he has the power, b utcannot exercise it

,and those who , l ike the A sh

‘

arians , holdthe dogma of Kasb.

S econdly,The Qadrians, who deny A l- Qadr, or God ’s

absolute decree , say that evil and injustice ought not to b e

attributed to God , b ut to man,who is altogether a free

1 The honour of man lies in b e ing und er compulsion,not in having a

share in free w ill . (Gulshan - i - Raz . )2 “

The Prophet of God said that A d am and Moses (in the world Of

spirits ) maintained a d eb ate b efore God , and A dam got the b etter of

Moses , who said , Thou art that A dam whom God created and b reathed

into thee H is own spirit , and mad e the angels b ow d own b efore thee, and

placed thee in Parad ise ; after wh ich thou threwest man upon the earth ,

from the fault wh ich thou d id st comm it . ’ A dam replied , ‘ Thou art that

Moses whom God selected for H is prophecy and to converse with , and H e

gave thee twe lve tab les , in which are exp lained everyth ing, and He mad e

th ee H is confidant and the b earer of H is secrets ; then how long was theBib le written b e fore I was created ?’ Moses said

,

‘ Forty years .

’ Thensaid A dam ,

‘ D id st thou see in the Bib le that A dam d isob eyed God ?’

‘ Yes .

’ ‘Dost thou reproach me on a matter which God wrote in the

Bib le forty years b efore creating me ?’



The A sh‘

arians,who in this matter represent in the main

orthodox v iews , formulate their Obj ections to the Mu‘tazila

system thus

(i .) If man is the causer of an action by the force of hisown will

,then he Should also have the power of controlling

the resu lt of that act i on .

(ii .) I f it b e granted that man has the power to originatean act

,it is necessary that he should know all acts

,because

a creator Should b e independent in ac t and choice . Inten

tion must b e conditioned by knowledge. To th is theMu

‘tazilas will reply that a man need not know the length

of a road before he walks,or the structure of the throat

before he talks .

(iii .) Suppose a man wills to move his body,and God at

the same time wills it to b e steady,then if both intentions

come to pass there will b e a collection of Opposites ; ifneither, a removal of opposites ; if the exaltation of the

first,an unreasonable preference.

(iv.) If man can create an act, some of his works will b ebetter than some of the works of God ; e.g.

,a man deter

mines to have faith : now faith is a better thing thanreptiles

,which are created by God .

(v .) If man is free to act,why can he not make at once

a human body ? why does he need to thank God for graceand faith

(v i . ) But better far than all argument, the orthodox say,

i s the testimony of the Book .

“ No mischance chancethe ither on earth or in your own persons , b ut ere we createdthem it was in the Book ”

of eternal decrees), (S .

lvii . “ Thou tru ly canst not guide whom thou desirest,

b ut God guideth whom He will ” (S . xxviii. Thisv erse is said to hav e been revealed on the following occasion. .When A b uTal ib was about to die

,the Prophet said

“ O uncle ! say the Kalima,

‘ There is no God b ut God,

’

and I w ill testify to God concerning it on thy behalf ; b ut

A bu- Jahl and ‘A b du’

llzih b in A b i said to the dying man,

“ What ! dost thou turn from the sect of A b i’

I’

l- Matlab ? ”

THE ORTHODOX VIEWS ON PREDESTINA TION 2 37

The Prophet ceased not to urge him to confess the faithof Islam

,b ut the old man said ,

“ I am of the sect of

A b I'

I’

l- Matlab,and I refuse to say the Kalima.

” Then

repl ied the Prophet,“ By God

,until prohibited , I wil l

seek pardon for thee . Then this v erse was revealed ,showing that God alone cou ld will the change the Prophet

desired .

1 We now return to the quotations from the

Quran. A ll things have we created under a fixeddecree (S l iv .

“ When God created you and that

ye make (S . xxxvii . “ S ome of them there werewhom God gu ided, and there were others decreed to err

”

(S . xv i. A s God decrees faith and Obedience,H e

must b e the causer of it,for on the hearts of these hath

God graven the Faith ”

(S . lviii . “ I t is he who

causeth you to laugh and weep,to d ie and make alive ”

(S . liii . I f God pleased , H e would surely bringthem

,one and all

,to the guidance

”

(S . v i . “ Had

God pleased , He had gu ided you all aright (S . v i .

Had the Lord pleased , He wou ld have made mankindof one rel igion (S . xi.

“ God w il l mislead whomH e pleaseth

,and whom H e pleaseth He will place upon

the straight path (S . v i . Tradition records that theProphet said ,

“ God is the maker of all makers and of

their actions .” 2

The Mu‘tazilas took up the opposite side of this great

question and said

1 Sahihu’

l- Bukhari on Suratu ’

l- Qisas.

2 Ib n Kah,commenting on the verse , “When thy Lord b rought forth

the ir d escendants from the re ins of the sons of A dam and took them to

w itness against them selves,

‘A m I not ,’

said He , ‘ your Lord ? ’

they said ,“Yes , w e w itness it ’

(S . vn . goes on to say,“ God formed all the

prophets and saints into one class , and the martyrs into another. The

p ious men, also, were separated into one , and the w icked into another.

One class was formed of the ob ed ient servants,wh ile the unb elievers

,v iz

the Jews , the Christians, the Magians , the H ind us , 8 m were likew ised ivid ed into several part ies ; next, they were shaped into form s

,that is ,

the shape in wh ich he was to appear in the world was pred est ined foreach one. This passage is quoted with approval b y the Wahhab i authorof the Taqwiyatu

’

l- Imtin.


(i.) If man has no power to will or to do,then what is

the difference between praising God and sinning againstH im ; between faith and infidelity ; good and evil ; whatis the use of commands and prohibitions ; rewards and

punishments ; promises and threats ; what is the use of

prophets,books

,85 0.

(ii .) S ome acts of men are had,such as tyranny and

polytheism. If these are created by God,it follows that to

tyrannise and to ascribe plurality to the D eity is to renderObedience . To this the A sh

‘

arians reply that orders are of

two kinds , immediate and mediate . The former,which they

call “A mr- i—takwiti,

” is the order,

“Be and it was.

” Thiscomprehends all existences

,and according to it whatever

is ordered must come to pass . The latter they cal l A mr

i an order given in the Law. This comes to men

through prophets , and thus is to b e obeyed . True obedienceis to act according to that which is revealed

,not according

to the secret intentions of God , for that we know not .

(iii. ) If God decrees the acts of men,He should bear the

name of that which He decrees. Thus the causer of infide

lity is an infidel ; of tyranny a tyrant,and so on ; b ut to

speak thus of God is blasphemy .

(iv. ) If infidelity is decreed by God , He must wish it ;b ut a prophet desires faith and obedience

,and so is opposed

to God . To this the orthodox reply,that God knows by

His eternal knowledge that such a man will die an infidel.I f a prophet intends by bringing the message of salvationto such an one to make God’s knowledge become ignorance ,he would b e doing wrong ; b ut as he does not know the

secret decrees of God,his duty is to deliver his message

according to the Hadis : “ A prophet has only to deliverthe clear message .

(v .) The Mu‘

tazilas claimed as on their side all versesof the Quran in which the words to do

,to construct

,to

renew,to create, are appl ied to men. Such are the verses

Whatever is in the heavens and in the earth is God’s,that

He may reward those who do ev il according to their deeds



will is thus bound by exterior causes . These causes existaccording to a certain order of things which is founded on

the general laws of nature . God alone knows beforehandthe necessary connect ion which to us is a mystery . The

connection of our will with exterior causes is determinedby the laws of nature . It is this which in theology we

cal l decrees and predestination.

’ ” 1

I have already shown how,as Islam grew into a system,

the Muslims fell into a Cabbalism , and a superstitiou sreverence for the mere letters and words of the Quran . ,

With this declension came a stil l more distorted View of

the character of God . The quotations made from the

Quran in the last few pages will hav e shown that whilstsome passages seem to attribu te freedom to man

,and speak

of his consequent responsibility,others teach a clear and

distinct fatalism . The great strength of Islam lay in the

energy with which Muhammad preached the doctrine that

God was a D ivine Ruler, one who would deal righteousj udgment , who

“taught man that which he knew not.

”

A s the system became more complex and dogmatic,men

lost the sense Of the nearness of God . He became an

unapproachable being. A harsh unfee ling Fate took the

place of the Omnipotent Ruler. It is this dark fatalismwhich

,whatever the Quran may teach on the subject

,is the

ruling principle in all Muslim communities . I t is thiswhich makes all Muhammadan nations decay . Careless ofself- improvement

,

2heedless of the need of progress , the

Muslim nations,stil l independent, are in all that relates

to the higher aspects of intel lectual and civilised life farbehind the nations of the West.

The subject of ‘Ilm- i - ‘A qaid , or the science of dogma,properly ends here , b ut most Muslim treatises include inthis branch of the subject a few practical remarks . I

1 Mélanges d e Philosoph ie , Juive et A rab e , par S . Munk, p . 458.

2 Thus the poet Faigi says :“ Before thou and I were though t of, our

free w ill was taken from our hands ; b e w ithou t cares , for the Maker of

b oth world s sett led our affairs long b efore we were made .

”

FUTURE STA TE OF WICKED MUSLIMS 2 4 1

therefore add a summary of them here . The bel iever whocommits murder

,fornication, &c . , does not cease to b e a

Muslim,provided that he does not say that these are

al lowed . S hou ld he d ie unrepentant, God can punish himfor a while in hell , or forgive him without punishment. I t

is right to cal l one who comm its the greater sins a wickedMuslim

,b ut not a Kafir . The Mu

‘

tazilas hold that suchan one is neither a believer nor an infidel

,b ut something

between the two. The Maz dariah,a subdivision of the

Mu‘tazilas , bel ieve that the unrepentant sinner will b e in

hell for ever . The Najjariahs , who on some points holdMu

‘

tazila doctrines,differ from the Maz dariah on this point .

They say that unrepentant Muslims will go to hell , b ut wil lb e released after a time , for

“ justice does not requireequality of treatment of b ad Muslims and Kafirs .

”

The

Hadd , a punishment based on a Zeihir,or obvious sentence

of the Quran ,requires that a Muslim who apostatises Shall

b e put to death.

1 In the case of an apostate woman,Imam

A b I’

I Hanifa ru led that She should b e imprisoned and beatenevery day. The other three Imams

,Malik

,Shafi‘

i, and

Hanbal , said that She Should b e put to death in accordance with the Tradition which says , He who changes hisreligion ,

kill .” The A rabic word “ man ,usually translated

“ he who,

” is of common gender, and so these Imams include women in the list of those who

,after apostasy

,are to

b e killed .

2God does not pardon polytheism and infidel ity

,

b ut He can ,if He willeth

,pardon all other crimes. I f any

one is asked,Dost thou believe he should reply

,

“ I amtruly a bel iever

,

”and not say,

“ If God willeth.

”If any

1 The punishment of d eath is somet imes d ecreed for lesser Offences . In

the latter part Of the year I 879 , one of the Turkish ‘Ulama, named A hmad

was cond emned to d eath for having ass isted Dr. Koelle , an English clergyman resid ing in Constant inople , in the translat ion of the Book of Common

Prayer and a tract on Christ the Word of God . Ow ing to the urgent

representations of the British A mb assad or the Khojah’

s life was spared ,b ut he was b anished to the island of Oh io. The Porte prom ised to

maintain h is fam ily wh ilst he was ab sent . I t need scarcely b e said thatnothing of the kind has b een d one.

2 Journal A siatique, 4me S érie , tome 1 7, p. 582 .


one says to him ,Wilt thou d ie in the faith ? ”

he shouldreply

,I do not know ; God knows . Except when speak

ing of prophets , or of those of whom the prophets haveSpoken

,such as A bu Bakr

,Omar

,Osman, and

‘A li , it mustnot b e said of any one

,

“ He is gone to Paradise ,”

for God

only knows his state . Prayer must b e said for a deceasedMusl im whether he was a good or b ad man . To give alms

,

to read the Quran,to perform other good works , and to

apply the merit thus gained to the sou ls of the dead , is a

pious and beneficial act. This Opinion,however, though

v ery common,seems to b e in direct contradiction to the

following statements of the Quran : He who commits kufr

(infidelity), on him is his kufr,”

i .e.

, the result of it (S . xxx.

4“NO burdened one shal l bear another’s burden

”

(S .

v i. The Tafsir - i - Husaini says,

“ Every one must bearthe punishment of his own sin.

”



d uration and stab ility,of movement and quiescence

,of the unIOn

and separation (of the D ivine sub stance), of existence and non

existence,of b od ies and accidents, of the approval and the refuta

tion (of the I snads of the Trad itions), of the ab sence or the

existence of attrib utes in God,of potential and activ e force

,of

sub stance,quantity, modality and relation, of life and annihilation.

You have examined the question as to whether the Imam ru les

b y d iv -ine right or b y popular election ; you have had an ex

haustive d iscussion on metaphysical sub jects in their principlesand corol laries. O ccupy yourselves to- day with the sub ject of

love,

”85 0.

The translation of the works Of A ristotle,as indeed of all the

Greek authors,was made b y Syrian and Chaldean Christians

,and

especially by the Nestorians,who

,as physicians, were in high

fav our with the lib eral Khalifs of the ‘A b basside dynasty. In

some cases the translation into A rab ic was made from Syriacv ersions

,for in the time of the Emperor Justinian many Greek

works had b een translated into the latter language. The most

celeb rated translator was the Nestorian physician Honein—Ib nIshak (d ied 8 76 a man profoundly acquainted with the

Syriac,Greek, and A rab ic languages. He was at the head of a

school of interpreters in Baghdad , to which his son Ishak - b en

Honein and his nephew Hob eisch- A l- A sam also b elonged . In the

tenth century Yahya- b en- A di and I sa- b en—Zara’a translatedsome works and corrected earlier translations of others . I t is

to these men that the A rab s owe their chief acquaintance withA ristotle and Plato.

The study of A ristotle spread rapid ly amongst the Muslim

people , especial ly amongst the heretical sects . The orthodoxlooked with grave suspicion on the movement

, b ut could not for

a while stay the impulse . The historian Makriz i says :“ The

d octrine of the philosophers has worked amongst the Muslims

ev ils most fatal . I t serves only to augment the errors of the

heretics and to increase their impiety.

” 1 I t came into contactw ith Muslim dogmas in such sub j ects as the creation of the world

,

the special providence of God , and the nature of the d ivineattrib utes. To a certain extent the Mu

‘taz ilas were supported

b y the philosophical theories they emb raced,b ut this did not

1 Mélanges d e Philosophie , Juive et A rab e , par S . Munk, p. 31 5 .

MUSLIM PH ILOSOPHY 24 5

d iminish the d isfavour wi th which the orthodox looked upon the

study of philosophy. S till it grew ,and men in self- defence had

to adopt philOS Ophic method s. Thus arose a later system of

scholasticism . The earlier system was confined mainly to matters

of religion ; the later school occupied itself with the whole range

of philOS Ophic investigation,and thus went farther and. farther

away from orthodox Islam.

The Muslims themselves d id not write b ooks on philosophy inthe earl ier period . Men of lib eral tendencies imb ib ed its teaching,b ut orthodoxy finally gained the day over the earlier scholastics

,

and in the form known as that of the A sh ‘arfan S chool b ecame

again supreme . The great intellectual movement of the philo~

sophers proper, the later scholastics (Mutakalliman), lasted longer,b ut by the end of the twelfth century the whole Muham

madan world had again b ecome orthodox . Salahu’

d - d in (S alad in) and his successors in Egypt were strong supporters of the

A sh ‘arians.

The period now under review was one prolific of authors on

grammar,rhetoric, logic, exegesis, traditions

,and the various

b ranches of philosophy b ut the men who stand out most pro

minently as philosophers were then,and are now

,considered

heretics. S trictly speaking, one should not speak of A rab , b ut of

Muslim philosophy, for, curiously enough, only one famous philosopher, A l

-Kend i,was an A rab .

A l-Kend i was b orn at Basrah,on the Persian Gulf. He d ied

ab out 870 A .D . He was a v ery scientific man,b ut a thorough

rationalist in theology. He composed commentaries on the logicof A ristotle. In his great work on the unity of God he has

strayed far away from Muslim d ogmas.

A l Farab i,another philosopher patronised by the

‘A b bassides,

seems to have d enied not only the rigid and formal I slamic v iewof inspiration, b ut any ob j ective revelation at all. H e was for

a while under the influenc e of Sufiism,and held that intuition

was a true inspiration, and that all who had acquired intuitiveknowledge were real prophets . This is the o nly revelation he

admits. He received his philosoph ic training at Baghdad , where

for a while he taught b ut finally he went to Damascus,where he

died, 9 5 0 A .D .

A bu S ina, b etter known as A vicenna,a man of Persian origin ,

was a philosopher of great note , b ut of him it is said that,in spite

246 THE FA ITH OF IS LAM

of the concessions he made to the religious ideas of his age , he

could not find favour for his opinions,which ill accord with the

principles of Islam. He was b orn near Bukhara. in the year

9 80 A D . For a while he taught med icine and ph ilosophy inIsfahan .

Ibn Badja (A vempace) was one of the most celeb rated Muslim

philosophers of Spain. He was b orn at S aragossa towards the end

of the e leventh century. He is d istinguished for hav ing Opposedthe mystical tendencies of the teaching of A l—Ghaz zah

’

,and for

maintaining that speculative science alone was capab le of lead ingman to a true conception of his own proper nature . He was

violently attacked by the orthod ox d iv ines,who d eclared that all

philosophical teaching was a calamity for religion and an afflic

tion to those who were in the good way.

A l-Ghaz zali was b orn A .D . 1 0 5 9 in Khurasan . He was a famous

Muslim d ivine . He adopted scholastic methods. For a while hewas President of the Nizamiah College at Baghdad . He travelledmuch, and wrote many b ooks to prove the superiority of Islamov er all other religions and over philosophy. The first result ofhis wide and extensive study of the writings of the philosophersand of the heretics was that he fell into a state of scepticism withregard to religion and philosophy. From this he emerged into

Sufiism,in wh ich his restless spirit found satisfaction. On S iifiism,

however,he exercised a very notab le influence b ut the scepticism

which he still retained as regards philosophy rendered him a v eryformidab le opponent to those

‘

who were trying to b ring Islaminto accord with philOSOphic theories. H is works , Tendency ofPhilosophers

”and “ D estruction of the Philosophers ,

”had an

immense influence. In the preface to the latter b ook he Speaksof “ those who arrogate to themselves a superior intelligence, andwho

,in their pride

,mistaking the precepts of religion ,

take as a

guide the authority of certain great men, instead of revealed re

ligion. I t is,however

,and with some show of reason

,supposed

that A l- Ghaz zali d id not really ob j ect to all that he condemned,

b ut that to gain the orthodox he wrote what he d id . Indeed,

Moses of Narb onne states that Ghaz zali later on in life wrote a

b ook, circulated only amongst a few select friends,in which he

withdrew many of the ob jections he had raised in the D estruo

tion of Philosophers .

”Be that as it may, it is acknowledged that

he d ealt a b low to philosophy from which in the East it has never



in Morocco in 1 1 98 A .D . Thus passed away in d isgrace the lastof the Muslim philosophers worthy of the name .

1 In S pain a

strict prohib ition was issued against the study of Greek philosophy

,and many valuab le works were committed to the flames.

S oon after the rule of the Moors in S pain b egan to decline . The

study of philosophy came to an end,and lib eral culture sank

under the pressure of the hard and fast dogmatic system of Islam .

In S pain,2 as in Baghdad , orthodoxy gained the day. Here are

the word s of a thoughtful Musalman :“ It must always b e b orne

in mind that, in spite of the enormous progress mad e b yMuham

madans in the early centuries of their power, learning has neverb een popular among them as a nation

,and science only flourished

when there happened to b e a man willing to protect it.” 3 There

was much of d oub tful value in the speculations of the Muslim

philosophers, b ut they were Muslims,and if they went too far in

their efforts to rationalise Islam,they also tried to cast off what

to them seemed accretions added on by the Trad itionalists and

the Canonical Legists. They failed b ecause,like the earlier

scholastics,they had no gospel to proclaim to men

,no tidings to

give of a new life which could enab le wearied humanity to b earthe ills to which it was sub j ect. A nother strong reason

‘

was that

the orthodoxy against which they strove was a logical d evelopment

of the foundations of Islam ,and these foundations were too

strongly laid for any power other than a spiritual one to uproot.

They were men of good position in life,voluminous writers

,

profound admirers of A ristotle, and “more or less d evoted to

science,especially to med icine .

”Yet they d id not ad vance philo

sophy, and science they left mu ch as they found it. They pre

1 A pres lu i , nous na trouvons plus chez les A rab es aucun ph ilosophevéritab lement d igne d e c c nom . (

“Mélanges d e PhilOS Oph ie , Juive et

A rab e ,”

par S . Munk, p .

2 Muslim ru le in S pain is often referred to as an instance of the heightof culture and the lib erality of sentiment wh ich may exist in a Muham

madan state . I have shown that the cu lture was not d u e to the teach ingO f the A rab Prophet and his Companions, and w ith regard to the lib eralityit is well to rememb er the word s of G. H . Lewes . H e says The A rab s

,

though they conquered S pain,were too weak in numb ers to hold that

country in sub ject ion otherw ise than b y polit ic concess ions to the op inionand customs of the people .

”

(“ H istory of Ph ilosophy,

”vol. i . p .

3 Causes of the Decline of the Muhammadan Nat ion,

”b y Nawab Muh

sinu’

l-Mulk, p . 65 .

MUS LIM PH ILOSOPHY 249

served something of what Grecian thought had achieved , and so

far their lab our is not lost.Thus Islam has, as a religion,

no right to claim any of the glorywhich Muslim philosophers are supposed to have shed around it.

The founders of I slam,the A rab s, produced b ut one philosopher

of note .

1 The first impetus to the study was given by hereticalKhalifs employing Christians at Baghdad to translate Greek b ooks ;whilst in Spain, where philosophy most flourished

,it was due

largely to the contact of intelligent Muslims with learned Jews .

Even there,the philosophers were, as a ru le , the ob jects of b itter

persecution. One of the greatest authorities in modern times on all

questions of Shemitic civ ilisation was the late M. Ernest Renan .

In his inaugural lecture on assuming the chair of the Heb rew,Chal

daic,and Syriac Professorship in the College of France, he says

A rab ian science and A rab ian philosophy are Often alluded to,

and,in fact

,during one or two centuries in the Middle A ges the

A rab s were our teachers ; b ut it was only until we were acquaintedwith the Greek originals . This A rab ian science and philosophywas only a puerile rendering of Greek science and philosophy.

When closely examined,moreover, this A ra b ian science has

nothing A rab ian in it. Its foundation is purely Greek ; amongst

its originators there is not a single true Shemite they were all

S paniards and Persians who wrote in A rab ic .” It has b een saidthat theology and philosophy b ecame b lended in the hand s of the

Moors ; the Greek scientific theory as to the origin of things wasinterwoven with the Heb rew faith in a Creator

,and so Speculation

b ecame theistic . But it has also b een said , and with equal truth,

that speculation had b ecome theistic long b efore the time of the

A rab philosophy. These matters were all d iscussed in A lexandriathree centuries b efore the time of Muhammad . S o the questionstill remains—does Islam naturally lead the mind to high in

tellectual pursuits ? A s a matter of fact,it shows most affinity to

1 There never was any A rab ian science,strictly speaking. In the first

place , all the ph ilosophy and science of the Muhammadans was Greek,Jewish

,and Persian . It really d es ignates a reac tion against I slam ism ,

wh ich arose in the d istant parts O f the empire , in S amarcand,Bokhara,

Morocco, and Cord ova. The A rab ian language having b ecome the lan

guage of the empire , th is ph ilosophy was written in that language ; b utthe id eas are not A rab ian the spirit is not A rab ian.

”

(“H istory of Philo

S ophy,”b y G. H . Lewes

,vol. i i. p .


unciv ilised races.

“ I t has not taken captive any race possessinga great literature, nor has it given b irth to any work Of whichthe world demands a translation and precisely as ind iv iduals haveshown themselves possessed of speculative genius have they d eparted from the rigid orthodoxy of the Quran.

”

Now and again a lib eral -minded Khalif arose , b ut a systemsuch as I slam survives the l ib eral tend encies of a generation.

From the close of the twelfth century d ownwards it Wouldb e d ifficult to point to any Muslim philosopher, mu ch more to an

A rab one,whose work is of any real value to the human race .

For four hundred years the contest raged , a contest such as Islamhas never since seen. This great effort to b ring it into accordancewith the main stream of human thought, to introduce into it some

element of progress, u tterly failed . The lesson is plain. A ny

proj ect of reform in Islam which admits in any degree its funda

mental principles must fail . Revolution,not reform ,

is the onlyhope for the permanence of an independent Muslim state when

it enters into the circle of civ ilised nations.



(2 ) Shaving Off the hair from the head and the body ; (3)the paring of the nails. In addition to these there are

actions which are mustahah. They are those which Mu

hammad sometimes did and sometimes omitted . There isa still lower class of action which are mub ah. These are

works of supererogation . I f omitted there is no fear of

punishment. Unlawful actions and things are (1 ) Haram

actions and food forbidden either in the Quran 0 1 the Tra

d itions ; (2 ) MakrI’

Ih,actions the unlawfu lness of which is

not absolutely certain,b ut which are generally considered

wrong ; 3) Mufsid,actions corrupting or pernicious . I t is

necessary to hear these terms in m ind,as they w il l now

frequently occur.

I . TA SHAHHUD .

—This is the recital of a confession of

faith, such as,I testify that there is no God b ut God ; I

testify to His unity and that H e has no partner ; I testifythat Muhammad is His servant and His messenger

“ Thereis no God b ut God

,and Muhammad is the apostle of God .

”

The power contained in this latter confession is great . It

embodies the very spirit of Islam it is the ral lying- cry for

its armies ; it sounds forth each morning from thousandsof minarets in many lands ; it has been and is said withfervour

,pride

,and exu ltation by hundred s of m il l ions of

the human race . The power of Islam,its proclamation of

the Unity , is here seen in closest contact with what is toMusl im theologians the equally fundamental truth ,

the

apostleship of Muhammad,a dogma which retards the

healthy development, explains the narrowness,and causes

the prostration of Islam,as the world around grows lumi

nant w ith the light of science and truth,of faith and reason

2 . SA LAT OR NAMA Z .—A ll the books on Fiqh (Law)

which treat of these Irkan - 1 din give in connection with

Salat the rules r egarding the necessary purifications . Taharat oor legal purificat ion is of three kinds : (1 ) Waz 1

’

I,the

lesser lustration ; (2 ) Ghusl, the greater lustration ; 3)Tayammum

,or purification by sand .

(I .) Wazu is an ablution made before saying the ap

THE LEGA L PURIFICA TIONS 2 5 3

pointed prayers . Those which are“ farz are four In

number, v iz .

—To wash (1 ) the face from the top of the

forehead to the chin,and as far as each ear ; and (2 ) the

hands and arms up to the elbow ; (3) to rub (masah) with

the wet hand a fourth part of the head ; also (4) the feet

to the ankles . The authority for these actions is the text ,O believ ers ! when ye address yourselves to prayer

,wash

your hands up to the elbow,and wipe your heads

,and your

feet to the ankles (S . v . The Sunnis wash the feetthe Shi‘ahs are apparently more correct

,for they only WIpe ,

or rather rub (masah) them . A gainst the practice of the

S hi‘

ahs the following Tradition is quoted‘A bdu

’

llah b in‘A mrI

’

I said,

‘ The Prophet was behind me in a journey ,then he came up with u s . We were late for the Salatu ’

l‘A sr . We quickly made the waz I

’

I,and rubbed (namsah)

our feet . Then the Prophet cal led out w ith a loud v oice ,“A las for the heel s in fire (of In these ablutions,if the least portion of the specified part is left untouched ,the whole act becomes useless and the prayer which followsis vain. The greatest value is attached to waz 1

’

1 in the

Traditions . Thus in the S ahihu’

l- Bukhari we read : “ Mypeople will b e summoned at the day of judgment withforeheads

,arms

,and feet resplendent with the effects of

waz fl .

”

The act of making wazu , however, has not been allowedto remain in this simple form . The S annat regulationsregarding it are fourteen in number. They are (I ) to makethe intention of waz I

'

I,thus : I make this waz i’I for the pur

pose oi putting away impurity ; (2 ) to wash the hand up

to the wrist,b ut care mu st b e taken not to put the hands

entirely into the water,until each has been rubbed three

times with water poured on it (3) to say one of the names of

God at the commencement of the waz I’

I,thuS ° 1 In the name

of the Great God,

”

or“ Thanks b e to God for the religion

1 There is a Trad ition to the effect that “ the whole b ody of him who

says the name of God when making wazu w ill b e clean whereas , if he

says it not, only the part washed w ill b e pure .

”


of Islam (4) to clean the teeth ; 5 ) to rinse the mouththree times ; (6 ) to put water into the nostrils three times ;

(7 ) to do all the above in proper order ; (8) to do all withou t any delay between the various acts ; (9 ) each part isto b e purified three times. This is founded on a Traditionrecorded by Bukhari : WaZ I

’

I once in farz,it may b e done

twice or thrice, b ut not more than three times : wise men

dislike waste and the doing more than the Prophet did .

”

This establishes the S unnat practice of making waz 1’

1 threetimes ; (1 0 ) the space between the fingers of one handmu st b e rubbed with the wet fingers of the other ; (I 1 ) thebeard must b e combed with the fingers ; (1 2) the wholehead must b e rubbed once ; (I 3) the ears mu st b e washedwith the water remaining on the fingers after the last operation ; (1 4) to rub under and between the toes with the

l ittle finger of the left hand, drawing it from the little toeof the right foot and between each toe in succession . ImamS hafi

‘

i,holds that (I ) and (7 ) are farz duties and that (1 2 )

should b e done three times . Imam Malik considers (8) tob e farz .The lesser sins are forgiven after waz 1

’

1 . The Prophetsaid

,

“ He who makes wazu according to my wazathree times) , and then makes two rak

‘

ats,without being

defiled between : all his former sins will b e forgiven.

” 1

The greater sins are only pardoned after repentance.

The actions connected with waz I’

I may b e done in silence ,or prayer may b e repeated. Such a recital is a mustahab ,not a S unnat or farz order. It is not obligatory. A

specimen of these prayers is given in a note.

2

Ghusl is an ablution of the whole body after certain

1 S ahihu’l- Bukhari - Kitab u ’

l-waan.

2 Before commencing the wazfi , say :“ I am going to purify myself

from all b od ily uncleanness preparatory to commencing prayer , that holyac t of d uty, wh ich w ill d raw my soul near to the throne of the Most H igh .

In the name of God , the Great and Mighty. Praise b e to God who hasgiven us grace to b e Muslims. Islam is a truth and infid elity a falsehood .

”

When cleaning the teeth , say Vouchsafe , O God , as I clean my teeth,to purify me from my faults and accept my homage. O Lord , may the



poem,the writer says that prayer is only effectual and a

j oy when all idea of the individual being or self is alto

gether lost, and no distinction between God and the soul isrecognised .

S till a system of religion which declares that the virtueof prayer depends practically on an ablution

,and that that

ablution is useless unless done in the order prescribed,is

one wel l cal culated to make men formalists and nothingmore . It comes to this , that, if a man when making waz I

'

I

washes his left hand before his right, or his nose before histeeth

,he cannot lawfully say the daily Namaz enjoined on

all Muslims . None b ut those who have studied Muslimtreatises on the sub ject can conceive of the puerile discu ssions which have taken place on points apparently trivial

,

b ut which from their connection with the S unnat are

deemed by learned Muslims of great importance .

Tayammum,or purification by sand

,is allowable

under the following circumstances . (1 ) When the watercannot b e procured except at a distance of one kos (abouttwo miles) ; (2 ) in case of sickness

,when the use of water

might b e injurious ; 3) when water cannot b e Obtainedwithout incurring danger from an enemy

,a beast

,or a reptile

and (4) when on the occasion of the Namaz of a feast - day

or the Namaz at a funeral, the worshipper is late and has

no time to perform the waz 1’

I . On ordinary days this sub

stitution of tayammum for waz I’

I is not allowable.

The ceremony is performed as fol lows . The person saysI make tayammum to put away impurity ; then

,I seek

refuge near God from cursed Satan. I commence in the

name of God , most Mercifu l and most High,whose praises

are in the religion of Islam .

”He then strikes the sand

with open hands, rubs his mouth, and at last the arms tothe elbows . Not one hair must b e left untouched or the

whole ceremony is useless . The farz acts are to make theintention of tayammum

,to rub the mouth and the hands .

If ye“

are S ick or on a journey,or if one of you come from

the place of retirement,or if ye have touched women,

and

S A LAT OR. NA MAz 2 5 7

ye find no water, then take clean sand and rub your faces

and your hands w ith it (S . v . A ccording to a statement made by ‘Ayesha, and recorded by Bukhari , the origin

of this v erse was as follows One day when‘Ayesha was

travelling with the Prophet in a desert place,She lost her

necklace. The Prophet and those who were with him

stayed to search for it, and so the night passed . Therewas no water in that place

,and in the morning, when the

Prophet began to prepare for his devotions, the verse came

to him .

Minute regulations are laid down with regard to the

water which may b e used for purification. Various kinds

of water may b e used , b ut rain - water is the best of all,

being authorised by the Quran : He sent you down waterfrom heaven that H e m ight cleanse you ,

and cause the

pollution of Satan to pass from you”

(S . v iii. 1

Water may b e rendered impure and so unfit for the

ablutions . It is generally held that if a dead body or any

unclean thing falls into flowing water, or into a reservoirmore than fi fteen feet square , it can b e used

,provided

always that the colour, smell,and taste are not changed .

I t is for this reason that the pool near a mosque should notb e less than fifteen feet square . The necessary ablutionshaving been made

,the worshipper can commence the

Namaz .S alat or Namaz. The Namaz can b e said either

in private or in public . The clothes and person of the

worshipper must b e clean, the place free from all impurity,

and the face turned towards Mecca. The Namaz must alwaysb e preceded by waz I

'

I,except when tayammum is al lowed .

If the Namaz 1 is said in a mosque , which is considered tob e more meritorious than repeating it in private, it must b epreceded by the A zan,

or cal l to prayers , and the Iqamat .

Minute particulars regarding the exact attitude in which

1 From the account which follows it w ill b e seen that the term S alat,

or Namaz , expresses what we term a“service .

”- The word for prayer in

the ord inary sense is Du ‘

a.


the Musalli,one who says the Salat

,must stand and the

words he 18 to say are given in Muslim books . The following account will give some idea of a Namaz or service .

1

The Mu’

azzin 2 cal ls out loudly in A rabic the TakhirA llahu A kbar ! A llahu A kbar ! A llahu A kbar ! A llahu

A kbar God is great !)A ll who hear it respond 3

“ A l lahu A kbar ! A llahu A kbar ! A llahu A kbar ! A llahuA kbar !The Mu

’

azzin saysI confess there is no God b ut God ; I confess there is

no God b ut God .

”

Each of his auditors repliesI confess there is no God b ut God ; I confess there is

no God b ut God .

”

Mu’

azzin :—“ I confess Muhammad is the apostle of

God .

”

A uditor I confess Muhammad is the apostle of God .

Mu’

azzin : Come to prayer.

” 4

“ A uditor I have no power or strength b ut from God

most High and Great .

”

Mu’

azzin “ Come to do good .

A uditor What God wills wil l b e ; what He wills notwill not b e .

1 It is taken from the Siratu’

n - Najat, pp. 30—33.

2 A s the u se of b ells is unlawful , a man is employed to call the peopleto prayers . When the Musalmans were first gathered together for prayerat Mad ina,

there was no one to call them ,so they talked ab out th is one

d ay,and some said , Get a b ell l ike those of the Christians ; others ,

“ Get a trumpet like those of the Jew s .

” ‘Umr then said , “ What is

there not a man among you who c an cal l to prayers ?”

The Prophetthen said ,

“ O Billal ! stand and make the call to prayer”

(Sahihu’

l

Bukhari . Kitab u ’l- A zan).

3 The aud itor should repeat what he hears (Sahihu’l- Bukhari. Kitab u ’

l

A zan) .‘1 In wet w eather the Mu

’azz in, instead of saying, “ Come to prayer,

shouted S ay the S aldt in your houses (Sahihu’l- Bukhari

, p .

H isham i, a Tab i ‘, says that he heard from Yahya that some Muslims

stated the ir pract ice thus : “ When the said ,

‘ Come to prayer,’

we replied ,

‘There is no power nor strength b ut from God ,’

and add ed ,

We heard our Prophet say like th is (Sahihu’l- Bukhari

, p .



I seek refuge near God from cursed Satan.

Then follows the Tasmiyah“ In the name of God

,the Compassionate

,the Merciful

Then follows the Fatihah,lor first chapter of the Quran

Praise b e to God, _Lord of the worlds ! the Compassionate ,

the Merciful ! King on the day of reckoning ! Thee only dowe worship

,and to Thee do we c ry for help . Guide Thou

us 011 the straight path : the path of those to whom Thouhast been gracious : with whom Thou art not angry , and

who go not astray .

”

A fter this the worshipper can repeat as many chaptersof the Quran as he likes . S ome v erses he must repeat .

The Saratu’l - Ikhlas (S . cxii.) is general ly said

2

Say : He is God alone : God the Eternal , He begettethnot

,and is not begotten ; and there is none l ike unto H im .

”

The Takhir- i- Ruku ‘- A l lahu A kbar — is said whilst the

Musall i makes an inclination of the head and body,and

separating the fingers a l ittle , places his hands upon hisknees .

The Tasbih- i- RukI’

I is said in the same position. It is“ I extol the hol iness of my Lord , the Great !I extol the holiness

'

of my Lord , the Great !I extol the holiness of my Lord , the Great !

The Tasmiya is then said with the body erect, b ut with

the hands placed on either S ide . Thu s“ God hears him who praises H im : O Lord

,Thou art

praised .

”

.

3

The Takb ir- i - S ijdah—A llahu A kbar — is then said as theMusalli , or wor

'

shipper,drops on his knees . He t hen places

1 The second rak ‘at b egins here : all that preced es is only repeated at

the first rak ‘at .

2 One day the Prophet said to his companions , What ! have you not

the power to read one - th ird of the Quran in one night They replied ,

“ It is very d iffi cult to do so.

”H is Excellency then said

,

“ Very well ,read the Suratu

’l- Ikh las ; the reward for so d o ing is equal to that for

read ing one - third of the Quran.

”It is for this reason that it is generally

recited in the Namaz - i - Tahaj jud . (Zawab itu’

l- Furqan , p .

3 In a mosque the Imam says the first sentence alone ; the people thesecond .

A FORM OF SA LAT 2 6 1

his hands,with the fingers close to each other

,upon the

ground . He must rest upon his toes in such a way that

they point to the Qiblah, not on the side of the feet,which

must b e kept straight behind h im. The elbow must not

touch the side,

1nor the stomach the thigh , nor the thigh

the cal f of the leg. The eyes must b e kept bent downwards . Then he touches the ground first with his nose

,

and then with his forehead, taking care that the thumbsjust touch the lobe of the ears .2 A ll this being careful lyattended to, the Musal li can say the Tasbih - i - S ijdahthus ’

“ I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Most High !I extol the holiness of my Lord , the Most High !I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Most High !

”

He then raises his head and body,S inks backwards upon

his heels, places his hands a l ittle above his knees,and

whil st doing so says the Takhir - i - Jalsah3 “ A llahu

A kbar !A fter a slight pause, a second prostration or S ij dah is

made,and the Takhir- i - S ijdah and the Tasbih- i - S ijdah are

repeated as before . Then,when in the act of rising up,

the

Musalli says the Takhir - i- Q iam A llahu A kbar 1” 4

This concludes one rak‘at . The second rak ‘at begins

w ith the Fatihah, so that after saying the Takhir- i- Qiam a

Musalli would have to begin again at that place and repeatall that he had just finished ; the only change being thatafter theFatihah he recites different verses of the Quran to

1 Bukhari says that one daywhen the Prophet was making S ijdah, he so

Opened his arm s that his armpits appeared in view .

2 Women in the S ijdah keep all the limb s of the b ody close together, andput b oth feet at right angles to the b ody . If their face is Qib lah -ward s

i t is sufficient .

3 H ere the Shi ‘ahs say :“ I rise and sit b y the power of God .

I t is a grievous sin for the worsh ippers to raise up the ir head s b eforethe Imam rises Up , a fact mad e known to them b y h is repeating the

Takb ir - i - Jalsah . Thus, on the authority of A b uHuraira,one of the Com

panions , we have th is Trad it ion .

“ The Prophet said , ‘What ! d oes no

one of you fear when he lifts up his h ead b efore the Imam d oes ? God w illmake his head like that of a d onkey .

’

(Sahihu’

l-Bukhari. Kitab u’

l- A z in- l


those he said in the first rak ‘at. A fter two rak‘

ats hav ebeen said , and after the last

,though it b e an Odd number,

the Musalli,unless he is a Shi

‘

ah,places his left foot under

him and S its upon it . He then places his hands above hisknees

,as for the Takhir- i - Jalsah

,and with his eyes d irected

towards his lap says the A ttahiyat“The adorations of the tongue are for God , and al so the

adorations of the body,and almsgiving ! Peace b e on thee

,

0 Prophet ! with the mercy of God and His blessing. Peaceb e on us and upon God’s righteous servants !

”

Then raising the first finger of the right hand he says theTashahhud

,

1which is as follows

I testify that there is no deity b ut God ; and I testifythat Muhammad is the servant of God and the messenger ofGod .

Then at the end of all the rak ‘

ats the Musalli,whilst in

the same posture,says the DarI’Id

,which is

“O God ! have mercy on Muhammad and his descend

ants,

2as Thou didst have mercy on A braham and his

descendants. Thou art to b e praised and Thou art great .

O God ! bless Muhammad and his descendants , as Thoudidst bless A braham and his descendants . Thou art to b e

praised and Thou art great.

”

Then comes the D u‘

a, which may b e in the worshipper’s

own words,though he usually says 3

“ O God our Lord, give us the blessings of this life, and

also the blessings of life everlasting. Sav e us from the

torments of hell .”

Then turning the head to the right the Musalli repeatsthe Salam :

“ The peace and mercy of God b e with you .

”

Then turning the head to the left he says :“The peace

and mercy of God b e with you.

”

A t the close of the whole ceremony the worshipper raises

1 Th is is said at the close of every two rak ‘ats .

2 The Sh i‘

ahs stop here and omit the rest .

3 The S hi ‘ahs omit the Du ‘aand say : Peace b e on thee, 0 Prophe t ,

w ith the mercy of God and H is b lessing. Peace b e on us and on God ’

s

righteous servants.

”



of rak‘

ats, 3, 5 , or 7 , Which may b e said after the last

prayer at night, and before the dawn of day. Usuallythey are added to the Salatu

’

l- ‘Isha. Imam A i Hanifa

says they are waj ih, that is, ordered by God ; though they

are not authorised by any text in the Quran, but by Tradit ions

,each of which is generally received as a Hadis - i - Sahih,

and so witr rak ‘ats are al so regarded as being of autho

rity . Imam Shafi‘i,however, considers them to b e sunnat

only,a term already explained. The Traditions referred

to are : God has added to your Namaz one Namaz more

know that it is witr ; say it between the Salatu’

l-‘Isha and

dawn. Bukhari says : “ The Prophet said the witr rak‘ats

before going to Sleep .

” This fixes the time. He also saidthem before dawn. Thus ‘Ayesha said : “ Every night theProphet made one witr Namaz, and made his witr last til lmorning.

”

On the authority of Buzar,a Traditionist, it

is recorded that the Prophet said : “ Witr is waj ib uponMuslims

,

”and in order to enforce the practice he added :

“ Witr is right ; he who does not observe it is not my follower .

”

The Prophet,the Companions

,Taba‘in

,and the

Taba- i - Taba‘in all observed it. The word witr l iterallymeans “ odd number.

”A Tradition says : “ God is Odd ; He

loves the odd .

”

Musalmans pay the greatest respect to an

Odd number. I t is considered unlucky to begin any workor to commence a journey on a day the date of which isan even number . The number of lines in a page of a bookis nearly always an odd number.

Nafl prayers are v oluntary ones,the performance of

which is considered mustahah, or meritorious . Tabari andother historians say that HarI

’

Inu’

r - Rashid made one hun

dred nafl rak‘ats every day.

1A ll these prayers are precisely

the same in form. They S imply consist in the repetition of

a number of rak ‘ats,of which I have already given a S ingle

illustration in fu ll .3

A Muslim who says the five dailyprayers with the ful l number of rak‘

ats will repeat the

serv ice I have described fi fty times in one day. I f in

1 Ib n Khald i’

m ,v ol. 1. p . 32.

THE FRIDA Y NA MA z 26 5

addition to these he observes the three voluntary periods

of prayers , he must add twenty - five more rak ‘ats,mak ing

a grand total of seventy- fiv e. It is,however, usual to omit

some of the S unnat rak‘ats ; stil l there is a vast amount of

repetition,and as the whole must b e said in A rabic it

becomes very mechanical. A Tradition states : “ He who,

for the sake of faith and with a good intention,in Ramazan

makes these nafl or voluntary prayers,w il l receive all the

pardon of his former sins.” 1

A Muslim who v entured to say that a Namaz might b erecited in Hindustani was publicly excommunicated in the

principal mosque at Madras on Friday,February 1 3th,

1 8 80?

The table on the next page will make the matter clear .

3

The optional S unnat rak‘ats are called “Sunnat - i - ghair- i

mukada the S unnat rak ‘ats before the farz ones are S un

nat—i- mukada,

”

and shou ld b e said .

In addition to these there are several kinds of Namazwhich have to b e said at different times or under specialcircumstances .

(i .) Salatu’

l- Jum‘a,—The Friday Namaz .—This is a farz

duty . I t has the threefold authority of the Quran,the

S unnat,and the Ijma‘. Thus : O ye who believe ! when

ye are summoned to prayer on the day of the assembly

(Friday) , haste ye to the commemoration of God and quityour traffi c ” (S . lxii . The Prophet al so said : “ Jum ‘

a

is farz,

”and “ God will make a mark on the heart of him

who misses the Salatu’

l4 There are

,however

,eight

kind of persons on whom it is not incumbent,v iz .

,a travel ler

,

a sick person,a slave

,a woman

,a young child , a mad per

son,a blind or a lame person . The conditions which make

this Namaz obligatory are : (I . ) That the place in which

1 Sahihu’l- Bukhari

,vol. i . p . 4.

2 The Fatva or d ecree,w ill b e found in a note at the end of th is

chapter.

3 I am ind eb ted to Hughes’ “Notes on Muhammadanism for this excel

lent tab le .

‘1 NI’

Iru’

l- H idayat , p. 1 5 5 .


THE NUMB ER OF1 TME F RA YER .TH E I\ A 1 1ES O F TH E TI 0 P

RA K‘A TS S A ID .

H$3 A

(1)

T IME. g 331330 63 cf: N

csN

'

s

A rab le . Persmn . Urd u .

g:s;

as

”5 1”

: M in Z$1 5 a 5

:

53 a)

7)

I From dawn to 2 2

sunrise.

2 When the sun 4 4 2 2

has b egun to

d e clIne .

3 Midwayb etween

No . 2 and 4.

A few m inutes 3 2 2

after sunset .

5 When the night 4 2 2 79

has c losed in.

I When the sun Salatu’l Namaz - i

‘

I shraq K ihas well risen .

‘ ‘Ishraq.

‘I shraq . Namaz .

2 A b ou t 1 1 o’c lock Salatu

’

a Namaz - i ZuhaK iA . M. Zuha. Chast . Namaz .

3 A fte r midnigh t. Salatu’

t Namaz - i Tahaj judTahaj jud .

3 Tahaj jud . Ki Namaz .

1 There are some Nafl rak ‘ats b esid es these , such as the Tahayyatu

’

l

mas jid ,two rak ‘ats for the honour o f th e mosque . They shou ld b e said

on entering it , accord ing to the trad ition,

“When any one o f you enters a

mosque,make two rak‘

ats b efore you sit down”

(to say the regular prayers ).

(S ahihu’l- Bukhari . Kitab u ’

s - S alat . )2 The Musalli may say five or three w itr rak ‘

ats instead of seven .

3 The Prophet one night said this Namaz in his own room ,b ut in such

a position that he could b e seen b y those who passed b y. For two or

three nights people stopped and said prayers after him . A fter th is, heret ired to a hidd en part O f h is room where he cou ld not b e seen , and so

cou ld not b e mad e Imam of the Namaz . He said that he so ret ired b ecauseh e d id not w ish to make th is Salat a farz one. S ahihu

’

l- Bukharf,”

p .

This is a very good illustrat ion of the S unnat - i - F ‘ili. Th is Tahaj jud Namazis said to b e most ad vantageous . A b I

’

I Huraira relates how the Prophetsaid : S haitan fastens three knots upon the b ack of each one o f you who

sleeps, and he b eats the whole night w ith these knots and says S leep onb u t if the man awakes and rememb ers God , one knot is loosened ; whenhe makes waz I

’

I another knot is unt ied ; then he wakes in the morninghappy and in good spirits b ut if he d oes not d o these th ings , he wakesup unhappy and in d ull spirits.

”

(Sahihu’

l- Bukhari, p.

4 The S hafi‘

is say that only one may b e said,and support their view b y



The fol lowing is a specimen of the Khutbahs .

SERMON ON THE EXCELLENCE OF FRIDA Y.

In the name Of God,the Compassionate, the Merciful.

Praise b e to God , the King, the Holy, the Great, the Knower.

He has Opened our hearts through the b lessing of Islam. He has

made Friday the b est of days . We testify that there is no Godb ut God , the One without partner. This confession saves thosewho make it from danger and from darkness . W e testify thatour Lord Muhammad is H is servant and H is A postle sent to

all mankind . May the mercy and peace of God b e on him,

his descendants,and on his Companions. O men ! 0 b elievers

of God ! I advise you and my own soul thus : “ Ob ey God !Know

,0 servants of God ! that when Friday commences the

angels assemb le in the fourth heaven,and Gab riel (on whom b e

peace) is Mu’azgin, Mika

’il the Khatib

,Israfil the Imam

,and

‘I z ra’il the Mukab b ir

,

1and all the angels join in the Namaz .

When it is over Gab riel says :“ I give the reward due to me as

Mu’again to the Mu

’

azgins of the sect of Islam ; Mika’

il “ I givemine to the Khatib s Israfil : “ I give m ine to the Imams ;

”

’

I z ra’il : “ I give mine to the Mukab b irs.

”The angels say :

“We

give ours to the company of the Muslims. The Prophet said :

The night and day of Friday last twentyfour hours, and each

hour God releases a thousand souls from hell. Whosoever makes

ghusl’on Friday, God will give him for every hair on his b ody

the reward of ten good deeds. IVhosoever d ies on a Friday meets

with the'

reward of a martyr .

”

Certainly the b est and most eloquent speech is the Holy Quran ,

the Word of God,—the K ing, the Great, the Knower. His word

is true and righteous. When thou read est the Quran say :“ O

God ! protect me from cursed S atan.

”

In the name of God , the Compassionate, the Merciful .

When ye are summoned to prayer on the day of the assemb ly,

haste to the commemoration of God and quit your traffic . This,

1 One who says , “ A llahu A kb ar—God is Great .

A SERMON IN PRA ISE OF FRIDA Y 2 6 9

if ye knew it,will b e b est for you. A nd when the prayer is

ended,then d isperse yourselves ab road and go in quest Of the

b ounties of God and that it may b e well with you, oft rememb erGod . But when they get a sight of merchandise or sport, theyd isperse after

,and leave thee standing alone. S ay : God hath in

reserve what is b etter than sport or wares . God is the b est pro

v ider ’ ”

(S . lxii. 9 God b y means of the Holy Quran w illb less us and you . A nd by its verses and teaching will reward u s

and you . God is A lmighty, Generous, Merciful,Eternal

,Holy

,

Clement.

Here ends the first sermon : after a short pause the

preacher commences the second .

In the name of God , the Compassionate, the Merciful .

Praise b e to God , the Creator of the earth and heavens, the

Maker of light and darkness. I testify that there is no God b ut

God . H e is one. He has no partner. Know,O b elievers ! that

th is confess ion will save you from troub le and calamity. I testifythat Muhammad

,who wipes out error and infidelity, is the servant

and A postle of God . The mercy ofGod b e on our Lord Muhammad ,the Lord. of Creation,

and on his descendants,and on his Com

panions b e grace and honour. O servants of God ! I ad vise youand my own soul thus : Ob ey God ! Fear God

,who created life

and death and who scrutinises our good actions. O God ! b e

pleased with A i Bakr, the righteous, the S ahib u’

l- Ghar,1 and

with Omar I bnu’

l-Khattab , the chief of the holy men,and with

Osman the possessor of two lights, who was martyred when read

ing the Holy Quran,and upon

‘A li Murtuza,the destroyer of

infidels and sinners. O God ! b e pleased with the great Imams

Hasan and Husain. Be pleased with their mother Fatimahu’

z

Zahra,the chief of women

,and with Hamz ah and ‘A b bas

, the

uncles of the Prophet. A lso b e pleased with all the A shab

(Companions). O God ! help those who help the religion of

Muhammad,and make us of their numb er. Make those wretched

who corrupt it, and keep us aloof from all such . O b elievers !

1 A reference to his presence w ith Muhammad in the cave (ghar) whenthey fled from Mecca to Mad ina. S ee S i

’

I rah ix. 40 .


truly God orders you to do j ustice and to Show kindness to yourkindred . H e ord ers you to ab stain from infidelity and from the

greater and the lesser sins . God warns you . God is the Most

High, the Most Glorious . God is Great !”

The collection of Khutbahs from which the above havebeen translated contains a considerable number on a varietyof subjects

,such as prayer

,the resurrection

,worldl iness

,

the various feas t and fast day,&c . The form in all is v ery

S imilar . The exordium and the conclusion are practical lythe same . A few sentences in the midd le refer to the

Special subj ect of the sermon. The second of the two

sermons is always the same ; it is practical ly an invocationof blessings on certain persons. Both are said in A rabic .What wou ld answer to our idea of a sermon

,such as an

explanation of some doctrine,or an exposition of some

passages in the Quran,is not part o f the public worship in

the mosque,b ut would b e done in an ordinary assembly

,in

any convenient place, by a Mulla,or any learned man who

could collect an audience .

(ii. ) Salatu’

l- Musafir .— Prayers said by a traveller

,that

is,one who makes a j ourney of not less than three days .

S hou ld he stay in any one place fifteen days,he must

say the usual Namaz ; if less , he may say as few as two

farz. rak‘ats. H e may omit all others

,except the three

witr rak‘ats at the Salatu’

l-

‘Isha.

(iii .) Salatu’

l- Khauf.—Prayers of fear . This is a Namazsaid during the time of war . When there is imminentdanger from the approach of an enemy

,the Imam should

divide the army into two bodies ; one of which Should b eplaced in a position towards the enemy

,the other Should

recite,if they are on the march

,one rak ‘at ; if stationary

in a place , two rak‘

ats . This division will then marchtowards the enemy , and the first division will recite as manyrak ‘

ats as may b e requ ired to complete the Namaz . The

first division of troops will omit the Fatihah and the otherv erses of the Quran recited after it, b ut the second divisionwill supply the omi ssi on. If the enemy are so near that



to the mosque on three successive nights in Ramazan,he

stayed away on the fourth,

‘

giv ing as his reason for sodoing that he feared that, if he went every night, it mightb e considered a farz

,and not a sunnat duty. The number

of rak ‘ats is fixed at twenty, as that was the numberrecited by Muhammad and by the Khalif Omar. The

Shi‘

ahs do not say these prayers , or even enter the mosqueon such occasions , as after every four rak‘

ats an eulogiumis repeated on the four Khalifs

,the first three of whom

they hate .

(v . ) S alatu’

l- Kusaf and Salatu’

l- Khu sai.— Prayer saidwhen an eclipse of the sun or of the moon takes place .

In the former case , the Imam recites with the congregationin the mosque two rak ‘

ats . A Tradition recorded byBukhari and related by ‘A bdu ’llah b in

‘A mrI

’

I states that“ in the time of the Prophet, when there was an eclipseof the sun

,it was notified that cer tainly the Namaz was

to b e said in the congregation .

”

In this Salat the A zan and

the Iqamat are both omitted . NO Khutbah is said . A fter

the rak ‘ats are completed those present remain in prayer

(du‘a) until the eclipse is at an end . The Namaz during

an eclipse o f the moon is the same as that during an

eclipse Oi '

the sun,w ith this exception

,that the rak

‘atS

need not b e recited in a congregation. A Muslim can say

this Namaz privately in his own house . The practice isfounded on the Prophet’s saying, When you see an eclipse ,then remember God ; pray(du

‘

a) and recite the Namazuntil it becomes light again.

(vi .) Salatu’

l- Istisqa.—Prayer in time of drought . When

there is a scarcity of water, each person should,with face

Qiblah - wards,offer up prayer to God . This can b e

’

said

at home and in private . Care'

must b e taken that no

Zimmi 1 is present . The reason given is that this is a

prayer for a blessing, b ut God sends no blessing on a

company in which a Zimmi is present . These - prayers are

1 That is, a non -Muslim who is allowed to resid e in a Musalman state

on payment of a special tax.

S A LATU’

L - JA NAZA 2 7 3

simple du‘

a and not a Namaz. There is no wel l - authenticated Tradition to the effect that the Prophet ever saidNamaz on such an occasion, whilst there are many whichshow that he made du‘

a. This is a very good example of

the use of the term Salat as a Mushtarak word,i .e.

,one

which has several significations. Its ordinary meaning isNamaz , here it means du ‘a.

(v ii ) Salatu’

l- Janaza.

—Prayers at a funeral . When a

person is about to d ie , the attendants should place him on

his right side with his face Q iblah - wards . In that positionhe should repeat the “ Kalimah - i - Shahadat,

”

the creed of

testimony : “ I confess that God is one,without a partner

that truly Muhammad is His servant and H is A postle .

A fter death has taken place, the corpse is laid out , incenseis burnt

,and the shroud is perfumed an odd number of

times . A Tradition states that an odd number is fixedupon because the number one

,which represents the unity

of God,is odd and not even . The lesser lustration (waz I

'

I)is then made. The head and heard are washed with a

decoction made of some flowers,after which the greater

lustration (ghusl) is made .

To recite the Salatu’

l- Janaza is a duty called Farz - i

kifayah,that is , if some few persons in the assembly say

it,all need not do so whilst i f no one repeats it

,all wil l

b e guilty of sin . To prove that Namaz is farz the following verse is quoted :

“ Take alms of their substance,that

thou mayest cleanse and purify them thereby , and pray forthem ; for thy prayers shall assure their minds : and God

heareth knoweth ”

(S . ix . The proof that it is notFarz - i ain incumbent on all), b ut Farz - i—kifayah,

is

drawn from an account given in a Hadis to the effect thatthe Prophet one day did not recite the Namaz over one of

his deceased followers. Now,if the Namaz had been Farz

i -

‘ain, even the Prophet could not have omitted it. H is

S unnat,or practice

,has decided the nature of the farz c om

mand contained in the verse of the Quran just quoted .

The Namaz can only b e said when the corpse is present.

S


I t is recited in the open space in front of the mosque,

“

or in

some neighbouring spot never in the graveyard .

When all are assembled the Imam or leader says : “ Herebegins the Namaz for the dead. The company presentthen stand up in rows with faces turned in the direction of

Mecca. The Imam stands a l ittle in front,near the head

or waist of the corpse,according as it is that of a male or

female . Then all assume the Qiam or standing position ,

and recite the Niyyat as fol lows : I recite Namaz for thesake of God

,and Offer prayers (Du

‘

a) for this deceased person , and I follow the Imam (who is about to offic iate) .

Then all at the first1 Takhir put the hands to the lobes of

the ears and say :“God is Great !

”

Then they say the Sana: Holiness to Thee, O God ! andto Thee b e praise ! Great is Thy Name ! Great is Thy

greatness ! Great is Thypraise There is no God b ut TheeThen follows the second Takb ir : “ God is Great !

”

Then all say the DarI‘Id - i - Ibrahim : O God

,have mercy

on Muhammad and upon his descendants,as Thou didst

bestow mercy,and peace

,and blessing, and compassion,

and

great kindness upon A braham and upon his descendants .Thou art praised , and Thou art Great ! 0 God

,bless

Muhammad and his descendants,as Thou d idst bless

,and

didst have compassion and great kindness upon A brahamand upon his descendants .”

Then follows the third Takb ir : God is Great !The Du

‘a is then repeated : O God,forgive our living

and our dead,and those of us who are present, and those

who are absent,and our children and our full—grown persons ,

our men and our women. O God,those whom Thou dost

keep alive amongst us , keep alive in Islam,and those whom

Thou causest to d ie,let them die in the Faith .

” 2

1 The S hafi ‘ites raise the hand s at the recital of each of the four Takb irs ;

the other sects d o so only at the first.2 If the d eceased was a child or a mad person, they say O God , make

h im (or her, as the case may b e ) a gu ide for us , and make him a cause of

our gaining a future reward . O God , save him and make him an intercessor for us .


2 7 67

THE FA ITH OF

’

ISLAM

make no distinction between any of H is A postles. 1 A nd

they say :‘We have heard and we Obey . (We implore)

Thy mercy,Lord ; for unto Thee must we return .

’

God

w ill not burden any sou l beyond its power. It shall enj oythe good which it hath acquired , and shall bear the evil forthe acquirement of which it laboured . 0 our Lord ! punishu s not if we forget or fal l into S in ; O our Lord ! and lay

not on us a load like that which Thou hast laid on thosewho have been before us

20 our Lord ! and lay not on us

that for which we have no strength,b ut blot out our S ins

and forgive us, and have pity on us . Thou art our pro

tector ; give u s v ictory therefore over the infidel nations

(S . ii . 2 8 5 ,The chief mourner then gives the Ign- i—‘Amm

,that is

,he

says : A ll have permission to depart .

”

S ome then proceed homewards,others go with the corpse

to the graveyard . When the bier is lifted up, or when it

is placed down near the grave, the people say :“We c om

m it thee to earth ' in the name of God and in the religionof the Prophet.

”

If the ground is very hard , a recess (lahd) is dug out in

the side of the grave. This must b e high enough to al lowthe corpse to sit up when the angel s Munkar and Nakircome to interrogate it . If the ground is soft, a smal l graveis excavated at the bottom of the larger one. The corpseis then placed in the lower one. The

'

idea in both cases isthat the corpse must b e in such a position that it can havefree movement. The body is placed with the face towards

1 Th is contrad icts verse 2 54 of th is S I’I rah . Muslims explain it thu s .

We accept all prophets , and as regard s faith in them make no d ifference,

though as regard s d ignity we recognise the d istinction ind icated in the

2 54th verse .

2 That is , the Jews and Christ ians,on whom

,it is said b y the Muslim

comm entators , many strict cerem onial Ob servances were incumb ent . The

word often used to expre ss the id ea of the b urd ensome nature of ceremonial ob servance is takhlif

,troub le . Pract ically, Muslims are not free

from these load s , ” a fact wh ich find s expression in the word used for a

p ious man —a mukhallif, one who has to take troub le in the way of per

form ing religious d uties .

SA LATU’

L - JA NAZ A 2 7 7

Mecca. When the bands of the Shroud have been loosenedthe people say : O God , deprive us not of the heavenlyreward of the deceased , place us not in trouble .

Each person then takes seven clods of earth , and over

each clod says Bism illah ”

(in the name of God) , and the

S I’

Iratu’

l- Iklas and then places each clod by the headof the corpse . Unburnt bricks

,bamboos or boards having

then been placed over the smal ler grave, the persons presentwith both hands throw clods of earth three times into the

grave . The first time they say :“ From it (earth) We

created you ; the second time,A nd into it will We return

you ;”the third time

,

“ A nd out of it will We bring youa second time (S . xx . Then they say this D u

’

a°

“O God , I beseech Thee for the sake of Muhammad not to

trouble the deceased .

”

When the attendants -are fil ling up the grave they say

O God,defend the deceased from Shaitan (devil) and from

the torments of the grave .

” When the grave is completelyfi lled up, one man pours water three

,or five

,or seven times

over it , and then plants a green branch on it. One of the

mourners then draws near the middle of the grave and

recites the Talqin (instruction) :“ O servant of God

,and

child of a female servant of God . 0 son of (such an one),1

remember the faith you professed on earth to the very last ;that is

,your witness that there is no God b ut God

,and that

certainly Muhammad is His A postle,and that Paradise and

Hel l and the Resurrection from the dead are real ; thatthere wil l b e a day of judgment, and say :

‘ I confessthat God is my Lord, Islam my rel igion ,

Muhammad (onwhom he the mercy and peace of God) my Prophet

,the

Quran my guide, the Ka‘bah my Q iblah ,

and that Musl imsare my brethren.

’

O God,keep him (the deceased) firm in

1 The name of the mother is here inserted , Th e mother’

s name i s

chosen in pre ference to that of the father, as there can b e no d oub t as to

the maternity of the child . For the sam e reason it is said that at the LastDay each man w ill b e summoned as such an one , son of such a mother.

This simple fact reveals a sad state of morals, or at least a d isb el ief in thevirtue of women.


this faith,and widen his grave, and make his examination

(by Munkar and Nakir) easy,and exalt him and have

mercy on him,O Thou most Merciful . The other persons

present then ofler a Fatihah .

1

A fter this they may, if they l ike to do so,read the

Saratu’l - YaS in (xxxv i . ) and the S I

’

I ratu’

l—Mulk I t

is not common to do so . Then,retiring forty paces from

the grave , they again offer a Fatihah,for by this time the

examination of the deceased has commenced. The firstnight is one of great trouble to the deceased

,so alms

should b e given liberally that night in his name . In orderto relieve him as much as possible

,two nafl rak‘

ats of a

Namaz should b e said . A fter the Fatihah in each rak ‘at,

the worshipper should repeat the Ayatu’

l—Kursi,the throne

v erse (S . ii . 2 three times ; then the S I’

Iratu’

t- Takisur

(cii . ) e leven times ; then the Saratu’l - Iklas (cxii.) three

times .A fter the Salam and the DarI

'

Id,the worshipper lifts up

both hands , and with great humility prays that the rewardof the serv ice just concluded may b e bestowed on the

deceased .

(viii .) Salatu’

l- Istikhara.—This is a Namaz

,consisting

of two rak ‘ats

,said before undertaking any special work .

A fter each rak‘at the person says this D u‘

a: “ O God,

make me know what is best for me,and keep me from

ev il,and bestow good upon me, for I have no power to

know what is best for me .

”

He then goes to sleep , during which period he expects to rece ive a special inspiration

(Ilham) which wil l give him the needed directions and

guide him aright as to the matter in hand .

(ix .) Salatu‘t - Tarawih .

—This consists of twentv rak‘ats

recited each evening during the month of Ramazan . A n

account of these wil l b e given in the next chapter when theceremonies connected with the Ramazan fast are described.

The account given of the various forms of S alat will

1 The id ea is that the reward of this ac t is transferred to the person on

whose b ehalf it is mad e.



wisheth you ease,b ut wisheth not your discomfort

,and

that you fulfil the number of days (S . ii. This iscalled a qaza fast

,that is, a fast kept at another time in

l ieu of one which has been omitted .

If a person makes a vow that , if God grants a certainrequest, he wil l fast (roz ah - i - nazr), or if he fasts by way of

atonement for some sin committed (roz ah - i - kafarah), in bothcases it is a wajib duty to keep the fast. S ome hold thatthe former is a farz duty

,and base their assertion on the

verse : “ Let them bring the neglect of their persons to a

close,and let them pay their vows (S . xxii .

A ll other kinds of fasts are nafl,a term already explained .

S uch are the fasts kept on the l o th day of Muharram ; on

the A iyam- i - Biz (bright days) - the 1 3th, 1 4th, and 1 5 th

day of any month,on the 1 sth of Sha‘ban, that is , the

day fol lowing the night called Shab - Barat,and on the

3o th of each month in which there are thirty days. A

nafl fast may b e broken if the person who intended to

keep it receives an invitation to a feast . A ccording to

Bukhari, a woman may not make a nafl fast withou t theconsent of her husband . The reverse is not the case

,for

“ Men are superior to women on account of the qualitieswith which God hath gifted the one above the other

,and

on account of the outlay they make from their substancefor them

”

(S . iv. It is said that one day a woman

came to the Prophet and said that her husband had slappedher. The Prophet wished to punish him for doing so improper an act

,b ut he was prevented by the descent from

heav en of the verse just quoted , which is held to b e con

clusiv e evidence of the inferiority of women. The v erseal so contains the words “ chide those (wives) for whoserefractoriness ye have cause to fear ; remove them intobeds apart

,and scourge them . I t is mustahab to fast

some days in the month Shawwal,for Muhammad is re

ported to have said : “Whosoever keeps the fast of

Ramazan and some seven days in the preceding month of

S hawwal,it is as if his whole l ife were a fast.”

THE DUTY OF FA S TING 2 8 1

If, on account of dull weather or of dust- storms

,the new

moon is not v isible, it is su fficient to ac t on the testimonyOf a trustworthy person who declares that Ramazan has

commenced. Imam Shafi‘

i requires two,b ut the following

Tradition is quoted against him :“ A n A rab came to the

Prophet and said,

‘ I have seen the new moon .

’ His Exc ellency said , Dost thou bel iev e that there is no God b utGod ? Dost thou confess that Muhammad is his A postle ? ’

‘ Yes,

’

replied the man. The Prophet call ing Billal, theMu

’

aggin, said,‘ Tel l the people to commence the fast .

’

This proves that the ev idence of one good Muslim is suffi

cient testimony in the matter.

The fast is destroyed in the following cases z— lf, whencleansing the teeth , a little water should pass into the throat ;i f food is eaten under compulsion ; if an enema is u sed ; ifmedicine is put into the ears

,nose

,or a wound in the head ;

if a meal has been taken on the supposition that it wasnight when it was really day ; if the niyyat in the Ramazanfast was not properly made ; if after a meal taken duringthe night a portion of food larger than a grain of corn re

mains between the teeth or in a cavity of a tooth ; lastly , iffood is vomited. In each of these cases

‘

a qazafast mustb e kept in l ieu of the one thus broken . In the case wherethe fast is del iberately broken

,the person must atone for

his S in by setting a slave at liberty ; if from any cause thatcannot b e done, he must fast every day for two months ;if that cannot b e done, he must give sixty persons two ful lmeal s each

,or give one man such meal s daily for sixty

days . The fast is not broken by merely tasting anything,by applying antimony to the eyes and oil to the beard

,by

cleansing the teeth or by kissing a person ; b ut it is con

sidered better not to do these things during the daytime .

If a person through the infirmity of Old age is not ableto keep the fast, he must perform Sadaqah

,that is

,he must

feed a poor person . Thi s opm ion 13 based on a sentence inthe Quran which has caused a great deal of dispute : A s

for those who are able (to keep it and yet break it), the


expiation of this shal l b e the maintenance of a poor man

(S . ii. This seems to make fasting a matter of per

sonal . Option,and some Commentators admit that at first it

was so,b ut they say that the words have been abrogated

1

by , the following sentence, which occurs in the next v erseA s soon as any one of you observeth the moon, let him

set about the fast .

”

Others say that the negative particle“not

”

must b e understood before able,in which case the

words within brackets must b e omitted . O thers explain theexpression “

those who are able ”as equivalent to “

thosewho hav e great d iffi culty therein , such as aged and infirmpersons. This seems to b e the best interpretation , and isthe one which practically is acted on .

In the case of women with child,mothers giving suck to

their children,S ick persons whom fasting at this particular

time might injure, it is sufficient if they keep' it at another

time ; that is , they must when convenient make a qazafast. In these cases the Sadaqah is not required . The

Quran says : “ He who 1s S l or upon a j ourney shal l fast al ike number of other days (S . ii . 1 8 There are five daysIn the year in which it is unlawfu l to fast. These are

‘Ida’l - Fitr, Baqr

‘id,and the three fol lowing days , v iz .

,the

1 1 th, 1 2 th, and 1 3th of Zu’

l- Hijjah . If during the month

o f Ramazan a person arrives at maturity,or an infidel

becomes a Muslim,each must keep the fast during the

remaining days of the month .

To take the Sahari or meal taken just before sunrise inthe month of Ramazan is a Sunnat act . The great Traditionists , Bukhari , Muslim

,and Tirmiz i

,all agree that the

Prophet said,

Eat Sahari because there is a blessing in it .

The d ifference between our fast and that of the men of the

Book (Christians) is the partaking of Sahari”

The mealeaten immediately after sunset is called Iftar, or the break

1 There are others who maintain that th is is a muhkam statement,and

canno t'

there fore b e ab rogated . They hold that it must b e restricted to

the aged and to persons'

who have chronic d iseases . (Tafsir - i - H usaini

p . 30 ; Tafsir - i - Faiz u’l- Karim

, p .



says : Observe prayer (Salat) and the legal impost (Zakat)(S . ii . The Khalif ‘

Umr Ibn‘

A bdu’l - ‘A ziz u sed to

say :“ Prayer carries us half- way to God , fasting brings us

to the door of H is palace,and alms procure us admission.

”

The three conditions without which Zakat would not b e

compulsory are Islam,Hurriyat (freedom) , and Nisab (stock) .

The reason for this is that Zakat is said to b e a fundamental part of ‘Ibadat (worship) , and that

,as the infidels

cannot perform acceptable worship,they have nothing to do

with Zakat. Hurriyat, or freedom ,is necessary

,for slaves

hold no property . Nisab,or stock

,is required

,for so the

Prophet has decreed .

1 When the Nisab is requ ired fordaily use , the Zakat is not taken from i t ; su ch as a slaveretained for personal service

, grain for food , weapons, tools,books

,household furniture

,wearing apparel, horses for rid ing,

&c . ,for one Tradition records that the Prophet specially

exempted all these ; whilst another, given on the authorityof Bukhari

,says that for slaves employed in domestic serv ice

only the Sadaqah - i - fitr 2 should b e given . If a person owesa debt, the amount necessary for its liquidation must b ededucted from his property and the Zakat given on the

balance . If it is a debt due to God,such as an offering

due on a v ow,or to b e given in atonement for the neglect

of some religious duty, it must not b e so deducted from the

property on which Zakat is due.

When the Nisab is in gold or in S ilver to the valueof about :5 5 , then one - fortieth part is due .

“ A womanw ith a child

,on whose arms were heavy golden bracelets ,

came to the Prophet. H e inquired if the Zakat had been

given for them . On receiving a reply in the negative hesaid

,

‘ It is easy for God in the day of judgment to makethee wear bracelets of fire .

’

The girl then took them Off

1 The Prophet told the men of the trib e ‘A b du’l - QAis that they should

give one - fifth of their property (Sahihu’l- Bukhari, p . It is said

,how

ever, that th is ord er applied to that trib e only,and was not of general

applicat ion.

2 That is,food or money sufficient to provid e one meal for a poor

person.

ZA KAT OR A LMSGIVING 2 8 5

and said,

‘ These are for the service of God and of HisProphet .

’

On all rikaz or buried treasure found by any

one,and on costly metal s extracted from mines , one - fifth

of the value must b e paid, whether the land b e Kharij im

rented at its proper market v alue , or‘Ushari—possessed

by the payment of a tithe . If the rikaz is found in Daru’lHarb

,a country under a non - Muslim Government

,the

whole belongs to the finder ; if it is on his own land,or

if on unclaimed land , he must pay the one - fifth . Should

the treasure consist of coins bearing the mint stamp of

a Musalman Government,the finder must

,if he can

,find

the owner and return them to him ; if they were coinedin a mint belonging to the infidels, after hav ing given one

fifth as Zakat, he may retain four- fifths for himself.Pearls

,amber, and turquoise are not subject to any

deduction,for the Prophet said ,

“ There is no Zakat forstones.”

A s regards cattle the following rules have been laid down .

For sheep and goats nothing is given when the number isunder forty . The owner must give one for one hundredand twenty

,two for the next eighty, and one for every

hundred after. The scale for buffaloes is the same as

that for sheep . For camels,horses

,and cows

,special

elaborate rules are laid down,b ut the general principles

are the same. D onkeys and mules are exempt,for the

Prophet said ,“ No order has come down (from heaven)

to me about them .

”

If a stock of merchandise exceeds the Nisab (75 5 , 4s ) ,Zakat must b e given on it and on the profits at the rate

of two and a half per cent . Honey,fruit

, grain ,&c .

,

although less than five camel - loads,must

,according to

Imam A br’

i Hanifa, pay one - tenth ; b ut the Sahib ain and

Imam Shafi‘

i say that if there is less than the five camelloads no Zakat is requ ired .

The Zakat should b e given to the classes of person men

tioned in the following v erse .

“ A ims are to b e given to

the poor and the needy,and to those who collect them

,and

2 8 6 THE FA ITH or IS LAM

to those whose hearts are won to I sldm,and for ransoms

,and

for debtors, and for the cause of God,and for the wayfarer”

(S . ix . The words italicised,according to the Tafsir- i

Husaini, Baizavi , and other authorities , are now cancelled,

or rather they are al lowed to fall into disuse,for the term

saqit, which is the one used,is not so strong as the word

mansukli (abrogated) . The reference is to the A rab chiefswho were beaten by the Prophet at the battle of Honein

(A .H . This v ictory is referred to in the 2 5th verse of

this Surah , God has helped you in many battle - fields,and

on the day of Honein . A bu Bakr abolished this giving of

Zakat to converts , and the Khalif Omar said to these or

similar persons ,“ This Zakat was given to incline your

hearts towards Islam . Now God has prospered Islam. If

you b e converted it is well ; if not,a sword is between

u s . No Companion has denied this statement,and so the

authority for the practical suspension of this order is thatof the Ijma‘ - i - ummat. I t is wel l that an appeal to un

worthy motives shou ld b e abolished, b u t no commentator,

so far as I know,makes that a reason for the cancelling of

this order . It is always placed on the ground of the

triumphant nature of Islam, which now needs no such support. Contemptuous indifference, not any high moralmotive , was the cause of the change. In addition to the

persons mentioned in the verse just quoted , Zakat may b e

given to assist a Mukatib,or slav e who is working in order

to purchase his freedom. Persons who are too poor to goon a Jihad or to make the Hajj must b e assisted . The

Zakat must not b e given for building mosques , 1 for funeralexpenses , liquidating the debts of a deceased person,

or to

purchase a slave in order to set him free. I t is not lawfulto give the Zakat to parents or grandparents, children or

grandchildren,or for a husband to give it to his wife or a

Wife to her husband , or a master to his slave . A buYusuf

and Muhammad,disciples of Imam A bu Hanifa

,maintain

1 Mosques are usually endowed . The property thus set apart is calledwaqf. This supports the various officials connected with a mosque .



not go in person might send a substitute . On the authorityof Ib n ‘A bbas the following Tradition has been handeddown .

“ The Prophet said : God has made the Hajj farz .

’

Then A qra b in Habis, stand ing up, said : 0 Prophet , is itto b e made every year ? ’ His Excellency said : I f I say

yes, it wil l b e a waj ib duty to do it annually b ut that yeare not able to bear

,so the Hajj is necessary only once ;

whatever pilgrimage may b e made to Mecca in additionis nafi .

’ 1

The Haj j must b e made by every free Muslim , soundin body and of ful l age , who is able to pay his expenses ,after duly providing for the support of his household tillhis return. I f a slave or a child should make the Hajj ,the former on attaining freedom ,

and the latter on comingof age, mu st again go on pilgrimage. If a woman

,whose

residence is at a distance of more than three days’ journeyfrom Mecca, goes on pilgrimage , she must b e accompaniedby her husband or by a near - relative .

“ A certain man

came to the Prophet and said : My wife is about to makethe Hajj , b ut I am cal led to go on a warlike expedition.

’

The Prophet said Turn away fromthe war and accompanythy wife in the Hajj .

’ Imam A buYusuf considered thata wealthy man who delayed more than a year in makingthe Hajj was a sinner. Imam Muhammad and most otherswould allow him to postpone it for some years ; b ut if deathshould overtake him before he made the pilgrimage, he wouldb e accounted a sinner .

Connected w ith the Hajj there are three actions which

are farz , and five which are waj ib ; all the rest are sunnat

or mustahab . The farz requisites are (I ) to wear no other

1 In consequence of some proposed regulat ions concerning the p ilgrimsh ips in the year 1 89 5 , a large numb er of Ind ian Musalmans comb ined and

sent a memorial to the Governor- General of Ind ia,in wh ich they say :

The H aj j is regard ed and universally b el ieved as an ob ligatory farz )

performance b y all Muhammadans . In fact , we b elieve it to b e the su r est

way to salvation and p arad ise.

” Thus a p ilgrimage to an old heathen shrineand the kissing of a small b lack stone atones for a life of evil and Opens

the d oor of heaven.

THE HAJJ 2 89

garment except the Ihram,

1two seamless wrappers

,one of

which is worn round the loins,the other thrown over the

shoulders, the head being uncovered ; (2 ) to s tand in‘A rafat ; 3) to make the Tawaf, that is, to go round theKa‘bah seven times .The waj ih duties are : (I ) to stay in Muzdalifah ; (2) to

run between Mount Safaand Mount Marwah 3) to per

form the Ramyu’

r- Rijam,or the casting of the pebbles ;

(4) if the pilgrims are non- Meccans,they mu st make an

extra Tawaf ; 5 ) to shave the head after the pilgrimageis over .

The Hajj must b e made at the appointed season.

“ Let

the pilgrimage b e made in the months already known

(S . ii . These months are S hawwal , Zu’

l- Qa‘dah,and

the first ten days of Zu’

l- Hijjah . The actual Hajj must

b e in the month Zu’

l- Hijjah,the twelfth month of the

Muhammadan year, b ut the preparations for,

and the

niyyat or intention of the Hajj can b e made in the two

preceding months . The ‘Umrah,or ordinary pilgrimage,

can b e done at any time of the year except on the ninthand four succeeding days of Zu

’

l- Hijjah . The authorityfor the

‘Umrah is found in the text : “ A ccomplish the

pilgrimage (hajj ) and the v isitation ”

(‘umrah) (S . ii .

On each of the various roads leading to Mecca,there are

at a distance of about five or six m iles from the city stagescalled Miqat. The following are the names. On the Madinaroad , the stage (manzil) is cal led Zu

’

l- Halifah on the ‘Iraqroad

,Zatu ‘A rq on the Syrian road

,Hujfah ; on the Naj d

road,Qarn ; on the Yaman road

,Yalamlam .

2

1 This ceremony is called A l- Ihram (13. e. , making unlawful ), b ecause nowvarious actions and pursu its must b e ab stained from . The ceremony o fd ofiing the pilgrim

’s garb is called A l- Ihlal making lawful ), for

now the pilgrim returns to the ord inary pursu its and joys of a life inthe world .

2 This statement of names is taken from the “Nuru’l - H idayat , p . 2 1 1 ,

and that of the d istance from Hughes’ “Notes on I slam ; b ut Burton

speaks of A I Zarib ah,a place forty - seven m iles d istant from Mecca

,as

a Miqat . I t was there that he assum ed the Ihram . The explanationprob ab ly is that a Haj i must not approach nearer to Mecca w ithout the


The Haj is from all parts of the Musl im world at lengtharrive

,weary and worn, at one of these stages . They

divest themselves of their ordinary clothing, perform the

legal ablution,say a Namaz of two nafl rak

‘

ats,and then

put on the lhram . The Haj i faces Mecca,makes the

niyyat, and says,

“ O God , I purpose to make the Hajj ;make this service easy to me

,and accept it from me . He

then says the Talb iyah1 Here I am ! O A llah ! Here I

am ! Here I am ! There is no God b ut Thee ! Truly ,praise and bounty

,and the kingdom are to Thee ! NO

partner hast Thou ! Here am I ! The persons whoreside permanently in any of these Miqat

,or stages, can

assume the pilgrim’s garb in a place called Hal

,near to

Mecca,or in the city itself, whilst the inhabitants of Mecca

can put on the Ihram in the precincts of the temple .

The Haji must now abstain from worldly affairs and

dev ote himself entirely to the duties of the“

Hajj . He is

not al lowed to hunt,though he may catch fish if he can .

“0 Believers , kill no game while ye are on pilgrimage

”

(S . v . The Prophet also said : “ He who shows theplace where game is to b e found is equal ly as b ad as the

man who kills it . Bukhari,in the chapter on the Hajj ,

says that game kil led by others may b e eaten,and records

the following Tradition :“ O Prophet

,I have slain a wild

ass,and some of it yet remains with me . Thy people fear

to eat of it lest they b e put away from thee.

’

He said,

Let it b e for the people and they were Muhrimum”

Ihram than the places named in the text . The farther from Mecca it isassumed

, provid ed that it b e d uring one of the two months preced ingZu

’

l- H ij jah,the more meritorious is the ac t .

1 Talb iyah means the repet ition of “ Lab b aik,

a phrase equ ivalent toI am here .

”The Talb iyah can b e said in any language , though A rab ic

is preferred . It usually is as follows : Lab b aik,A llahumma, Lab b aik !

La S harika laka, Lab b aik ! Inna - l- hamda wa - n - ni‘mata laka

,w

’- al -mulk !

LaSharika laka, Lab b aik ! I t is a sunnat d uty to repeat the Talb iyah

O ften ; to repeat it once is shart , t.e. , a positive cond it ion. Ib n ‘A b b as

says : I heard the Prophet say,H e who d ies engaged in the funct ions

of the Haj j shall b e raised saying the salutat ion Lab b aik.

’

(“ H istory of

the Khalifs ,”b yJalalu

’d - d in A s



he must say the Takb ir and the Tahlil. The Traditional ist‘A ta says that at this stage the Prophet used to lift up hishands and pray .

On entering the enclosure the Haj i says the Lab b aik,

Takb ir,and the Tahlil

,then a D u

‘

a, followed by a Namazof two rak

‘ats at the station of one of the four Imams . On

arriving near the Hajru’

l- A swad (black stone) the Haj i againsays the Takhir and the Tahlfl

,after which he kisses the

stone . If,on account Of the crowd

,he cannot get near

enough to do this, he mu st touch it with his hand or witha stick

,and kiss that with which he has thus touched the

stone. A t the same time he says : “ 0 A l lah, (I do this)

in Thy belief, and in verification of Thy book, and in pur

suance of Thy Prophet’s example—may A llah bless and

preserve him . 0 accept Thou my supplication,diminish

my obstacles, pity my humiliation,and graciously grant me

Thy pardon.

” Then he again repeats the Takhir and the

Tahlil,the Darud and the Ta‘

rif (prayer for and praise of

Muhammad) . He then encompasses the Ka‘bah seventimes

,saying,

“ In the name Of A llah,and A llah is Omni

potent ! I purpose to make the circu it seven times .” Thisis cal led the Tawaf. The Haj i runs round three times at

a rapid pace, and four times he proceeds slowly . A per

manent resident in Mecca does not perform the Tawaf.

The Haj i then presses his stomach,chest

,and right cheek

against the portion of the Ka‘bah wal l cal led A l-Multaz im,

and raising up his arms on high,says

,

“ 0 A llah,Lord of

form,and is the spiritual safeguard of all who enter it . In add ition, other

“s igns are the preservat ion Of the b lack stone , the m iracles put forth to

d efend the House,the terrib le d eath of the sacrilegious , and the fact that

in the Flood the b ig fish d id not eat the little fish i n the Haram . Invalid srecover the ir health b y rub b ing th emselves against the Kiswat (the covering Of the Ka ‘b ah) and the b lack stone . One hund red thousand merciesd escend on it every d ay, 85 0. Port ions of the Kiswat are h ighly valued as

markers Of the Quran. Waistcoats made of it are supposed to rend er the

comb atant invulnerab le in b attle .

A nother traveller says : “ The curtains of the d oors and the screensOf the four sid es fetch

,wh en sold

,ab out J£300 ; those of the inner

shrine ab out J£600. Pilgrimage to Mecca,b y the Begum of Bhopal,

p .

THE HA JJ 2 9 3

the A ncient House, free my neck from hel l - fire, and preserveme from every evil deed ; make me contented with that

daily bread which Thou hast given to me,and bless me in all

Thou hast granted !”

He then says the Istighfai z“ I b eg

pardon Of A llah, the Most High , the Living, the Eternal ,and to H im I repent.The Haj i next proceeds to the Maqam - i - Ibrahim 1

(placeof A braham) and then recites two rak‘

ats cal led Sunnatu’

t

Tawaf. S ome water from the sacred wel l Zamzam 2 is thendrunk , after which the Haj i returns to the Hajru

’

l- A swad,

and again kisses it .

Haj i Burton thus describes one shant or circuit

“We b egan the prayer, O A llah (I do this) in Thy b elief and

in v erification of Thy Book, and in faithfulness to Thy covenantand after the example of Thy Prophet Muhammad . May A llahb less and preserve him !

’

till we reached the place A l- Multaz im,

b etween the corner of the b lack stone and the Ka‘b ah door. Here

we ejaculated,

‘ O A llah, Thou hast rights, so pardon my transgressing them.

’Opposite the door we repeated ,

‘ O A llah, verily thehouse is Thy house, and the sanctuary Thy sanctuary

,and the

safeguard Thy safeguard , and this is the place of him who flees to

Thee from (hell) fire .

’A t the b uild ing called Maqam - i - Ib rahim

we said,

‘ O A llah,v erily this is the place of A b raham

,who took

refuge with, and fled to Thee from the fire ! O deny my flesh and

blood , my skin and b ones to the (eternal) flames . A s we pacedslowly round the north or Irak corner of the Ka

‘b ah we exclaimed,

‘ O A llah,v erily I take refuge with Thee from polytheism ,

and

disob ed ience,and hypocrisy

, and ev il conversation, and evil thoughtsconcerning family, and property, and progeny.

’ When we passedfrom the Mizab

,or spout

, we repeated the word s,‘0 A llah

,verily

I b eg of Thee faith which shall not decline,and a certainty which

shall not perish , and the good aid of Thy ProphetMuhammad

1 The Maqam - i - Ib rah im is a small b uild ing, supported b y six pillarsab out e ight feet high ,

four Of wh ich are surround ed from top to b ottom

b y a fine iron railing, while the space b etween the two h ind er pillars isleft Open ; w ithin the railing is a fram e ab out fi ve feet square

,said to

contain the sacred stone on wh ich A b raham sat when he b uilt the Ka‘b ah .

2 It is said that when I shmael was th irsty Gab riel stamped with his

foot and a spring gushed forth . Th is is now the sacred well Zamz am.


may Allah b less and preserve him O A llah,shadow me in Thy

shadow,on the daywhen there is no shadow byThy shadow and

cause me to d rink from the cup of ThyProphet Muhammad—may

A llah b less and preserv e him —that pleasant d raught , after whichis no thirst to all eternity

, O Lord of honour and glory.

’ Turningto the west corner

,or the Ruknu’

sh Shami’

,we exclaimed

,

‘ O

A llah,make it an acceptab le pilgrimage , and a forgiveness of sins

,

and a laudab le endeavour,and a pleasant action (in Thy sight),

and a store which perisheth not, O Thou Glorious , 0 Thou Par

doner This was repeated thrice,till we arriv ed at the Yemanf

,

or southern corner,where the crowd b eing less importunate , we

touched the wall with the right hand , after the example of the

Prophet,and kissed the finger- tips . Between the south angle and

that of the b lack stone,where our circuit would b e completed , we

said , ‘ O A llah,verily I take refuge with Thee from infidelity,

and I take refuge with Thee from want, and from the tortures of

the tomb , and from the troub les of life and death. A nd I fly toThee from ignominy in this world and the next

,and implore Thy

pardon for the present and the future. 0 Lord , grant to me.

in

this life prosperity, and in the next life prosperity, and save me

from the punishment Of fire.

’

The next important step is the running between the

Mounts Safaand Marwah . A ccord ing to Bukhari, some of

the A nsars,on assum ing the Ihram,

were troubled becausethe idol Minat was near to Safa, and therefore they did not

l ike to go there. They spoke to the Prophet about it,and

then this verse came : Verily S afaand Marwah are amongthe monuments of God ; whoever then maketh a pilgrimage

to the temple or v isiteth it, shal l not b e to blame if he

go round about them both ”

(S . ii. There is also a

Tradition to rove its farz Obligation . Thus : “ ‘Abid saidone day to

‘

Ifyesha, ‘ I am young ; tell me the meaning of

the v erse about Safaand Marwah . I do not see in it any

thing beyond the fact that I may go round them.

’ ‘Ayeshareplied

,

‘ It is not as you think ; had it been so,it would

have been revealed thus : He shal l not b e to blame if he

do not go round about them both.

’

A t first the custom was

given'

up, for the ins tincts of the early Muslims showed



there he says , O God,I turn to Thee, I put my trust on

Thee, I desire Thee ; pardon my sin,accept my Hajj , show

mercy to me,supply my need in ‘

A rafat ; Thou art powerfu lover all. He then says Lab b aik, the Takhir, and the

Tahlil. The noontide and the afternoon Namaz are said to

gether there they are thus shortened . This done, he shouldstand upon the mountain near to the place the Prophet is

said to have occupied . This is called the Wq’

I f (standing),a necessary part of the Hajj . He must also listen to thesermon delivered by the Imam , explaining what still re

mains of the ritual of the Hajj , t.e.

,how the Haj is are to

stand in Muzdalifah , to throw the stones in Mina, to makethe sacrifice, &c . A ll the time the Haj i should constantlyshout out the Talb iyah and the Tahlil, and weep bitterly.

He then proceeds to Muzdalifah,a place situated about

half- way between Mina and‘

A rafat,where he should pass

a portion of the night . Whilst there,he must say the

Salatu’

l- Maghrib and the Salatu’

l- ‘Isha together, for Bukhari records how the Prophet , on arriving there

,said the

Salatu’

l- Maghrib ; then each man made his camel sit down,

and the Salatu’

l- ‘Isha was said .

”It is thus a S unnat practice,

and is an illustration of the term Sunnat - i - Fi‘li. A fter a

v isit to the mosque Masharu’

l Haram he should collectseven smal l pebbles and proceed to Mina.

When the morning of the tenth day, the‘Idu

’

z - zuba, or,as it is sometimes cal led , the

‘Idu’

l- A zha, arrives, he again

goes to Mina, where there are three different pillars , calledrespectiv ely the Jamratu

’

l- A kab ah,commonly known as the

Shaitanu’

l- Kabir 1 (great dev il) , the Wasta,or middle pillar,

and the A l Ula,or first one . Holding the jamar, or pebble,

between the thumb and forefinger Of the right hand , theHaj i throws it a distance of not less than fifteen feet and

Mercy, where our common mother was cont inually calling upon his name,

and the ir recognition gave the place the name of ‘A rafat . They livedh ere t ill d eath took place .

”—BURTON .

1 “ The S haitanu’l- Kab ir is a dwarf b uttress Of rud e masonry ab out

e ight feet h igh b y two and a half b road, placed against a rough wall of

stones.

”—BURTON.

THE HA JJ 2 9 7

says,In the name of A llah

,and A llah is A lmighty , (I do

this) in hatred Of the Fiend and to his shame .

”

The re

maining six stones are thrown in l ike manner,to confound

the dev ils who are supposed to b e there. This ceremony iscal led Ramyu

’

r - Rijam,the throwing Of stones . It is said

that it has been performed since the time of A braham,and

that the stones are miraculously removed . Mujahid,a well

known Traditionist, says that he put a mark on his stones,

and afterwards searched, b ut found them not. The pilgrimthen returns to Mina, and there Offers the u sual sacrifice of

the ‘fdu’

z - zuba, of which an account will b e given in the

next chapter . This act,strictly speaking, concludes the

Hajj . The Haj i can now shav e his head,pare his nails

,

and remove the Ihram .

The remaining three days,the 1 1 th, 1 2 th

,and 1 3th

of Zu’

l- Hijjah,are called the A yyamu

’

t - Tashrfq,

“ days of

drying flesh,

” because now the pilgrims prepare provisionsfor the return journey by cutting slices from the victimsOffered in sacrifice and drying them in the sun. The Haj ishould spend this time at Mina

,and each day throw seven

pebbles at each of the pillars. This ceremony duly over,

he returns to Mecca and makes the Tawafu’

l- Wida‘ (circuitof farewell) . He shoul d also drink some water from the

wel l of Zamzam. Finally,the Haj i kisses the threshold

,

and then,with hands uplifted

,laying hold of the covering

of the Ka‘bah,and weeping bitterly, he prays most humbly,

and expresses regret that he will soon have to depart froma place so dear as the sacred Ka‘bah . Retiring backwards ,he makes his exit and the Hajj is complete .

1 Most of

the ceremonies connected with the Hajj , the Ihram,the

shaving of the head , the going to Safa and Marwah,the

throwing of the stones,the circuit of the Ka‘bah

,the

kissing of the black stone , and the sacrifice were all paganceremonies performed by the idolatrous A rabs . Muhammad

1 The numb er of Haj is in the year 1 880 was computed at o f

whom went b y land and the rest b y sea. The total Musalmanpopulation in the world has b een calculated to b e ab out


by his time - serving policy, adopted to .

gain the Meccans tohis side , has confirmed an idolatrous practice which otherwise would probably have been extinct long ago . Safa

and Marwah were hill s held in superstitiou s reverenceby the Meccans . The early Musl ims had some doubtabout retaining them as sacred places : then came the

revelation to the Prophet,

“ S afa and Marwah are amongthe monuments of God ; whosoever then maketh a pil

grimage to the temple or visiteth it,shal l not b e to blame

if he go round about them both ”

(S . ii.The

‘Umrah can b e made at any time except the eighth,

ninth, and tenth of Zu’

l- Hijjah . I t is usually done beforethe pilgrims start homewards .

1 I ts ceremonies differ b utslightly from the Hajj . The Ihram must b e put on ,

and the Obligations o f abstinence which it entails mustb e observed . The usual course is then to make the Ziarat,or v isit to the tomb of the Prophet at Madina. Henceforth the pilgrim assumes the honourable title Of Haji

,and

so is,ever after

,a person of some consequence among the

community in which he dwell s . A mong the Sunni Musalmans the Hajj cannot b e performed by proxy, though itis esteemed a

“

good work if some one who can afford itsends a pilgrim who otherwise could not go. The Shi ‘ahs ,however

,seem to allow it to b e done by proxy.

It is certainly v ery curious to find the old pagancustoms

,superstitiou s and silly

,Of the Hajj incorporated

into a religion which professes to b e monotheistic in

principle and iconoclastic in practice. The explanationprobably is that Muhammad was an ardent A rab patriot,and in his great anxiety to unite the A rab tribes into a

nation , strong to resist their surrounding foes,he could

not afford to do away w ith a centre and a custom so dearto all A rabs as the Ka‘bah and the Hajj . It was the

one thing the scattered tribes had in common,and the

1 The Mu‘taz ila writer Nizam says that the Khalif ‘Umr (Omar) forb ad

the joining of the ‘Umrah w ith the Haj j . (Sharastani in “Milalwa Nihal ,p



the great Imams hold on some of the details,it is most

diffi cult to decide which side holds the correct v iew . Suchopinions are always based on some Tradition, the value of

which,if disputed , it is almost impossible to determine.

I t is sometimes said in praise of Musalmans that theyare not priest- ridden ; b ut no people in the world are so

Tradition- ridden,if one may use such an expression.

Until this chain of superstition is broken there can b e

no progress and no enlightenment ; b ut if ever it is so

broken,such an Islam will cease to b e the Islam ,

for thisfoundation of the Faith and the edifice erected on it are sowelded together that the undermining of the one will b ethe fal l of the other.

as a b asis of Islam. Nothingthat I have said in th is and preced ing chapters on these points is at all stronger than this latest pub lished Opinionfrom a high authority in the Muslim world .

NOTE TO CHA PTER V

THE following Fatva was publicly given in the Great

Mosque, Triplicane , Madras, February I 3th, 1 880

In the name of God , the Compassionate, theMerciful.

QUESTION .

O ‘Ulamaof the religion and Muftis of the enlightened Law,

what is your Opinion in this matter ? A person hav ing translateda juz (one - thirtieth part) Of the nob le Quran into the Hindustanilanguage, has printed it. The translation is defective moreover

,

the A rab ic text is not given. In order to give the translation thesame authority as the original , he has retained the usual signs andmarks of the A rab ic editions : such as

,tof

, qaf, j im, la, mim,and

A t the end of the juz he has added a translation of the

Tashshahud, Qanud , S ana, Ta

‘awwug, Tasmf

‘

,Tashibat

,Ruku‘

,

and S ujud , and has said that all these mu st b e read in Hindustani . He further states that in the translation he has retainedthe rhythm of the original, and that in eloquence and style it isequal to the A rab ic . H e has also added rub rical d irections as to

the ritual of the Namaz,and has stated that to those who do not

know A rab ic it is a waj ib and a far; duty to recite the translationotherwise they commit sin and the Namaz is vain. A s regards the

past, he considers that the ignorant are forgiven, b ut he maintainsthat the ‘U lama Of these days must answer for the neglect theyshow in not telling the people to use translations of the Quran.

Further,in support of his views he adduces a Hadis - i -

sahih, ao

cord ing to which the Prophet said to a Compani on , Salman—i - Farsi‘Read a translation Of the Quran in the Namaz .

’He claims

,as

on his side,the four great Imams. He himself understand s A rab ic

,

yet he says his Namaz in H industani,and influences others to d o

1 For an explanation of these word s see the A ppend ix on‘Ilm - i - Tajwid .


likewise. He has b een spoken to,b ut he takes no heed , and strives

to spread his sect all ov er India.

“Now,what is the order of the nob le Law with regard to such

a person, and what is the decree in the case of those who followhim

,or who circulate his Opinions , or who consider him a religious

man and a guide, or who consider the translation to which referencehas b een made to b e the Holy Quran

,or who teach it to their

children ? O learned men,state the Law in this matter and merit

a good reward .

”

THE A NSWER.

A fter praising God , and after implormg His mercy and peaceon Muhammad

,b e it known that the person referred to is an

infidel, an atheist,and a wanderer from the truth . He also causes

others to wand er. H is assertion that his opinions are in accor

dance with those Of the four Imams is utterly false,b ecause

accord ing to Imam S hafi‘f,Imam Malik

,and Imam Hanb al it is

illegal to use a translation Of the Quran when saying the Namaz,

whether the worshipper is ignorant Of A rab ic or not. Thus ImamNavari

'

,a d isciple of S hafi ‘f

,says :

‘ It is unlawful in any case

to use Persian 1 in the Namaz .

’Faqi ‘A lf

, a d isciple of Malik .

says :‘Persian is unlawful . ’ To these opinions Kaff, a d isciple

Of Hanb al,add s his testimony :

‘TO recite in the Namaz from a

translation of the Quran is unlawful . ’ Moreover,from the Quran

itself,the recital of it in A rab ic is proved to b e a d ivine command

(farz ). The term Quran,too

,means an A rab ic Quran, for God

speaks Of it as a revelation in A rab ic . The words ‘recite so much

of the Quran as may b e easy to you’ prove the duty Of reciting

it ; whilst the words‘an A rab ic Quran have we sent it down

’

show that the Quran to b e u sed is an A rab ic one. Imam A b I’

I

Hanifa and his d isciples , the sahib ain (Imam Muhammad and

Imam A bu Yusuf), consider that, if a person can recite only a

short v erse in A rab ic,it is not lawful for such an one to use

a translation. If he cannot read the A rab ic character, he must

learn b y heart such a sentence as‘Praise b e to God , Lord of

the people .

’Until he learns this he may use a translation .

2

1 Persian was the fore ign language w ith wh ich the early Musl ims were

b rought most into contact b ut the Ob j ect ion applies equally to any other

language .

2 A concession of no pract ical value ,as any one w i th the power of

speech could learn these word s in a very short t ime .



i -Matghib u’

l-Muminin it is said :‘Whosoever intends to write the

Quran in Persian must b e strictly forb idden.

’In the Itqan it is

written :‘ A ccording to Ijma

‘

, it is wrong to Speak of the Quran

as having rhymes.

’ 1 In the Fatawa- i- Tatar Khania it is said °

‘TO translate the A rab ic into Persian is an act of infidelity.

’

Our d ecision then is that the u sual salutations should not b e

mad e to this person. If he d ies,he mu st not b e b uried in a

Musalman cemetery. H is marriages are void and his wives are at

lib erty,accord ing to the ru le laid down in the Miftahu

’s - S a‘dat.

TO doub t of the infid elity of such a person is itself infidelity. A s b y:

the proofs of the law here addu ced the ‘Ulamahave d eclared such

a person to b e an infidel, it follows that all those who assist him or

who consider his claim just,or who circulate his Opinions, or who

consider him to b e a religious person and a fit guide for men,are

also infidels. To send children to b e taught by him,to purchase

newspapers which ad vocate his v iews,and to continue to read his

translation is unlawful . In the Fatawa- i- ‘A lamgfrf, in the chapter

entitled Murtad,it is written :

‘Whosoever has doub ts of the

present infidelity and of the future punishment of such an one is

an infid el . ’ God says in the Quran :‘ Be helpful to one another

accord ing to goodness and piety, b ut b e not helpful for evil andmalice ; and fear ye God

’

(S . v. In another place God says,

‘Whosoever acts not accord ing to God’

s ord er is an infidel. ’

Now,what greater d isob edience can there b e than this

,that a

person shou ld say that the recital Of the A rab ic Quran in theNamaz is not lawful, and that the recital of his own H industanitranslation of it is incumb ent (farz ) ? Our duty is to give informa

tion to Musalmans, and God is the b est Knower .

”

This was written by a learned Maulavi , and signed by twentyfour other leading Maulavfs of the city of Madras.

This Fatva, an authentic copy of which was for some time in

my possession,is of very considerab le importance, as showing how

unyielding the law Of I slam is to the varied circumstances Of the

countries in which it ex ists. The law enjoining the A rab ic lan

guage as a med ium of worship was suited for the A rab people ,and the principle involv ed would seem to b e that the vernacularlanguage of a country should b e used b y the Muslims Of that

1 Th is is b ecause b y so doing it would seem to ascrib e to it s imilarity tohuman composition .

A FA TvA OF EXCOMMUNICA TION 30 5

country for the purposes of d evotion b ut it is not so. I t further

d emonstrates that all such matters must b e regulated , not by theneed s of the age or country, b ut b y an antiquated law

,which

, to

say the least,is an anachronism in the world ’

s history. The

authority paid to the statements mad e by the four chief Imams,

and the fact that the Fatva is b ased on their decisions, and on

prev ious Fatvas in which their authority has b een adduced,show

how e ven to the present day they are regarded as the Muj tahi

d in of Islam . The Fatva is thus manifestly orthodox,and cor

rob orates most fully all I have said in the first chapter on the“ Foundations Of Islam. A gain, this man might have d ivorcedhis wives and Ob tained others

,he might have kept concub ines,

he might have led an immoral life,and still remained in Islam ;

b ut to approach God in prayer through the med ium of his mother

tongue was an Offence so great that he could only b e regarded as

an outcast.

CHA PTER VI

THE FEA S TS A ND FA S TS OF I S LAM

1 . MUHARRAM .—Muharram,

the name of the first month

of the Muhammadan year, is also the name given to the

days of mourning Spent by the Shi ‘ahs in commemoration

of the martyrdoms of ‘A 11 and of his two sons,Hasan and

Husain. The historical events thus referred to have been

already described in the third chapter , so that it is only

necessary now to give an account of the ceremonies con

nected with the Muharram . They differ sl ightly in differentcountries . The following is a description of an Indian

Muharram .

S ome days previous to the feast,the ‘A shar Khana

(literally , ten- day house) is prepared . A s soon as the new

moon appears , the people gather together in the various‘A shur Khanas , and Offer a Fatihah over some sherbet or

some sugar in the name of Husain. The Fatihah concludes

thus : “ 0 God , grant the reward of this to the soul of

Husain . The sherbet and sugar are then given to the

poor.Then they mark a spot for the Alawa

,or hole for

the bonfire which is to b e lit. Every night during the

festival these fires are kindled , and the people , both old and

young, fence across the fire w ith swords or sticks,and jump

about calling out‘A li ! Noble Husain ! Noble Husain !

B ridegroom ! Bridegroom ! Friend !”

The‘Ashur Khana is generally a temporary structure

,or

some large hall fitted up for the occasion . S ometimes thewall s are draped with black cloth , bordered with texts of

the Quran written in a large and elegant style. The place306



heap of Traditions ’ which have cast such a halo of gloryaround the martyr. S ometimes he becomes v ery excited ,and the audience is stirred up to great enthusiasm . I oncepassed an evening in an

‘Ashur Khana. The first Waqi‘

a

Khan was a Persian,who del ivered a very eloquent oration

in his own tongue. It was calm b ut effective . H e was

succeeded by an eloquent old gentleman,who Spoke rapidly

in Hindust ani at the top of his voice, then rose up, ran down

the steps,and casting off his turban

,rushed in and out

amongst the audience, vociferating v igorously all the while.

The effect was marvel lous ; Old and v enerable men wept likel ittle children,

whilst from the adjoining Zanana was heardthe bitter weeping of the women

,who

,though not exposed

to view,could hear all that was said . A fter a while the

assembly rose and formed two l ines facing each other. A

b oy then chanted a few words,and the whole assembly

began, slowly at first,to sway their bodies to and fro, calling

out‘A li ! ‘A li ! Husain ! Husain ! Each one then began

to beat his breast Vigorously. The excitement at last b ecame intense, and the men in the rows looked like so manyw ild creatures .In some cases blood has been known to flow from the

breast,so severe is the sel f- inflicted beating.

2 This continuestill they are wel l - nigh exhausted, when the whole company

goes away,to repeat the performance over again in some

other ‘A shur Khana. A devout person will visit several

1 I give one or two as an illustrat ion Of the extraord inary things thatare said and b elieved When A I Husain was murd ered

,the world stood

st ill for seven days , and the sun upon the walls appeared as a saffron

coloured sheet , and the stars struck one upon the other. The sun was

eclipsed that day,and the horiz on was red for six months after. Not a

stone was turned in Jerusalem that day b ut b lood was found b eneath it .

”

(A s - Syuti’

s“ H istory Of the Khalifs,

”

p .

2 The following is a d escript ion Of Muharram as seen in the Persianquarter of Erz eroum The d evotees , clothed in wh ite rob es

, go in pro

cess ion through the c ity at nightfall, carrying sword s , w ith wh ich theygash their head s . A t first the wound s are slight , b ut as the actors b ecomeexcited , they are dangerously severe. The ghastliness of the sight isnaturally increased b y the contrast b etween the b lood - stains and the white

garments.

”

(“ Turkish - A rmenia,

”b y Rev . H . T. Toz er, p .

THE MUHA RRA M 30 9

each evening. During the day some pious Shi‘

ahs recitethe Quran.

D uring this season women who can read v isit the

Zananas and chant Mursiyahs to the ladies of the harem,

by whom this season of Muharram is celebrated with greatearnestness.

For the first six days nothing else takes place,b ut On

the seventh day the‘

A lam - i - Qasim is taken out in publicprocession . This is to represent the marriage of Qasim,

the

son of'

Hasan,to the favourite daughter of Husain

,just

before the death of the latter. The event is now commemo

rated by the bearing of Qasim’

s standard in procession . I t

is usually borne by a man on horseback . If it is carriedby a man on foot

,he reels about like a drunken man to

show his grief. The crowd shout out Bridegroom ! Bride

groom !”

A fter perambulating the principal thoroughfares,the people bring the standard back to its own

‘A shI’Ir Khana.

A s the standard which represents Qasim is supposed to b ea martyr , it is then laid down,

covered over, and treated as

a corpse. Lamentation is made over it as for one dead .

Sherbet is then produced, and a Fatihah is said , after whichthe standard is again set up in its own place .

The Neza, a lance or spear with a lime on the top, to

recall to remembrance the fact that Yazid caused Husain’

s

head to b e thus carried about,is taken in processi on from

one place to another. The Na‘l Sahib (literal ly, Mr. Horseshoe) is the representation Of a horse - shoe

,and is meant to

remind the people of the swift horse of Husain . Vows arefrequently made to this standard . Thus a woman may

say to it,

“ Shou ld I through your favour b e blessed withOffspring, I shal l make it run in your procession .

”

If she

attains her wish,the child

,when seven or eight years Old ,

has a smal l parasol placed in its hand and is made to run

after the Na‘l Sahib .

If two‘A lams or standards meet, they embrace each

other, that is , they are made to touch. A Fatihah is thensaid

,and the respective processions pass on their way. The


Buraq , supposed to b e a fac - simile of the horse sent byGabriel for Muhammad to make the night ascent to heaven ,

is also taken out.

On the evening before the tenth day,which

,according to

the Muslim mode of computing time,is the tenth night,

the whole of the Ta‘z iyahs and the

‘A lams are taken out In

procession. I t is a scene of great confusion ,for men and

boys disguised in all“

sorts of quaint devices run about. I t

is the carnival O f the Musalman year.

On the following day,the

‘A shura, they kindle the firesin the Alawas, and say a Fatihah in each ‘Ashur Khana.

A fter this the ‘A lams and the Ta‘

z iyahs are taken away toa large open spot near water, which represents the plain of

Karbala. A nother Fatihah is said , and the ornaments anddecorations are taken off the Ta

‘

z iyahs , the frameworks of

which are then cast into the water.

1 S ometimes they are

reserved for use the following year . The water remindsthe people of the parching thirst which Husain felt beforehis death . Only the ‘A lams

,not the Buraqs nor the Na

’

l

Sahibs, are immersed . The people then burn incense, recitethe Marsiyahs, return home

,and say a Fatihah over the

‘A lams , Buraqs , &c . On the evening of the 1 2 th,they sit

up all night reading the Quran,reciting Mars iyahs and

v erses in praise of Husain. On the 1 3th day a quantityof food is cooked, which,

when a Fatihah has been said overi t

,is distributed to the poor. S ome v ery p ious Shi ‘ahs

celebrate the fortieth day after the first of Muharram . I t

is on this day,according to some accounts

,that the head

and body of Husain were reunited . It is known as the‘Id - i - sar wa tan (head - and - body feast) .The S unnis do not

,except as Spectators

,take any part in

the Muharram ceremonies . Indeed,where the ru ling power

is not strong, there is Often much il l - feel ing aroused by theenthusiasm excited for all that concerns ‘

A lf and his fam ily .

1 During the first ten days they are supposed to contain the b od ies of

the martyrs , b ut now b eing empty, the Ta‘z iyahs b ecome mere ord inary

frames , and can b e d estroyed . Qanun- i - Islam,

”

p .



The fact that the British Government punishes al ike all whobreak the peace may have something to do with this . S tillthe Sunni and the Shi‘ah in India l ive on much betterterms

,and have more respect for each other

,than the Turk

has for the Persian or the Persian for the Turk . Thu sWalf begins one of his poem s with a brief encomium on

the three first Khalifs,and then bestows an eulogy on

‘A li

and his sons Hasan and Husain,whom he cal ls Imams of

the world .

”

The following is a prayer used in a Fatihah for‘A li

“ I pray, That God may deign, for the sake of that pure soul,

the ornament Of the b ook of nature , the first of mortals after the

Prophet,the star of mortals

,the most precious jewel of the jewel

b ox of v irtue,the lord of the high and the low

,he who occupies

a d istinguished place on the b ridge of eternity, the mihrab 1 of thefaith

,he who sits upon the throne of the palace of the law

,the

ship of the sea of religion, the sun of the firmament of glory, thepower Of the arm Of the Prophet, he who has merited access to

the tab ernacle of the D ivine Unity,the most profound Of all

religious people , the resplend ent b rightness of the marvels Of God,

the father of v ictory, the Imam Of the gate of heaven,the cup

b earer of the water of Kausar,he who has merited the praise of

Muhammad,he who is the b est of men , the holy martyr

, the chiefof Believers

,the Imam Of the Faithful, ‘A li

,son of A bu Talib

,

‘A li the v ictorious lion of the Most High—I pray that God , forthe sake of this holy Khalif

,may favou rab ly hear the v ows which

I Offer to H im .

”

The following prayer occurs in a Fatihah said for Hasanand Husain

I pray, That the eternal God may deign to accept the vowswhich I make for the repose of the glorious souls of the two b raveImams

,the martyrs well - b eloved by God , the innocent v ictims

of wickedness, the b lessed A b u Muhammad A l- Hasan and A bu

1 The Mihrab is a niche in a wall wh ich ind icates the posit ion of Mecca.

The face is always turned to it when prayers are said , so that the expres

sion in the prayer means that‘A li is to b e the Ob j ect toward s wh ich the

Faithful look.

AKHIR - I - OHAR SHA MBA 3 I 3

‘A b du ’llah al Husain,and for the twelve Imams

,and the f our

teen 1 pure ones,and for the seventy- two martyrs of the plain of

Karb ala.

”

2 . AKHIR- I - CHAR SHAMBA .—This feast is held on the

last Wednesday of the month Safar. It is kept in com

memoration of the fact that on this day the Prophet ex

perienced some m itigation of the d isorder which in the

next month terminated his l ife . Sweet cakes are prepared ,and Fatihahs in the name of the Prophet are said overthem ; b ut the most extraordinary custom is the drinkingOf the seven Salams. A plantain leaf, or a leaf of the

mango - tree,or a piece of paper is taken to a Mulla

,who

writes seven Short sentences from the Quran upon it. The

writing whilst still Wet is washed off,and the mixture

drunk by the person for whom it was written . Peace and

happiness are thus ensured for the future . The sevenS alams are :

“ Peace ! shall b e the word on the partof

,a merciful Lord ”

(S . xxxvi . “ Peace b e on

Noah throughou t the worlds (S . xxxvii . Peaceb e on A braham (S . xxxvii . “ Peace b e on

Moses and A aron (S . xxxvii. Peace b e on

E lias (S . xxxvii . “ Peace b e on you ; ye havebeen good ; enter into Paradise (S . xxxix . 7

“ I t

is peace til l the breaking of the morn ”

(S . xcvii. The

Shi‘

ahs consider this an unlucky day, They cal l it CharShamba- i - Surf ” - The “Wednesday Of the Trumpet ; that

is,of the trumpet of the last day. The S unnis

,on the

other hand , rejoice in the day, and esteem it an excellentand auspiciou s season .

3 . BARA WA FAT.—This feast is held on the twelfth day

of the month Rahi ‘n’

l- A wwal . The name is derived frombara, twelve , and wafat, death , because many suppose thaton this day the Prophet died . A ccording to a well - knownMuslim writer ,

“the terrific intelligence, circulating through

out the world , produced universal consternation , and all

1 Muhammad,Fatimah

,and the twelve Imams.


hastened to offer to God their v ows and prayers for the

repose of the Prophet’s soul .” Others , however, maintainthat he died on the second of the month

,and

,as there is

some doubt on the subject , many persons make a Fatihahevery day, from the first to the twelfth of the month inclusive. Those who keep the feast as BaraWafat Observe theceremony cal led Sandal on the previous evening, and the‘Urs

,that is

,the prayers and the oblations, on the twelfth.

The Sandal consists in making a perfumed embrocationfrom sandal - wood . This is then placed in a vessel and

carried in procession to the ‘Id -

gah ,lor to the place where

Fatihah will b e said . It is then distributed to the people .

I t is a sort of public notice on the eve of a feast - day or of

a saint’s day,that on the morrow the usual prayers and

Offerings w ill b e made in su ch and such a place . On the

morning of the twe lfth , the Quran is read in the mosqueor in private hou ses : then food is cooked and Fatihahs are

said . The Wahhabis do not Observe this day, as, in their

Opinion,it was not kept by the Companions of the Prophet .

S ome persons possess a Qadam - i - Rasul,or footstep of

the Prophet. This is a stone with the impression of a foot

step on it.

2I t is a sacred thing, and on this day the place

in which it is kept is e legantly decorated . When a com

pany has assembled , some persons appointed for the pur

pose repeat the story Of the birth,m iracles

,and death of

the Prophet . Portions of the Quran are read and the

Dae is said .

1 The ‘Id -

gah is u sually b u ilt outs id e of the town,and consis ts of a long

wall of masonry w ith two m inarets and a large raised Open . court . Thereis a Mihrab in the wall

,b ut no proper m imb ar or pulpit , three raised steps

d o ing d uty for it . S omet im es,however , a mosque is u sed as an

‘ld -

gah .

2 Trad it ion record s that the Prophet , after the b attle Of Ohud , was one

day ascend ing a h ill in a rage . The heat of his pass ion was such that

the mountain softened into the consistence of wax ,and retained ,

some say

e ighteen,others forty impress ions of his feet . When reb uked b y Gab rie l

for his anger , the Prophet inqu ired the cause Of his reb uke . Gab riel toldhim to look around . The Prophet , seeing these impressions Of his feet onthe stones , was astonished . His anger instantly ceased (Qanan - i - Islam ,

p .



The first time, the intention is that the worshipper mayhave a long life the second time , that his means of sub

sistence may b e increased ; the third time, that he may b e

protected from evil . The Saratu’l - Dukhan (xliv .) is then

read with the same intentions,after which any other por

tions may b e read . Those present then rise and go to the

v arious cemeteries . On the way they purchase flowers toplace on the graves . A Fatihah is then said for thebenefit of the A rwah- i- Qubur

,the soul s of those there

buried . The v ery pious spend the whole night in goingfrom one cemetery to another .

These Observances are neither farz nor sunnat , b ut

nawafil,works of supererogation. S till though they are

bid‘at,they are esteemed good , and so are cal led Bid‘at - i

Hasana,or

“excellent innovation .

”

The general merrymaking of the fourteenth day has no religious signification .

The night of the fifteenth is the Guy Fawkes night of

Islam . Large sums of money are spent on fireworks,of

which more are let Off on this feast than at any other .

The following prayer occurs in the Fatihah :“ 0 our

God,by the merits of the A postleship Of Muhammad

, grant

that the lamps which are lit up on this holy night may b e

for the dead a pledge of the light eternal,which we pray

Thee to shed on them . O God,admit them

,we beseech

thee,unto the abode of eternal felicity .

”

5 . RAMA zAN A ND‘

I'

DU’

L - FIyR .—From the earl iest days

of Islam this month has been held in the greatest esteemby Muslims

,for it was in this month that Muhammad u sed

to retire for meditation,year after year

,to the cave of

Hira,situated on a low hil l some few miles distant from

Mecca. In the second year of the Hijrah it was ordainedthat the month of Ramazan shou ld b e kept as a fast (S . ii .

1 8 I ) . The Muslims had hitherto Observed as the principalfast the A shura, the tenth day of Muharram . This fastwas probably connected with the Jewish fast on the tenth

day of the seventh month .

“ A lso on the tenth day of

this seventh month there shal l b e a day of atonement : it

RA MA z AN A ND‘fDU

’

L - FI jIjR 3 1 7

shal l b e an holy convocation unto you ; and ye shall affl ictyour souls

,

”

&c . (Leviticus xxiii . 2 When Muhammadfirst went to Madina

,he hoped to w in over the Jews to his

side ; b ut after he failed, he took every Opportunity of

making Islam d iffer as much as possible from Judaism .

This was the reason why the Q iblah was changed, and

that,in the second year Of his residence at Madina

,the

fast of Ramazan was appointed . The reasons assigned bylearned Musl ims for the selection Of this month are that inRamazan God gave to the previous prophets the revelationsconnected with their names

,and that in this month the

Quran was sent down from the S ecret Tablet in the seventhheaven to the first or lowest one, and that on the Laylutu

’

l

Qadr,or

“ Night of power,”

the first revelation was made toMuhammad . To il lu strate the sacredness of this monththe Prophet u sed to say that in it

“all the gates of Para

dise are Open,and the gates of hell are shut, and the devils

are chained by the leg.

” “ Only those who observe it willb e al lowed to enter by the gate of heaven cal led Rayyan .

Those who keep the fast will b e pardoned all their pastv enial sins . ”

In making the fast one for the day, and not for the

night, Muhammad doubtless . had reference to the v erse

“God wisheth you ease

,b ut wisheth not your discomfort

(S . ii .The special ceremonies connected with the Ramazan

are the Tarawih Namaz and ‘I tikaf (retirement) . In the

Sahihu’

l—Bukhari it is said that ‘

Itikaf was kept as a ceremony by the Pagan A rabs before the days of the Prophet.

“ Thus ‘Umr hinu’

l Khattab said ,‘ 0 Prophet, certainly I

v owed in the days of ignorance that I would perform‘I tikaf at night in the Musj idu

’

l- Haram .

’

The Prophetreplied , Fulfil thy v ow and keep ‘

itikaf at night . The

Tarawih prayers have been describ ed already. Each nightin Ramazan one - thirtieth part (Sipara) of the Quran isrecited in the mosque . The duty of performing the

‘Itikaf

is a Sunnatu’

l- mukada, a very strict duty . The Mu‘

takif,


one who makes ‘It ikaf, must remain apart in a mosque usedfor public services , and there meditate . Bukhari says thatthe Prophet made

‘I tikaf the last ten days of each Ramazan

,and that the practice was continued by h is wives after

his death. Usually a man should thus sit and meditateone of the days between the twentieth and the thirtieth of

Ramazan. If his meditation is disturbed by any illegalinterruption, another day shou ld b e devoted to it . S ometheologians hold that

‘Itikaf is farz - i - kifayah ,that is

,if one

person of a community does it, the obligation does not rest

on the others. I f,however

,a person makes a vow in Rama

zan,then

‘Itikaf is considered waj ih.

‘Itikaf can b e per

formed at any time other than the last ten days of Ramazan,

b ut then it is only mustahah, a work of supererogation.

A ll the sects except the S hafi‘ites hold that the Mu‘takif

must fast with intention. He must not go out Of the

mosque except for necessary purposes,and for making

the legal wazu and ghusl. A t night he may eat,drink

,

and sleep in the mosque acts quite unlawful at other times .

He may speak with others on rel igious matters,and if a

man of business , he may give orders with regard to the

purchase and sale of merchandise,

lb ut on no account must

any goods b e brought to him . I t is highly meritorious forhim to read the Quran in an audible voice . By such an

act he becomes a man of penetration,whose words are as

powerful as a sharp sword .

2

When the thirty days have passed the fast is broken .

This act is cal led Iftar, and the first day on which food istaken is called the ‘Idu

’

l- Fitr—the Feast of the breakingof the fast.” On that day the Sadaqah is given be fore theNamaz is said in the mosque . The Sadaqah of the

‘Idu’

l

Fitr is confined to Musl ims : no other persons can receivethese alms . In S outh India the Sadaqah consists of a gift

1 This is b ased on the follow ing trad it ion —One day‘Ayesha, when in

the mosque , was speaking ab out the purchase of a female slave . The

Prophet said,

“ Buy her and set her free ,”and then ascend ed the pulpit

(Sahihu’l- Bukhari).

2 That is, his b lessing or his curse takes effect (Qanan - i - Islam p.



alms is to you a waj ih duty. Give to the poor some measures of

grain or its money equivalent . Your d uty in Ramazan was to

say the Tarawih prayers, to make supplication to God,to sit and

med itate (‘itikaf) and to read the Quran. The religious duties of

the first ten days of Ramazan gain the mercy of God , those of the

second ten merit H is pardon ; whilst those of the last ten savethose who do them from the punishment of hell. God has declaredthat Ramazan is a nob le month

,for is not one of its nights, the

Laylatu’l- Qadr, b etter than a thousand months ? On that night

Gab riel and the angels d escended from heaven : till the morningb reaks it is full of b lessing. I ts eloquent interpreter and its

clearest proof is the Quran, the Word of God most Gracious .

Holy is God , who says in the Quran :“ This word of God comes

d own in the month of Ramazan .

” This is a guide for men,a

d istinguisher b etween right and wrong. 0 Believers,in such a

month b e present ; ob ey the order Of your God and fast ; b ut let

the sick and the trav ellers sub stitute some other days on which tofast

,so that no days he lost, and say :

“ God is great !”and praise

Him. God has made the fast easy for you . O Believers, God

will b less you and us b y the grace of the Holy Quran. Everyv erse of it is a b enefit to us and fills us with wisdom. God is the

Bestower, the Holy King, the Munificent,the Kind

,the Nourisher

,

the Merciful,the Clement. 1

The assemblies of the ladies on this ‘Id are marked byall the amusements and indulgences they can possiblyinvent or enjoy in their secluded state. S ome receiving,

others paying v isits in covered conveyances ; all doinghonour to the day by wearing their best j ewellery and

splend id dress . The Zanana rings with festive songs and

loud music, the cheerful meeting of friends

,the distrib u

tion of presents to dependents , and remembrances to the

poor ; all is life and j oy,cheerful bustle and amusement

,

on this happy day of ‘Id , when the good lady of the man

sion sits in state to receive presents from inferiors and to

grant proofs of her favour to others .2

1 Khutb aha- i -Mutarjam , p . 104.

2 “ Ob servations on the Musalmans of Ind ia. Mrs. Mir Hasan‘A li,

p . 1 9 2 .

THE BA QA R -

‘iD 32 1

6 . THE BA QAR-

‘ID .—This is the most important feast in

the whole year . It is also known as the‘Id - i - Qurban

,and

as the‘Idu’

l- A zha, commonly cal led the‘Idu’

z - Zuha, the

feast of sacrifice. In Turkey and in Egypt it Is calledBairam . Its origin was as follows : A few months after

the Hijrah or flight from Mecca,Muhammad , dwel ling in

Madina,Observed that the Jews kept , on the tenth day of

the seventh month ,the great fast of the A tonement. A

Tradition records that the Prophet asked them why theykept this fast. He was informed that it was a memorial ofthe del iverance of Moses and the children of Israel from the

hands of Pharaoh.

“We have a greater right in Mosesthan they

,said Muhammad

,so he fasted with the Jews

and commanded his followers to fast also . This was at theperiod of his mission when Muhammad was friendly withthe Jews O f Madina

,who occasionally came to hear him

preach . The Prophet also occasionally attended the syna

gogue . Then came the change of the Qib lah from Jerusalemto Mecca, for the Jews were not so ready to change theircreed as Muhammad had at first hoped . In the second yearof the Hijrah

,Muhammad and his followers did not partici

pate in the Jewish fast,for the Prophet now instituted the

feast of the Baqar -

‘Id . The idolatrous A rabs had been in

the habit of making an annual pilgrimage to Mecca at thisseason of the year. The offering of animal s in sacrificeformed a part of the concluding ceremony of that pilgrimage . That portion, the sacrifice of animals

,Muhammad

adopted from the Pagan A rabs in the feast which now,at

Madina,he substituted for the Jewish fast. Connected

with v erses establishing the Hajj are the following : Ye

may Obtain advantages from the cattle up to the set timefor slaying them ; then the place for sacrificing them is at

the ancient house . A nd the camels have we appointed

you for the sacrifice to God : much good hav e ye in them.

Make mention,therefore

,of the name of God over them

when ye slay them as in a vow (S . xxii . 34 Thiswas wel l calcu lated to attract the attention of the Meccans

!


and to gain the goodwil l Of the A rabs . Muhammad couldnot , at that date, make the pilgrimage to Mecca ; for as yetthere was a hostile feeling between the Inhabitants of thetwo cities ; b ut on the tenth day of the month ZI

’

I’

l- Hijjah,at the v ery time when the Pagan A rabs at Mecca wereengaged in sacrificing v ictims , Muhammad went forth fromhis house at Madina

,and assembling his followers , instituted

the‘Idu

’

z - Zubaor Baqar-

‘Id . Two young kids were broughtbefore him . One he sacrificed and said : “

O Lord ! I sacrific e this for my whole people , all those who bear witnessto Thy unity and to my mission. 0 Lord ! this is for Mu

hammad and for the family of Muhammad.

Great merit is obtained by all who keep this feast.‘Ayesha relates how the Prophet once said : “Man hathnot done anything on the ‘Idu ’

l- A zhamore pleasing to Godthan spilling blood ; for v erily the animal sacrificed willcome on the day of resurrection with its horns

,hair

,and

hoofs,and will make the scale of his good actions v ery

heavy . Verily its blood reached the acceptance of God

before it falleth upon the ground, therefore b e j oyfulin it .

”

Musalmans say that the Patriarch A braham was orderedto sacrifice Ishmael

,and that he made several ineffectual

attempts to cut the throat of his son. Ishmael then saidto his father : “ It is through pity and compassion for me

that you al low the knife to miss : blindfold yoursel f andthen sacrifice me. A braham acted upon this advice

,blind

folded himself, drew his knife , repeated the Bismillah, and ,as he thought, out the throat Of his son ; b ut, behold, in the

meantime Gabriel had substituted a sheep for the lad .

This event is commemorated in this feast.On the day before the feast, the

‘A rafah or v igil is kept.Food of v arious kinds is prepared , over which a Fatihahis offered

,first

,in the name of the Prophet ; secondly

,in

the names of deceased relatives, and of others for whom a

blessing is desired, or from whom some favour is expected .

The food , is then sent asa present to friends.


”


the Kalimah,the Takhir

,and the Tamhid . This is a high festival

season and the feast of sacrifice . Read now the Takb iru’t—Tash

riq. God is great ! God is great ! There is no God b ut God !

God is great ! God is great ! A ll praise b e to . H im ! From the

morning Of the ‘A rafah,afte r every farz rak ‘

at it is good (mustahab )for a person to repeat the Takb iru

’t—Tashriq. The woman b efore

whom is a man as Imam,and the traveller whose Imam is a

permanent resident (Muqim) should also repeat this Takhir. I t

should b e said at each Namaz until the Salatu’l-

‘A sr of the feast

day (ro th) . S ome,however

,say that it should b e recited ev ery

day till the afternoon (‘A sr) of the thirteenth day, as these are the

days‘

Of the T ashriq. I f the Imam forgets to recite,let not the

worshipper forget. Know, 0 b elievers,that every free man who

is a Sahib - i-Nisab shou ld offer sacrifice on this day, prov ided that

this sum is exclusive of his horse , his clothes , his tools , and his

household goods and slaves . I t is waj ib for every one to Offer

sacrifice for himself, b ut it is not a waj ih order that he should d oit for his children.

1 A goat, a ram,or a cow should b e Offered in

sacrifice for every seven persons. The v ictim must not b e one

eyed , b lind , lame , or very thin.

If you sacrifice a fat animal,it will serve you well, and carry

you across the S irat. O b elievers,thus said the Prophet, on

whom b e the mercy and peace of God : “ S acrifice the v ictim withyour own hand s ; this was the S unnat Of Ib rahim

,on whom b e

peace .

”

In the Kitab u’z - zadu

’

t- Taqwa, it is said that on the ‘Id—ul- F itr

and the ‘Idu’z -Zuha, four nafl rak‘

ats should b e said after the farz

Namaz Of the ‘Id . In the first rak ‘at after the S I

’

Iratu’l-Fatihah

recite the Saratu’l - A ‘la (lxxv ii . ) in the second

,the Suratu

’

sh~

S hams (xci ) in the third,the Suratu

’z - Zuha (xciii. ) in the

fourth, the Suratu’

l- Ikhlas O b elievers,if ye d o so

,God

w ill pard on the sins of fifty years which are past, and of fifty

years to come . The read ing of these Surahs are equal as an act

1 S till it is mustahah,or a meritorious ac t so to d o. It is also said that

,

if a m inor is possessed of property , his father or his guard ian maypurchaseat h is expense an animal and sacrifice it . The ch ild maythen eat as muchas it c an. The remaind er Of the meat must b e exchanged for someth ingwhich the child can use

,such as clothes, shoes, &c . (Naru

’l - Hid ‘

ayah ,vol.

i_v. p .

THE LAw OF THE SA ORIFIOE 32 5

of merit to the reading of all the b ooks God has sent by H is

prophets.

May God include us amongst those who are accepted by Him ,

who act accord ing to the Law,whose desire will b e granted at the

last d ay. To all such there will b e no fear in the day of resur

rection,nO sorrow in the examination at the day Of judgment.

The b est Of all b ooks is the Quran. O b elievers ! may God giveto us and to you a b lessing for ever by the grace of the nob le

Quran. May its v erses

'

b e our guide , and may its wise mentionof God d irect us aright. I desire that God may pardon all b e

lie vers,male and female , the Muslimin and the Muslimat. O

‘

b elievers , also seek for pardon. Truly God is the Forgiver, theMerciful

,the Eternal King, the Compassionate , the Clement. O

b elievers,the Khutb ah is over. Let all desire that on Muhammad

Mustafa the mercy and peace Of God may rest.

The worshippers then return to their respective homesand offer up the sacrifice

,for it is a waj ih order that ev ery

Musl im shou ld keep this feast and sacrifice an animal forhimself. 1 He need not fear though he has to incur debtfor the purchase of an animal

,for it is said that God wil l

in some way help him to pay the debt. I f a camel issacrificed

,it should b e one not less than five years of age ;

if a cow or sheep , it should at least b e in its second year,though the third year is better ; if a goat, it mu st not b e

less than six months Old . A ll of these animals must b e

without a blemish or defect of any kind. I t is a sunnat

order that the head Of the household should himself slaythe v ictim . If

,howev er

,from any cause, he cannot do so,

he may cal l in a butcher ; b u t in that case he must placehis hand upon that of the butcher when the operation IS

performed. If the victim is a camel,it must b e placed

with the head towards Mecca. Its front legs being b andaged together, the sacrificer must stand on the r ight

- hand

1 The sacrifice must b e made after the Namaz , for the Khalif A i -Mamfmrela tes a trad ition to the e ffect that he who Offereth sacrifice b e fore hepraye th , assured ly it is a flesh - Offering wh ich he hath ant icipated b eforeits t ime b ut he who pe rformeth sacrifice , after he hath prayed , verily hefulfille th the ord inance (Syfiti

’s H istory of the Khalifs


side of the victim,and plunge the knife into its throat with

such force that the animal may fal l at once . A ny other

m ode Of slaying it is unlawful . Other animal s must b eslain in the same way. Just before slaying the victim the

following verse of the Quran should b e repeated : “ S ay !

my prayers and my worship , and my l ife and my deathare unto God , the Lord Of the worlds . He hath no associate. This am I commanded

,and I am the first of the

Muslims (S . v i . The operator also adds : “O God

,

from Thee and to Thee (I do this) , in the name of God .

God . iS'

great !” Then having slain the v ictim he says

O God, accept this for me .

”The first meal taken shou ld

b e prepared from the flesh of the animal just slaughtered ,after which the members of the family

,the neighbours , and

the poor shou ld receive some portions .I t is considered highly meritorious to sacrifice one

animal for each member O f the family ; b ut as that wouldinvolve an expenditure few could bear, it is allowableto sacrifice one v ictim for the household . In extreme

cases,men may combine together and make one sacrifice

do for the whole,b ut the number Of persons so combining

must not exceed seventy. S ome authorities limit the

number to seven. This feast is strictly observed by all

Musl ims wherever they may b e .

The Baqar -‘Id and the

‘Idu’

l- Fitr constitute the‘Idain

,

the two great feasts of Islam . A country in which Musalmans could not observe them both woul d at once become

Daru’l - Harb

,or House of Enmity

,in which it would b e

the duty of every Muslim to j oin in a Jihad against theInfidel ru lers of the land.

This completes the account of the principal feasts Of theMuslim year.

A mong other practices borrowed from the Hindu s mustb e placed the pilgrimage made by Indian Musalmans to the

shrines of Saints,1the ceremonies connected with them,

and

1 There is, however, some authority for this practice. Ib n Mas ‘ad re

lates the words Of the Prophet thus : “ I had forb idd en you to visit the



Makaa’

Ir,a place about forty miles from Cawnpore. On

the seventeenth of the month Jamada’

l- Ula an immense

crowd fills the village, which is illuminated at night. Fires

are lighted , around which Fakirs dance , and through whichthey leap

,cal ling out

“ Dam Madar, Dam .Madar (b reathO f Madar) . A n order of Fakirs

,called Madaria

,look to

this Saint as their patron . In distant places where thisfeast is kept they set up an

‘A lam or standard in honourOf the Saint, and perform ceremonies common to such days

,

and pass the night in celebrating his praise .

2 . FESTIVA L OF Mu‘

iNU’

D- DIN CHISTi . —The tomb of

this Saint is in A jmir . He was a Syed descended fromHusain

, the son of‘

A li,and was born

”

in Saj istan aboutthe year 5 37 A .H . His father died when he was abou tfifteen years Old . S oon after this he fel l in with a famousFakir

,Ibrahim Qanduz i, through whose influence he began

to seek the Tariqat,or mystical road to the knowledge of

God . When he was twenty years of age he received’

further instruction from the famous ‘A bdu’l - Qadir J ilani.A fter the conquest of Hindustan by Shahab u’

d - din Ghori,

Mu‘fnu

’

d - din retired to A jmir, where he died in the odourof sanctity

,6 36 A .H . Pilgrimages to this tomb have been

and are v ery popular. Even A kbar,sceptic though he was

as regards orthodox Islam ,made a pilgrimage to this shrine,

and Offered vows that he might have a son who would liveto manhood . Hindus also v isit this tomb, and presentsfrom rich men of this class are not unusual .

3. FESTIVA L OF SALAR MA s‘

OD GHAz f. -There is somedoubt as to the nationality Of this S aint . S ome say he was

a Husaini Syed,others that he was a Pathan and a martyr .

His tomb is situated in Oude. A fsos thus describes thepilgrimage .

“Once a year great crowds Of people gather

from all parts . They carry red lances and beat thousandsof tambourines . The

‘

Urs is held on the first S unday Of themonth Jith (May

—June). The people believe that this washis wedding- day, because it is said that he had on weddinggarments when he was killed . This bel ief once led a certain

FESTIVA L OF KHAJA KHIZR 32 9

oilman,a resident of RadI

’

Ili,to send a bedstead

,chair

,and

other marriage presents to the shrine at this time . The

custom is stil l kept up by the descendants of the oilman.

The common people fasten ropes to the branches of the

trees in the neighbourhood , and swing, some by the handsand some by the heels , and assume v arious disguises . Theythus hope to Obtain what they desire.

”The Hindu s v ene

rate this Saint Very highly.

4 . FESTIVA L OF THE BIRA OR OF KHAJA Kmart—Of thisS aint M. Garcin de Tassy says : Khaja Khizr is a personage respecting whom the Opinions of Orientals vary. Manyconsider him the same as Phineas

,the grandson of A aron ;

others , that he is the prophet Elias ; and lastly , the Turksconfound him with S t. George. In order to reconcile theseconflicting opinions, some allege that the same soul hasanimated three different persons. Whatever b e the fact

,

Khizr,according to the Musalmans, discovered the source

Of the Water of Life,Of which he is the guardian . He is

believed to b e very clever in divination,and to b e . the

patron of waters . A s such,a festival is held in his honour .

”

Jawan describes it thus : In the month Of Bhadun (A ugust

S eptember) all whose wishes have been fulfilled make it a

point of duty to set afloat the boat (naI’

I) in honour of Khaj aKhizr, and to make according to their means offerings of

m ilk and bruised grain to the holy personage . On everyFriday, and in some places on every Thursdays , in the monthin question, the devotees hav ing prepared the bira carry itat night to the bank of the river

,with many ceremonies .

There great and smal l,having lighted lamps and tapers ,

make their respective oblations,whilst a number of swim

mers together j ointly push the bira into the middle of the

river. Sometimes a number of smal l biras,made of clay

,

are also launched, and as each carries a lamp,the general

effect is striking. I t is said that the Musalman natives of

the Maldive Islands annually launch a. small v essel ladenwith perfumes

, gum,and odoriferous flowers, and leave it

to the mercy of the winds and waves as an offering to the

330 THE‘

FAITH OF IS LAM

god of the sea. There can b e no doubt that this god of the

sea is Khizr,the patron of the waters. ”

The following prayer is recited in the Fatihah of KhizrTo Obtain purity of heart

,and the benediction of Him

who hears the vows of mortals,and who alone can keep

from them all evils,I rest upon the merits of Khaja Khizr

,

the great prophet E lias .

”

5 . THE FEA ST OF PIR DA STGIR Slims —This is held on

the eleventh day of the month of Rab i‘

u’

l- Akhir. The

S unnis hold this S aint in great reverence. He has no lessthan ninety - nine names. His tomb is at Baghdad . On

the tenth of the month the ceremony called Sandal is performed , followed on the next day by the ‘

Urs,when the

Maulad,or the account Of the circumstances connected with

the birth of the Saint is read ; Qasa’

id or elegiac poems arerecited ; the DarI

'

Id is repeated and Fatihahs are said . The

Quran is also read through. Vows are frequently made

to this Saint, and in time of any special Visitation, such as

cholera, a flag is carried about in honour of this Pir bysome of his devotees

,to whom presents of food are offered .

A Fatihah is then said over them. He is said to appearto his fol lowers during their sleep and to give them d irec

t ions . Ja‘far Sha'

rif,the compiler of the Qanun~ i - Islam

,

speaking on this point says : “ The author speaks frompersonal experience, for at the time of need

,when he was

oppressed in mind concerning things which he desired , heu sed to repeat constantly the ninety- nine names of the

Pir and v ow before the Holy God,imploring His assist

ance by the soul o f Dastgir ; and through the mercy of the

A lmighty , his Excellency Ghausu’

l- A‘zam (Dastgir) pre

sented himself in his sleep,and relieved him of his per

plexities and vouchsafed his behests .

”

Syed A hmad Kabir Rafai, the founder of the Rafai

Darwishes , was a nephew of this S aint.6 . FESTIVA L OF QADIR WA Lf SAHIB .

—This is the greatS aint of S outhern India. The ‘Urs is celebrated on the

tenth day Of Jamada’l- Ukhra. The shrine is at Nagore, a



v otive offering years ago still influences large numbers Ofpeople . On Thursday evenings, the commencement of theMuhammadan Sabbath

,many Hindu women resort to the

shrine of the Saint. Thus is the Hindu connection stillkept up with the festival o f this Musalman S aint.There are many other Walis and Pirs to whose tombs

pilgrimages are made,and in memory of whom many super

s titious Observances are still kept’

up ; b ut all such pilgrimages

‘

to a Dargah (shrine) are no necessary part of Islam.

In all parts Of the country there are the shrines of Saintswho have a local reputation and whose annual festival s aremore or less observed . S til l it is not necessary for me to

give a“

further account of these . This brings me to the

c lose of my subject.In the preceding chapters I have endeavoured to set forth

the main features of the Faith of Islam,and the rel igious

duties it enjoins .

‘

I might now go on to show its relationto Judaism and Christianity

,the elements it has drawn

from them,and the distortions it has made in the borrow

ing, as wel l as'

the protest it raised against much that wasc orrupt in the Christianity with which it came in contact.I might also enlarge upon its moral and social effects , andthe character it produces in the individual and the state .

1

But these subjects would lead me far beyond my presentpurpose , and S O I must content myself with having given a

representation of theF aith of Islam from its own au thorities .

1 Muslims b elieve these effects to b e perfect . A numb er of Musalmans

held a meet ing at Poona in Decemb er 1 89 5 , to cons id er whether theyshould take part w ith H ind us in a conference to consid er the quest ion O f

social reforms . It was resolved not to d o so on th is ground —“ Ih the

face of the Quran,it is altogether need less for the Musalmans to join in

any purely sectional conference , for Islam is a perfect exponent of socialemancipat ion and human progress in all its aspects.

” —Mad ras WeeklyMail, Decemb er 5 , 1 895 .

A P P E ND I ! .

A PPENDI! A .

‘ILM- I - TA JwiD.

THE Quran is the great bond of union between all the

sects of Islam . Men may differ on the exposition of som e

diffi cu lt passages ; in the details of its exegesis there is

some v ariety ; b u t all reverence the letter , though they

may not all imbibe its Spir it. . It has given rise to a vast

and v aried literature . Its decision is final in all c on

trov ersres of faith . S ide by side w ith it has grown up a

v ast body of tradition ,on w hich the S unnat—a m ost

important factor in the faith O f Islam—is based ; b u t them ost interesting of all studie s to the young Mu slim is still

the Qu ran ,its grammar and its c omm entari es . Every

Muslim mu st learn some portion of it by heart , and to

learn the whole is an act of great m erit. This feat,how

ev er , will b e of little v alu e unless the Hafiz,when reciting

it, Observes all the rules and regu lation s framed for su ch

an ac t . This recital is called tilawat, b ut before anyone

c an do this corre ctly he mu st have some acquaintance

w ith what is known as‘Ilm - i- Tajwid (A vg r

Le ) . This

inclu des a knowledge of the peculiarities of the spelling of

many w ords in the Quran ,of its v ariou s readings, of the

Takb irs and response s to b e said at the cl ose o f certain

appointed passages , of its v ariou s divisions,pun ctuation

and marginal instructions , Of ‘ the proper pronunciation of

the A rabic words and the correct intonation of differentpassages . It mu st b e borne in mind that the OrthodoxView is that the Quran is uncreated and eternal , that it

334 A PPENDIX A .

c ontains no human element whatever, that no ac t of

w orship brings a Mu slim so near to God as tilawat, the

ac t Of reading or r ec iting some portion of this b ook .

1 The

Traditionist Tab rani says : Whosoever teaches his son to

read the Quran w ill recei ve a heavenly crown .

”Tirmiz i

hands d own a saying of the Prophet to the effe ct that“ whosoev er reads only one letter does a good ac t whichw ill meet a tenfold reward .

”The cerem onial acts to b e

observed before the reading comm ences are the legal

ablution and prayer (Log) . The Quran itself says“ Let none tou ch it b ut the purified.

”The u sual prayer

is, I seek God’

s protection from cursed S atan,

”fo llow ed

by the invocation,In the name of God

,the Mercifu l

,the

Compassionate .

”Pleasant v erses shou ld b e read in a

cheerfu l tone , those which Speak of threatenings and

punishment shou ld b e re cited w ith aw e . If the readercannot c ry,

he shou ld assume the appearance of one in

great sorrow . Whene ver the w ords of those whomMu slims call Kafirs are qu oted in the Quran , the readershou ld recite them in a low tone Of v oice . S uch qu otation sare the follow ing : The Jews say,

Ezra (Ozair) is a S on

of God ,’

and “ the Christians, ‘ The Messiah is a S on of

God’

(S . ix , A fter reading the verse A dam dis

obeyed his L ord, and w ent astray ”

(S . xx, the

reader shou ld not pause , b ut qu ickly pass on to the

following words ,“ A fterwards his Lord chose him for

hims elf,and was turned towards him

, The idea is,

that as A dam is one Of the A nb iyaUh’

i’

l- ‘A z m , the six

chief prophets,the stress shou ld b e laid on Go d’s forgive

n ess of his fau lt and not on his disob edience .

The name of God is repeated tw ice in the followingv erse : We w ill not believe till the like b e accorded u s,

1 It is not necessary that the read er should know the meaning. H e mayb e u tterly ignorant of A rab ic , b ut he mu st b e ab le to pronounce it correctly,and he shou ld ob serve all

,

the legal ceremonies .


336 A PPENDIX A .

w ord Fil c ontains the initial letters of the first Sarah of

each portion . Thus :

First Saratu’l - Fat ihah to the end of Sfiratu’

t - Tanb ah (ix).S econd day Saratu

’l—t as S firatu’r - Rfim (xxx).

Third day Saratu’l - Lukman S firatu

’n - Nas (cxiv).

This, however, has been found rather irksome , and so atraditi on is remembered which states that one day the

Prophet said to his Companions , What, hav e you not

pow er to read the third part every night ?”They

replie d : It would b e v ery difficu lt .

”The Prophet then

said, “ Read the S I'

Iratu’

l- Ikhlas (1 12) the recital O i'

thisis equal to that Of one - third Of the Quran .

”

It i s a Sunnat prac tice to read the whole Quran duringthe month of Ramazan . One ju z is recited each night .

Hav ing settled what portion he is going to read, and

hav ing perform ed all the necessary preliminaries, the

reader shou l d repeat, not les s than three times and as

many m ore as he like s, the DarI'

I d, O God ! have mercy

on Muhammad and his descendants , as Thou di dst havem ercy on A b raham and hi s descendants . Thou art to b e

praised and Thou art great. 0 God ! bless Muhammad

and his descendants, as Thou didst bles s A braham and

his descendants . Thou art to b e praised and Thou art

great .

”Then shou ld follow a prayer sim ilar to this

,

“ O

God , I testify that this is Thy Book , sent from Thee on

Thy A postle Muhammad , and Thy word spoken by the

m ou th of Thy Prophet . A ccept my perusal of it as an

ac t Of worship,make m e read it thoughtfully . Tru ly

Thou art kind and graciou s .”Then he shou l d recite the

verses,O my Lord ! I b etake m e to Thee against the

promptings O i'

the S atans ; and I betake me to Thee,

O my . Lord ! that they gain no hurtful access to me”

(S . xxiii , 9 9 , and als o the tw o las t Sarahs,

“ S ayI be take me for refuge to the Lord of the daybreakagainst the m is chiefs of His creation

, and against the

‘ILM- I - TA JWID . 337

m ischief of the night when it overtaketh me , and againstthe mis chief of w eird w omen , and against the m ischief ofthe env ier w hen he envieth .

”S ay : I betake m e for

refuge to the Lord of m en— the King of men—the God of

men,against the m is chief of the stealthily withdraw ing

w hisp erer (S atan) , who whispereth in man’s breast against

j inn and m en .

”

(S . cxiii, cxiv . )1

A nother prayer (Le e) is then said . Thu s : “0God ! with

tru th Thou hast sent it (Quran) , and with truth it came .

0 God ! increase my de sire for it , and make it the illuminator of my sight, the healer of my heart, the dispeller of

my pain and sorrow . Of Thy m ercy , O Mo st Merciful,

hear my prayer .

”He then says the Ta

‘

awwu z ,

“ I seekrefuge near God from cursed S atan ;

”and the Bismillah

,

“ In the nam e of God the Merciful , the Compassionate .

”

The reading of the sele cted portion then c omm ence s . The

w ho le of these prayers and inv ocations are not always said,

b ut it is considered a very proper thing to say them .

It is a Sunh at practice to make a reSponse at certainappointed plac es . If it is a public re cital in a m osque or

elsewhere , the au ditors only respond . The Imam(Precen tor )nev er does so . A m ongst the Hanifites no response at all is

allow ed if the passage is read as part of a Namaz. The

Shafi‘

is respond w hether they are reading the passageprivately or in a Namaz , at hom e or in a m osqu e . The

responses occur in the follow ing place s . A t the end of the

S I'

I ratu’

l- Fatihah and of the Saratu’l - Baqra say

‘A m en .

’

A t the end O i'

the Saratu’l - A sra (xv ii) say the Takhir

God is great . A fter the last v erse of the Suratu’

l

Qiamat (lxxv) , Is He not powerfu l enough to raise thedead ?” say Yes, pure is my Lord , Most High.

”A t the

end of the Saratu’l -Mu lk (lxv ii), after the words If at

early morn your waters shal l have sunk away , who then w ill

1 These Sfirahs are called the Mu‘I’

I z atain (“fl uOf ”) from a word

meaning I fly for refuge, wh ich occurs in b oth Sfirahs .

338 A PPENDIX A .

give you clear running water ?”say

“ God brings it to u s,

and He is the Lord of the w orl ds. A t the end of the

S I'

Iratu’

l- Mursalat (lxxvii) , after the w ords In what

other revelation after this will ye believ e?”say

“We b elie vein God , the Lord of the w orl ds .” A t the close of the

S i’

Iratu’

t - Tin (x cv ) , after the w ords“What ! is not God the

m o st ju st of judge s?”say

“ Yes,I am a w itness for Thee .

”

In addition to these respon ses to b e given at the end of

the Sarahs , there are others to b e said after certain v erses .Thus

,after the 1 6th verse of the 3rd Sarah ,

“ There is noGod b ut He

,the Mighty , the Wise ,

”

say I am a w itnessto this .

”A fter the 60th v erse of the 27th Sarah

,

“ Is God

the m ore worthy , or the Gods they j oined w i th him ?”say

“ Yes , God is the b est,the A bider

,the m ost Glorious the

m ost Honorable .

”A fter the 12th v erse of the 5 3rd S urah

,

“Which then of the bountie s of your Lord w ill ye twain

(men and j inn) deny ?”and after each repetition of this

qu estion in this Sarah , say O Lord,w e deny no gift of

Thine . To Thee b e praise .

The 5 9th , 64th ,68th, 7 1 st verses of the 5 6th Sarah read

thu s : Is it you who create them ,or areWe their creator?

Is it you who cau se its up-

grow th, or do We cau se it tospring forth ?” “ Is it ye who s end it down from the

c lou ds , or send We it down ?” Is it ye who rear its tree ,or do We rear it ?

”

A fter each of the se v erses , say“Yes !

it is Thou , O Lord !”A fter the 1 st verse of the 87 th Sarah

,

“ Praise the nam e of the Lord m ost High,”say

“Holy is

my Lord, Most High . A ft er the 7 th v erse of the 9 1 st

S iirah,“ By a sou l and Him who balanc ed it ,

”say

“O God,

be stow on my soul piety and purity. Thou art the bestOf all purifiers .”

A fter the re cital Of certain passage s in the Quran, a S ij dahmu st b e made .

1 This is called the S ij dah- i—Tilawat. Imam

1 The follow ing is the ritual of a sijdah The worsh ipper kneeling d own ,

p laces his hand s with the fingers close to each other,upon the ground . H e

m ust rest upon his toes, not on the sid e of the feet wh ich must b e kept


340 A PPENDIX A .

down on their faces w eeping ,and it increaseth

th eir humility .

”

5 . S I’

Iratu’

l-Maryam (xix), v . 5 9 : When the signs of

the God of Mercy w ere rehearsed to them,they

b ow ed them down w orshipping and w eeping.

6 . S I'

Iratu’

l- Hajj (XXII) , v . 1 9 : “Whom God shalldisgrace there shall b e non e to honour. God

doth that which pleaseth Him .

” 1

7 . S I'

I I'

atu’

l- Furqan (! ! V) , v . 61 : “When it is saidto them

,

‘ Bow down before the God of Mercy ,’

they say‘Who is the God of Mercy ? S hall w e

b ow down to w hat thou b iddest ?’

and they flyfrom Thee the m ore .

8 . S i’

Iratu’

n - Nam l (xxvii) , V . 26 : “ God ! there is no

God b ut He ! the Lord of the gl oriou s throne .

”

S om e , how ev er,say that the preceding verse is

the Ayat—i - S ij dah9 . Saratu

’

s S ij dah (XXXII) , V . 1 5 : Thev only believein our s igns, who ,

when m ention is made of them ,

fall down In adoration,and ce lebrate the praise Of

their Lord , and are not puffed up w ith disdain”

Saratu’

s - Sad (xxxv iii ) , V . 24 S O We forgav e himthat (his sin) ; and tru ly he shall hav e a high rank

w ith Us ; and an excellent retreat in Paradise ) .S om e

,how ever, consider that the S ij dah shou ld

b e made after the w ords of the preceding V erse

Dav id p erceived that We had tried him ; so he

asked pardon of his Lord , and fell down , and

bow e d him se lf and repented .

”

S I'

Iratu’

l- Fu ssilat (xli) , v . 38 They who are w iththy Lord do celebrate His praises night and dayand cease not .

”

1 Imam Shafi ‘i sub stitutes for the 1 9th verse the 76th Believers ! b owd own and prostrate you rselves , and worship your Lord and work righteou s '

ness that you may fare well .”

‘ILM- I - TA JWI

'

D . 34 1

12. Suratu’n - Najm (liii) , v ,

62 :“ Prostrate yoursel ves

then to God and w orship .

13. Suratu’

l- Infatar (lxxxiv ) , v v . 20, 21 :“What then

hath com e to them that they believe not ? and

that w hen the Quran is recited to them they adorenot ?

”

14 . Suratu’

l A laq (xcv i) , v . 1 8 Nay ! obey him not ,

b ut adore , and draw nigh to God .

”

S ome persons add to the Tasbih - i- S ij dah the followmgDu ‘a- i -Masurah (aj j

itc s b o) , i .e., a prayer used by the

Prophet, the w ords of w hich have been handed down in

the T raditions : I prostrate myself for Him who created

and form ed me, and who Opened my sight and hearing .

God is the b est Creator. 0 God , pardon me and havemercy on m e .

”

Great care mu st b e taken to read ac cording to the pro

nunc iation of the fam ou s Qari’s.

1 A mistake in this respect

1 A Qari is one who read s the Qu ran,b ut the term is technically applied

to the seven famou s Read ers and their d isc iples . The names of th e

seven are given in Ib n Khallikan’

s Biograph ical D ic tionary , Vol. 2, p . 401 .

They are

l . Imam Ib n - i -Kasir, who d ied at Mecca 120 A .H .

2. Imam‘A

’

sim of Kufah . H e learnt the way of read ing the Quran from‘A b du

’

r - Rahmanu’s - Salam i

,who was taught by the Khalifs O sman and ‘

A li’

,

‘A’

sim d ied at Kufah 127 A .H .

3 . Imam A bu ‘Umr was b orn at Mec ca 70 A .H . and d ied at Kufah

1 54 A .H . It is on his authority that - the follow ing important statement has

b een handed down : When the first copy of th e Quran waswritten out, and

presented to the Khalif O sman ,h e said

,there are fau lts of language in it ,

let the A rab s of the desert rec tify them with their tongues . The meaningof this is that they shou ld pronounce the word s correc tly , b ut not alter the

written copy . This acc ounts for the Rasmu’

l- Khatt .

4 . Imam Ham z a of Kufah was b orn 80 A .H . and d ied 1 5 6 A .H .

5 . Imam Kisai had a great reputation as a Qari,b ut none as a poet . I t

was a common saying, am ong the learned in grammar,that there was not

one who knew so little poetry as A l- Kisai . H e is said to have d ied at Tus

ab out the year 1 82 A .H .

6 . Imam Nafi‘

,a native of Mad ina, d ied 1 69 A .H .

"

H e was highlye steemed b y the people of that c ity .

7 . Imam I bn‘A

’

m ir was a nat ive of Syria.

342 A PPENDIX A .

is calle d lahan and is of tw o kinds : (1 ) Lahan - i- jali

cJQl) , a clear and ev ident m istake , su ch as shorten

ing or lengthening the v ow el sounds (u ljg l) or any

w ord ; (2) Lahan - i—Khafiu

r‘d) ’ a less apparent

mistake , su ch as not making a distinction in sound

between C and 25,

and UM ) ‘3 and L3, as

and 19 ; if

tw o of the sam e letters come together it is a m istake if

both are not clearly sounded,e.g., each 3 in and

I

eachiin

L 533

[

tale mu st b e distinctly pronounced .

It is ab solutely ne ce ssary that great attention shou ld

b e paid to the tashd i’

d (A i rway) , madd and other

sim ilar marks, an account of which c an b e found in any

A rabic grammar . These diacritical marks , known under

the general term of A ‘rab (“Rb-c l) w ere inv ented by

Khalil Ibn- i- A hmad , who was born in the year 100 A .H.,

and who died at Basra about seventy years after .

The marks and symbo ls pecu liar to the Quran are many.

No account of them ,so far as I am aware , is given in any

grammar of the A rabic language ; and as they may haveoften pu z zled the stu dent of the Quran

,I giv e them

here in detail. They refer almost entirely to the variouskinds of pau ses to b e made in reciting the Quran

,and

form in fact its punctuation .

The symbol for a fu l l stop is 0 , w hen the reader shouldtake breath .

The w ord Ali » : is written w hen a slight pau se is made

b u t no breath is taken .

The waqf (b ag ) or pau se is of fiv e kinds

1 . Waqf- i—lazimgi g) , of w hich the sign is

f“

This is , as its name implie s, a necessary pau se . If no

pau se were made the m eaning wou ld b e altered ; e.g.,

Surah ii, v ,7 : “ Yet are they not believers Fain

w ould they dece ive God,

”&c . Here if there w ere no


344 A PPENDIX A .

pause is left optional . S u ch, at least , is the only explanation I have yet found of Waqf- i-Mujauwaz .

5 . Waqf- i-Murakhkhas (u ni); “ up , the S ign of

w hich isu° Thi s is a pause w hich may b e made w hen

i t is ne cessary to take breath . It comes betw een wordsw hich have no necessary conn ection with each other,e.g. , S urah ii, 20 : Who hath made the earth a b ed for

you , and the heavens a covering (u o ) and hath causedwater to com e down from heaven .

”If this pau se is

made , the reader must commence at the b eginning of the

c lau se , that is , if he pau ses after covering’

he must b eginafter the pau se at who hath, &c .

”

A ll the pau se s now describ e d are ancient : they haveb een recogniz ed from the earliest t ime s . In later daysthe Quran readers have invented several others . A s thesewill b e found in all Qurans now in use

,I give a short

account of them .

1 . Qif (b og) pau se . Thi s frequ ently oc curs, b ut in

su ch places as to leave the meaning of the passageunaffected .

2. car (g) . This is the symbol for do“ ,

“ it is

said . The C5 thus exprc sses the fact that some p ersonsof authority have said that a pau se shou ld b e made in theplace w here it is inserted . It is an optional pause .

3. Sah’ c onne ct. This shows that there must

b e no pause .

i f I

4. La(ll) . This is the symbol forfi t

“ there is

n o pau se .

5 . S in (up ) . The initial letter of the w ord A ;“silence .

”A pau se may b e made in the recital

,provided

that the reader does not take breath in this place .

6. Kaf (d ) . This is the first letter of the word“ in the same manner . It then means that w here

L3)

‘ILM- I - TA JWI

'

D . 34 5

o ccurs a pau se mu s t b e made sim ilar in kind to the one

imm ediately preceding .

7 . Qala (NC) This is a shortened form Of J—“fi

“ some have said No It is qu ite Optional .

If ov er the circle 0 ,denoting a fu l l stop , any other

symbol is written , due attention must b e paid to it ; ifthere are tw o or more symbols all shou l d b e ob served

l:How ever, the one at the top is the most important, e.g.

, E ’

In this case the Waqf- i-Mu tlaq is superior to the Waqffi

jaiz .

The following table show s how often the stops occur in

the Quran

There are a few selected places in the Quran w here it isconsidered an ac t of merit to make a solemn pau se , or toomit the pau se if so dire cted .

1 . Mu‘anaqa (4 1 x12 ‘

embracing .

’ This m ean s that

w hen tw o pau ses c ome very close together, one may b e

om itted , eng , (Wm) M , (fl

u/0

) “M E/

y. Here onlyT

one W OI d and o c curs b etw een the tw o‘

C’ the symbol for

Waqf- i—jaiz : -as”fi lm is written above each, it is

sufficient if a pause is made;

in one place . The other signs/ / P

forfl u e

are j ob“ , ti“ and more frequently

The ancient au tho1 ities say that J A M o c curs thirteen

tim es in the Quran ; the m o dern one s say eighteen .

2. VVaqf- i - Ghufran (UL‘JLé J) ,

“ the pau se Of pardon .

It is considered highly meritorious to pause whenev er these

words oc cur, for there is a tradition to the effect

346 A PPENDIX A .

that He who ob serves Waqf- i- Ghufran in the ten places

in w hich it occurs , I w ill answ er for his entrance into

paradise .

’

The lesser sins (W A1?) of all who Observe

it are supposed to re ceive pardon . The ten places referred

to by Muhammad are

(1 ) Suratu’

l-Ma’ida (v ) , v . 5 6 : “O Believ ers ! take not

the Jew s or Christians as friends Ji g;

(2) Suratu’

l- A n ‘am (v i) , V . 36 : “Will He make answ er

to those who only listen?”u)

(3- 4) Suratu’

s - S ij dah (xxxii) , V . 1 8 : Shall he then

who is a b eliev er b e as a gross sinner (u lj fi )they shall not b e hel d alike ”

u lf u'

(5—9 ) Suratu’

l- Ya,S in (xxxv i), VV. 1 1

,29

, 52, 61 , 8 1

The trac es they have left b ehind themc) !

O the m is ery that rests upon my servants ”

“Who hath rou sed us from our sleepingplace

uh““Worship me

”

U lj ‘é‘ é’“Mu st not He

who hath create d the heav ens and the earth b e

m ighty enough to create your likes?”

U lf u'

(10) Suratu’

l-Mu lk (lxvn) , v . 1 9 : “ Behold they not

the birds over their heads, their w ing outstretch

ing and drawing in?”

u lj i é.

9

3. Waqf- i- Munaz z al (JI M J ) . This is al s o called

Waqf- i- Jibra’

il (Mfi >b ecau se it is said that in

the six or eight plac es w here the pau se is indlcated , Gabrielpau sed w hen reciting the Quran to the Prophet .

4. Waqfu’

n - Nabi “ pau se of the Prophet .

It is said that in s om e e leven or more places , additional toall that have been m entioned , the Prophet u sed to pau se .

It is now a m eritorious act to observe this pause .

This concludes what may b e termed the punctuation of

the Quran , b ut there s till remain several signs and symbols

w hich need explanation.


348 A PPENDIX A .

some v erses in a rak ‘at, the w orshipper makes a ruku ‘ or

prostration. The portion re cited is then called ' a ruku‘.Practically it is a div ision ,

averaging about ten v erses . The

sign of it is {w ritten in the margin . Frequ ently it o ccurs

rw ith as many as three figures , thu s 1 3. The r

“

(3) on theA

top shows that this is the third ruku ‘ from the comm ence

ment of the Surah in w hich it occurs ; the ?(9 ) in the

centre gives the numb er of v erses in this ruku ‘ ; the A (8)at the b ottom shows that this is the eighth ruku

‘ in the ju z .

It is thu s c omparatively easy to verify a qu otation if the

ju z and ruku ‘ are named , b ut very few Mu slim writers givesu ch information . A v erse or a few detached words are

qu oted , and it b ec ome s an exceedingly difficu lt task tov erify them . Every theologian i s suppos ed to know the

who le Quran by heart, and so it is considered quite super

flu ous to give“ chapter and v erse

,or rather ju z and raku ‘.

It w ou l d b e qu ite impossib le to read the Quran c orrectlyunles s it were written w ith the strictest attention to theancient copies . This ac t of copying it, w ith the ru les

thereof, is known as Rasmu’

l—khatt (laé ll The

c opyist shou ld foll ow the re cension made in the tim e of

the Khalif Osman . This ru le is based on the Ijma‘

(unanim ous consent) of the Companions . It is b e liev ed

that the w hole book was brought by Gabriel from the copy

on the “ Hidden Tablet ” (Brim t jl) , and that he who

alters a pause,or a letter, or who

, without in the least

altering the sense, adds or takes away even a letter,is

guilty of a v ery grave offence . The consequ ence of this isthat the spelling of many words in the Quran follow special

and p ecu liar rules,to w hich rules again there are many

exc eptions . The follow ing are s ome of the ru le s of theRasmu

’

l—khatt .

1 . The of mascu line plurals ending in d )and

v iis

,

‘ILM- I - TA JWI

’

D . 349

w ritten abov e 1 the word if it o ccurs m ore than twice inthe Quran ,

if the l is not follow ed by A im or e.g. ,

wr i/jgnot

.

ujallté , not w e b s . There are tw o

w ords whi ch do not o c cur m ore than tw IOe , and are

therefore exceptions ; e.g. , w/SLA in the 3rd ju z , 13th rukuc

and in the 9th ju z , 18th ruku‘, M l)in the lst ju z , 5 th

ruku ‘, and in the 3rd ju z , 13th ruku ‘. There is one

exception . The word was although it o c curs only

once , that is , in the 2nd ju z , 3rd ruku‘

,is not w ritten

cal -3”

b utUM ,

as though it oc curred m ore than twice .

2 F inal drops before an affixed pronoun , ag.

i

not Aha/

gil

l.

3. The c onj un ction at is nev er j oined with the follow

ing w ord , e.g., SA, all; not M l and fi lm) !

4. The t of b (O !) is never written, e.g. ,

6A dam ) I) not

(“a a ; at, not he ! t .

5 . With the exception of fiv e words, the lam (J) of thedefinite article J\is j oined by tashdid to the initial lam of

the follow ing w ord , and only one lam is w ritten , e.g., Jail

{3 (1 6 / o

no t dtdl/

l. The exceptions are M ljlllw illb ljmfim M l

6 . The l of the fem inine plural ending in an i s writtenS O ? S b )

abov e , C a w 11 013 £3. 2m 3 bi} nO t w hi z ,

SEC .

1 A lthough I speak of the as written ab ove , yet it mu st b e rememb ered

that it is only placed there for convenience and in order that the readersb

may rememb er it . It is called J ! 5 M (Khanjari A lif) . Before

the invention of the short vowels,&c . (u l

jc l) it wou ld not have b een

written at all, and if a Quran w ere now to b e written withou t u ljg l

(a th ing never done) this wou ld not appear .

350 A PPENDIX A .

(4 1 0 /

7 . In su ch w ords asas ; and

L55 1“ ) (yastahyi) the final

d is sounded twice , though dnly w ritten once . The

s econd J may b e w ritten of a smaller siz e and in red ink,

thus showing that it w as not in the original text . If,

how ever,a pronoun is affixed

,the is written tw ice ,

0 / (a ) ,

A M .

8 . The following words substitu te 3 for l w ithout any

c hange ln pronunciation , eug , gji w ,

If, how ever,any one of these words governs another word

in the possessiv e case the l returns, e.g. , ex ile‘ thy

prayers,’

M l Aw ,& c

9 . In su ch w ords asU ffi

‘fd ’ the tw o«5 are j oined

/ o w w /

b y N M , b u t In UAW ,

um ; they are separate ; m

and W retain the secondL 5 b ut place W o v er it.

10. The w ords«Ai l/Ll u

ls13 > shou ld hav e W under

stood , b u t not written (except 1n red ) before the (d ) , thu sIt reads Jibra’

il. The pronunciation by }?

(Jib ril) has arisen from the readers forgetting this ru le .

1 1 . The l in a n; a ll: m ag i

u laa é/

shou l d b e written above , thu s Jim M :

W ! W 9(95 0 °

f Zé b ; ; c /

12. In M lA“ , and the variou s form s of this verb s

is u sed w ithou t .x being under it . The u sual fO Im of thefl / c /

first w ou l d b e due , the l then b ecom e s9 4 a Ji m ; b ut to

w rite it thu s w ou l d b e wrong : the must not appear.

13. In the follow ing words an l appears at the end of

each,though it is qu ite unne cessary and is not sounded ,

c ; o f o z o f O i c / (J o / x c ; O / are

e -g. , l, ” as A,“ lat, lj b'

la tu ib n. There is


35 2 A PPENDI! A .

(ALA ) is w ritten above , eug , M idfi

{.lwl .

O le.

«we22. If am ovab le ham za 1s preceded by a qu iescent letter

J’ S O / 4° C / S O I L /

the .x is not w ritten under it , e.g. , not M ; M

not m.

23. S ome tens es are shortened,both in w riting and

1 eading,w hen w ith the next w ord there woul d b e tw o

azm s e.. .g bas il is: not W ilu

x, S aratu’

l- A sra;l(0) U Ji U f :

£ 6 9 wc c fi c / wc i c / M , c ;

A ll for MW , Suratu’

sh- S huara’ for1433

3

5“

« c o r e / x

Sfiratu’

l- Qamr ; fix bjlll

for duo Sfiratu’

l ‘A laq ;x o

M .A \A J for W fl lzfs b , Suratu’

l- Yunus . In S 1’

1ratu

’

l- H1’

1d there i s one case where < is d1 opp ed,although tw o

/ (J ,

jazms do not o ccur, e.g. ,web" Ni

for BJbrfi

.

24. In som e words an extra is wri tten b ut not pro(a ria/ o

nounc ed in reading, e.g. , lfi l 53. Certainly, they woul d

have broken aw ay, Surah iii; 1 53 m1u“ “ Verily

unto God , S urah iii, 1 52 ;(3M 1 11 :

“ Certainly w e

w ou l d have follow ed thee , S urah iii 1 60 ; d ud for

$33 of a thing, S lirah xv iii, VV . 23 d j xfu lll

“ They4 b y z c /

w ou l d certainly have followed thee , S i’

i rah ix , 42 ; W) 3]“Certainly they had hu 1 1 ied abou t among you ,

”bm ah 1x

,47 .

25 . In som e w ords theW takes d as d b .)cf f

’ SuratuL / S (I

’

l- A n ‘am '

LEM ”

UAW

“I fin S l

'

n atu’

l Yunu s d d :gLu l in

Sfiratu’

n—Nam l ; : ib lw in S i’

i ratu’

t- TaHa ; u lw llc l) ; d

o

in Sfiratu’

sh—Shuara’

djlgll in S i

’

i ratu’

l- Hashr .

Gl / f b

26 . In J““ Certainly, I w ill fi ll , the l is dropped and

‘ILM- I - TAJWI

'

D . 353

is pu t w ithout any 41 under it, as};

53. In Sfiratu

l- A hzab the last lofthe words Ural“ B

r?” is retained ,

c ontrary to the rule w hich says that w h en Al is prefixedthe l of the objective case drops . In Sfiratu

’

l- Quraish the1

w ordsmillufiij ’ J 13(“For the union of the Quraish , their

union, & c .) are read as if w ritten thu s :“A t

ollup) ; g iftthough the L 5

is not written .

A man who has any real claim to the honourable title of

a Hafiz mu st not only b e conversant w ith all the details Ihave now given ,

b ut he must al so know the ‘ variou s

readings’

(a s?) of the seven fam ou s Qaris I hav e

already given the nam es of these m en . Each of them hadtw o disciples . Su ch a disciple is called a Ravi . 1 There are

also three Qaris (each of w hom also had tw o d isciples ) ,w hose readings are sometime s u sed when the Quran isrecited private ly , b ut not w hen u sed in a liturgical serv ice .

A tradition records that A bu I bn Kab b eing troubled in

m ind when he heard the Quran recited in variou s ways

spoke to the Prophe t abou t it .

“His Highness said , O A bu

lb n Kab ! intelligence was sent to me to read the Quran inone dialect , and I was attentive to the Court of God , and

said : ‘Make the reading of the Quran easy to my sects .

’

These instru ctions were sent to m e the second tim e saying :

Read the Quran in tw o diale cts .

’

Then I turned myself

to the Court of God , saying :‘Make the reading of the

Quran easy to my sec ts .

’ Then a v oice cam e to me the

third time,saying : Read the Quran in seven diale cts.

This justifies the u se of ‘sev en readings

’

(a s? W ) .

Jalalu’

d - din in his famou s comm entary follows the qira’

at

of the Qari Imam A bu ‘Umr. Those who b elong to the

The word Ravi literally means a narrator . I t is technically appliedto those d isc iples of a Qari who made known

,or narrated , the

‘readings

adopted by their master.

354 A PPENDI! A .

Maz hab (sect) of Imam A s Shafi ‘i prefe1 this qira’

at . Imam‘A sim had two fam ou s dis ciples , A buBakr and Hafs . The

qira’

at ofHafs, or rathe1 of‘A sim as made known by Hafs ,

is the one almost universally u sed in India. The qira’

at

of Nafi of Madina is preferred in A rabia, and is highly

v alu ed by m ost theological w ritersIn many cases the sense is not at all affected , b ut the

diffe i enc e has given l ise to many dispu tes . In the year

323 A .H. Ib n Shanab ud , a re sident of Baghdad , re citedthe Quran ,

u sing a qira’

at not fam iliar to his au dience : He

w as severe ly puni shed and had to adopt a m ore familiar

reading .

’

In order to show the nature of the changes thu s made ,I shall now give in a tabu lar form the v ariou s readings in

two S i’

i rahs of the Quran . They afford a sufficient illu stration of what is meant by the term qira

’

at .

Each of the seven Qaris had tw o Ravis, or disciples, from

w hose testim ony the qira’

at approved of by their master isknown . The thr ee Qaris of lesser note al so had tw o

disciples each. It occasionally happens that there is a

difference of opinion between the tw o follow ers of some

particu lar Qari’ w ith regard to the reading their masterpreferred . In order to show this diversity of opinion

, eachRavi

,as w el l as each Qari

,has a distinctive letter, which is

te chnically known as the ‘ram z

’

(fl ) , pl' j d )° When

b oth of the Rav is agree as to the reading preferred by theirmaster, the ram z of the Qari only is inserted on the margino f the Quran. It is not then necessary to add the raml

'

i z

of the Ravis, be cau se it is only by their evidence that the

qira’

at of the Qari is known . They never giv e an opinionof their own on the text, b ut on ly bear w itness to theopinion of their master.

1 If, how ever, the ram z of one of

1 A ll that a critical Musl im can now do is to asc ertain the read ings , ’ad opted by the Qaris ; there can b e no further emendation of the text

,wh ich

is by the orthodox supposed to b e perfect.


356 A PPENDI! A .

The three Qaris of le s ser note and their disciples are

thu s di stinguished

S econd Ravi . F irst Ravi .

In the foll owing table the first column c ontains the

w ord s of which there are d ifferent readings ; the second ,the symb olic letters (Jr ?)

of the Qaris and Rav is who

approve of the reading as giv en in the first column ; the

third column inclu des under the termufiul) (others) the

names of all Qaris and Ravis not given in the second ; thefourth column gives the reading preferred by the authoritiesrepresented in the third c olumn. For example

c m;

From this it appears the Qaris Ya‘qub (E) ,‘A sim (u ) ,

Kisa’

i (J) , and Khalaf- i- Kufi (J approv ed of the reading

Malik (d i g ) w hereas every other Qari approved of Malik

(gi g gf/

A s a general ru le there are only two ‘readings .

’

I

S firatu’

l Fatihah . l a) ”

I

1 The S i’

i ratu’

l- Fatihah is the opening Sfirah of the first j uz . I haveintrodu ced it here as it occupies

‘

such an important place in th e Namaz . The

Sfiratu’

n -Nabais the first Sarah of the last ju z , or Ju z - i - ‘Am (Vi )

‘ILM- I- TA JWI

'

D.o

57J

b i o / /

(J 0 1 / J i b / z

L. ) d ;

sum u’

nt Naba hu ll aw. »

d . )

{ P t / I

L” : a

f 1 0 {1

nus“

1

Q .) d

4 1 0 / l /

lj hfil ki fl i Qfi:

1 The placed under ther. sign ifies that the ab ove it is to b e read as a

long vowel . It is in accordance with the Ras'

mu’

l-Khatt to write3 not 5 atthe end of words where a wh o

.

(9 ) would come.

.N c / o / 5 0 /

1 1 0 6 »

b / c /

.A PPENDIX A .

.N

x 0 /

f / f /


36 0 A PPENDI ! B .

abrogated by“Whoso desireth any other rel igion than

Islam , that religion shall not b e accepted from him,and in

the next world he shal l b e among the lost ” (S . iii .S o also

,

“D ispute not

,unless in kindly sort , with the

people o f the book Jews and Christians) , save withsuch as have dealt wrongfully w ith you

”

(S xxix . isabrogated by the famous verse of the sword

,When the

sacred months are passed , kil l those who j oin gods withGod , wherever ye find them, and besiege them and lay waitfor them with every kind of ambush ; b ut, if they repentand observe prayer and pay the obligatory alms

,then let

them go their way”

(S . ix . Other v erses which ineulcate the duty of Jihad are :

“ Fight for the cause of God

(S . ii . and O Bel iev ers ! what possessed you that

when it was said to you March forth on the way of God ,

ye sank heavily downwards ? What ! prefer ye the l ife of

this world to the next ? (S . ix .

The duty,being based on clear texts of the Quran

,is

then a farz one,that i s, one incumbent on all. The law

books are also clear on the point. In the H idaya we read,

The destruction of the sword is incurred by the infidels ,although they b e not the first aggressors. The Kifaya

,a

commentary on the H idaya,is plainer stil l : “ Fighting

against the infidels who do not become converts to Islamand do not pay the capitation tax is incumbent

,though

they do not first attack .

” This is supported by the text ,Fight against them till strife b e at an end

,and the rel i

gion b e all of it God’

s (S . v iii . The S air - i - Qabir,a

Turkish law- book,states it to b e the duty of the S ultan

to see that the Musalman frontiers are never lessened ,that the infidels are called upon to embrace Islam

,that true

bel ievers are urged to strive in the Jihad .

”

The summons to Jihad must b e based on a legal foundat ion

,and one leading principle is that the country in which

it takes place shou ld b e Daru ’l - Harb. This has led to

much controversy. S ome years ago, preachers of a Jihad

gave much trouble in India, and quiet orderly Musalmans

THE LA W or JIHAD 36 1

who d id not wish to rebel , and yet found it difficult to resistthe religious obligation resting upon them

,at last met the

difficu lty,not by disputing the lawfulness of Jihad in the

abstract,b u t by denying that Ind ia was a country in which

it could lawfully b e made . The subject'

was duly consideredand authoritativ e decisions were arrived at. Two d istinctsets of legal opinions have been given by the S unni authorities and set forth by the Muhammadan Literary S ocietyof Calcutta. One set of Maulav ies decide that India is

Daru’l - Harb

,the other that it is Daru ’l - Islam

,and then

curiously enough both parties declare that J ihad in it is

qu ite unlawful . Those who say it is Daru'

l - Harb maintain

that,as Muslims in India enjoy ful l rel igious liberty and

have no strength to fight, Jihad is not lawful . The followingis this Fatva

,dated July 1 7 ,

1 8 70 :

“ The Musalmans here are protected by Christians, and there

is no Jihad in a country where protection is afforded,as the

ab sence of protection and lib erty b etween Musalmans and infidels

is essential in a religious war, and that cond ition d oes not existhere b esides

,it is necessary that there should b e a possib ility of

v ictory to Musalmans and glory to the Ind ians. I f there b e no

such prob ab ilitv the Jihad is unlawful .”

The second condition— a probability of v ictory— leav esthe question open,

and guard s the Maulavies from the charge

of weakness in declaring Jihad unlawful . It is not legal

now that is all they assert . The question was al so referredto the leaders in Mecca of the three principal S unni sects .

The question was thus put

What is your opinion (Mayyour greatness continue for ever !)on this qu estion : Whether the country of Hindustan,

the rulerso f which are Christians

,and who do not interfere w ith all the

injunctions of I slam,such as the ord inary daily prayers, the prayers

of the ‘Ids ; b ut do authorise d eparture from a few of the injunetions of I slam

,su ch as the permission to inherit the property of

the Muhammadan ancestor to one who changes his religion and

b ecomes a Christian,is Daru

’l - I slam or not ? A nswer the ab ove,for which God will reward you .

”

36 2 A PPENDI! B .

The Mufti of Mecca, the head of the Hanifi sect, an

swered

A s long as even some of the peculiar Ob servances of Islamprevail in it

,it is the Daru

’l - Islam.

The Mufti of the Shafi I sect said

“ Yes,as long as ev en some of the peculiar Ob servances of

I slam prevail in it, it is Daru’l - Islam.

The Mu ft i of the Maliki said

“ It is written in the commentary of Dasokf that a country ofIslam does not b ecome Daru

’l -Harb as soon as it passes into the

hands of the infidels , b ut only when all or most of the injunctionsof I slam d isappear therefrom .

They all cal l India Daru’l - Islam ,

b ut they careful lyabstain from saying whether Jihad is lawful or not . A pparently they still leave it an open question.

The Calcutta Muhammadan S ociety has gone further, andhas definitely stated that Jihad can by no means he lawfullymade in a Daru

’l - Islam , which they declare India to b e .

They support their position by a reference to the Fatva- i‘A lamgiri, which states the conditions under which a Daru

’

lIslam becomes a Daru

’l - Harb. They are

When the rule of infidels is Openly exercised , and the

ordinances of Islam are not ob served .

When it is in such contiguity to a country which is Daru’l

Harb that no city of Daru’l - Islam intervenes b etween that country

and Daru’l - Harb .

That noMusalman is found in the enj oyment of religiouslib erty, nor a Zimmi (an infid el who has accepted the terms of

permanent sub jection to Musalman rule) und er the same terms as

he enjoyed under the gov ernment of Islam.

” 1

The question is,however

,in an unsatisfactory state, for

one well - known legal authority lays down the law thus

1 These fatvas are given in S irW. W . Hunter’

s work , Our Ind ianMusal~

mdns.


364 A PPENDI ! B .

came more or less corrupt. It is maintained that Jahd,

’

Jihad,and their derivatives are to b e rendered accord ing to

the classical u sage of the term,when it

’

would not mean

“ fighting in warfare , for which the A rabic words H am b

and Kitctl do service. Jahd and its derivatives occur inthirty - six v erses . S etting aside those which cannot possib ly refer to war, the rest are said to b e of two kinds .

First,those which occur in the Meccan S 1

’

1rahs,

and

secondly those in the Sarahs which were delivered at

Madina. Maulav i Cheragh‘A li asserts that those in the

second class , which are generally interpreted to mean

“ fighting,”

should b e used in the sense of“ strenuou s

exertion,”

as is done in the earl ier S 1’1rahs .

“ I fully admit,”

he says,

“that in the post- classical language of the A rabs,

the word Jihad was used to signify warfare ;”

b ut “ it isobviously improper to apply the post - classical meaning of

the word when it occurs in the Quran .

”

The argument

used is that a purely conventional meaning of the wordJihad came into use after the time of Muhammad

,and that

the Canonical Legists have affixed that meaning to the

word in the Quran,and so have bu ilt up an entirely wrong

system .

A careful analysis of all the texts bearing on the sub

jcet is made . S ome present great difficu lties , b ut it is laiddown as a principle of interpretation that those which seem

to declare the duty of Jihad must b e read in connectionwith other passages in which the permission or the cal l tofight i s only conditional . Thu s : “When two commandments, one conditional and the other general or absolute

,

are found on the same subject, the conditional is to b e

preferred and the absolute should b e construed as con

d itional.

It is further stated that the wars of Muhammad werede fensive, and that, therefore , the v erses referring to them

are strictly temporary and transitory in their nature , for

the circumstances were purely local . The ninth Sarah 13

generally supposed to have heen given at the end of the

THE LAW OF JIHAD 36 5

ninth year of the Hij rah, b ut Mau lav i Cheragh‘A li

,in

Opposition to Noldeke , one of the greatest Quranic scholarsof the day,

considers that the Opening v erses were deliveredin the eighth year , while Muhammad was marching againstMecca

,and that, therefore, they have a limited and local

application ,and not a general one forming a rule for all

time . This is very ingenious , b ut it is in striking opposi

tion to the law doctors, who hold them to b e Of general

application ,and to whom it matters l ittle whether they

were rev ealed in the eighth or the ninth year.

‘

The next step in this most recent treatment of the sub

j c et is to substitu te other readings for some of the words inthe Quran. The v erse, Whoso fight for the cause Of God

,

their works He will not suffer to miscarry (S . xlvii . isdisposed Of by the suggestion of another reading, Kotelnl

those who are killed —for the word in the text,

Katalin—“those who kill or fight.

”

If this explanation is

not accepted , then it must b e interpreted by other verseswhich mean fighting in self- defence, such as ,

“ Fight for

the cause of God against those who fight against you ; b utcommit not the injustice of attacking them first (S . xl .

This is the standard text to which all doubtfulpassages must b e brought, and however difficult it may b eto do so, they must

,according to Maulav i Cheragh

‘A li, b e

interpreted in connection with it.In order stil l further to prove the defensive character of

the wars Of Muhammad , a d ifferent reading Of another verseis adopted . For “ hav e fought —Yohotteliina

,—the words

hav e been fought — Yokcttali2na - are substituted,so that

the v erse reads not “a sanction is given to those who

fight ,”b ut

“a sanction has been given to those who

hav e been fought”

(S . xxii . The passive form is

adopted by the Qaris ‘A mir and‘A s im of a ah as recorded

1 This is'

the read ing adopted b y the Ravi Hafs, who has record ed theqira

’at of ‘A sim of Kufah . The Qari A ht’i ‘Umr also supports th is read ing.

A ll the rest of the Qaris are against it , and support the text , Those whokill or fight,” wh ich has, therefore , overwhelming authority in its favour.

36 6 A PPENDI ! B .

by Hafs . A ll the other Qaris retain the active form . In

the Commentary Of Jalalu’

d - d in,this v ery verse is quoted

as the first verse which descended from heaven to authoriseJihad , so that there is good authority for Yoko

'

ttelnna

hav e fought . However,it is only fair to say that

Maulav i Cheragh A li does not rest his case on a disputedreading,

and the loss of the support he thought he had fromthis v erse will not affect it much .

S uch is a very brief outline Of the most recent work on

Jihad . I t is undoubtedly the best position for enlightenedMusalmans to adopt

,although it brings them into conflict

with all the canonists of preceding ages , and with the v iewsof commentators and theologians of all the various sects .


36 8 INDE !

H arf, 66

H ell , d ivisions Of, 232 ; relation Of

Muslims and non- Muslims to,24 1

‘IBADHIYA H

'

, 96‘I barat , 6 5‘Id -

gah , 314‘Idu

’

l- F itr, 31 6—320 ; sermon on, 31 9

‘Idu ’

a - guha, 296, 32 1—326 ; sermon

on, 323

I ftar , 282

I jtihad , its origin, 23 limitation of,

32 importance of, 34 ; fu ll ac countOf, 4 1

—46

I jma‘, its m eaning, 22—23 a b asis O f

law, 2 5 authority o f

, 30‘Ilm - i - Tajwid , 333—358Imam, as Legists (Lesser Imams),2 5—28 ; authority of , 37 ; as Pon

t iffs (Greater Imam s) , appointedby God

, 9 5 ; immacu late , 9 5 , 9 7 ;charac ter of

, 9 7 ; supreme, 98 ;

names of, 9 9 as leader in prayer,

Imamat,d oc trine of, 97

Imamites , 99Iman ,

1 65Inspiration , kind s of

, 47—48Iqtiga, 66

I rkan - i - d in, 2 5 1

I sharat , 65I slam , foundations Of, I , 38 ; a theo

c racy, 39 ; unprogressive , 40I sma‘ilians

,1 00

I snad,82

I stid lal, 65‘I tikaf, 31 7

JA BBiA Ns , 1 83, 234Jihad , a far ; duty, 360 ; Fatvas on ,

36 1-

362 ; mod ern explanation of,

363

Jinn, 205

KA‘BA H

,29 1

Kalam,187 ; d isputes ab out, 1 89

1 9 1

Kalimah words, 66 ; creed, 1 65

Khafi,62

Khalif, S ultan not,1 04—105 power

of, 1 06

Khass , 59Khatib

,26 7

Khutb ah, 268- 270, 3 1 9

K inayah ,64

Kurratu’

l- ‘ayn ,140

L AW,finality O f

, 32 ; sac red and

secular, 33, 39 , 1 06

Laylutu’

l- Qad r,2 , 31 7

MA HD I - A L,d isappearance of

, 9 9 , 1 34

return of, 9 9 ; pre tenders , 10 1

c ommunicat ion w ith,1 34

Majgfib , 1 1 6 , 1 1 8

Makri’

Ih, 252

Mansfikh, 73

Mars iyah, 307

Mirac les, 2 1 7—2 1 9MirzaYahya, 144 ex iled to Cyprus ,146 personal appearance of, 1 5 1

Mizan, 225Mounts Safaand Marwah

, 2 94, 298

Muawwal, 60

Mu‘aggin, 2 58

t fassar, 62

Mufs id,25 2

Muhammad,word s and d eeds of, 1 5

an ideal A rab, 1 8 ; inspiration of,

49—52 s in Of, 2 16 ; m iracles of

,

2 1 8 ; night ascent of,2 19 ; an

interc essor,229

Muharram , preparation for, 306

ceremonies o f, 307—31 2

Mujassimians, 1 83Mujaz , 64Mujmal

, 63

Mu jtahid , 23, 2 5 , 33Muhkam ,

62

Musj idu’

l- Haram, 29 1

Mustahab , 2 52, 254, 264, 267Mustarak, 60Mushab ihites , 1 83

Mushkil, 63Mushrik, 228

Mutashab ih, 64

INDEX

Mu‘taz ilas, origin Of, 1 74 ; d ogmas

of, 1 7 5 ; growing power of, 1 77 ;

persecution of, 1 79 , 1 92 ; overthrow of

,1 80 ; rise of modern

school of, 1 93—1 99 ; on predest ination , 238

NA FL,263

Namaz (see S alat)Nass, 62

Nur - i - Muhammadi, 9 7

PA RA D IS E, 231Philosophy , Muslim, 243

—250Prayer (see Salat)Pred estination, 233Primal Will, 1 46 , 148Prophets, 209 rank of

, 2 1 0 ; ih

spiration Of,2 1 1 sinlessness of

,

2 1 3 ; sinfulness of, 2 14 2 1 6 ;

m iracles o f, 2 1 7

QA DA M- I -RA suL , 314

Qadrians , 234Qari, 54, 341 ; symb ols of

, 355

Qias , its nature , 35 ; illustrations of, 36

Qira‘at

, 54, 353 of two Sarahs ,

356—358

Quran,revelation Of , 2 ; b rought b y

Gab riel, 5 ; a miracle , 6 ; first and

second ed itions of, 1 0 ; origin o f,

1 4 ; inspiration of, 47 ; modes of

revelation of, 49—5 1 ; d ialects Of

,

53 ; various read ings of, 5 5 , 1 70 ,

357 , 365 ; gradual revelation O f,

5 7 ; ab rogation of verses of, 58,

73—78 ; word s of, 59 ; sentences

Of,6 1—63 deduction of arguments

from, 65 letters Of, 66 verses of,

67 ; chapters Of , 68 ; other d ivisions of, 70 - 7 1 , 335 ; eternalnature of

, 79 , 80 ; d isputes as to

nature Of,1 77—1 78, 1 884 9 1 ; b est

time for , and place of read ing of,

335 ; S ijdah verses of, 339 ; pro

nunc iation of, 342 ; symb ols for

pauses in read ing of, 342 346 ;

other symb ols , 347 peculiar spelling of. 348

—352

36 9

70

Rakd‘

, 70 ; marginal sign of, 348

Ramazan, fasting in,25 1 , 279 Fast

of, 31 6—320

Rasmu’l-Khatt, 348

Ravi, 354 ; symb ols of, 35 5Resurrection, 220 ; events preced ing,22 1—233

Roz ah, 2 50, 279—283

Ruba‘iyat Of ‘Umr Khayyam ,1 26

1 33

SA DA QA H , 28 1 , 283, 31 8S ahari, 282S alat

,257—262 ; times of, 263 of

various d egrees of ob ligation ,263

265 ; various kind s of, 265 , 278 ;

Fatvaon, 30 1—305

Sifatians , 1 73S ihahu

’

s - S ittah , 2 1 , 83S ipara, 70S in, greater and lesser, 2 1 3snag, 2 26

S hab Barat, 31 5S hafa‘at, 1 59

S haikhis,1 34—1 35

Shi‘ahs, origin of, 90—94 ; creed of,

98

S hirk, 1 5 7 various kinds of, 1 58Subh- i - E z el, 144—145 , 1 5 1Sti fiism ,

1 07 princ iples of, 108—1 09esoteric teaching of, 1 1 1 stages Of,

1 14 ; end of, 1 1 5 ; aid s to, 1 1 6 ;

weakness of, 1 1 7 c onnection withBab iism ,

146

S firah, 68

S umnat,nature of, 1 5 importance

of, 1 7 ; how known, 2 1 ; present

influence Of, 299

TA ‘A wwug, 259

Tab a‘in,8

Tahrit, 208Takb irs

,258—262

Tashahhud,2 52, 262

Tasm iya, 260

Tauhid , 1 26Tawat, 289 , 293

37 0 INDE!

T ayammum , 256 WAHHABIISM,origin of

,1 53

- 1 54

Ta ‘z iyah, 307, 310 growth of, 1 55 d ecadenc e of, 1 56 ;

Tilawat , 333 in Ind ia, 1 56 ; b asis of, 1 57Trad itions

,nature of, 1 6 collections d ogmas of

,1 58—1 60 ; result of, 1 62

O f,2 1 , 83

- 84 c lassification Of, 86 Wahi, 47

87 ab rogation of,88 waj ih , 2 57

Waqi‘a Khan, 307 , 308

‘UMB KHA YYAM, youth Of, 1 23 ; char Wazu, 252

ac ter of, 1 24 ; Rub a‘iyat of, 1 25 Witr

,264

I 33‘Umrah, 289 ZAHIB , 6 1‘U rf

, 33 Zakat, 25 1 , 283

—287‘U rs

, 314 Zamz am,293, 297

U sul and Farfi ‘, 1 69; Zimmi , 2 72

CORBIGENDA .

Page 49 , footnote, for Moulv ies read “Maulav is .

54, line 25 , for H afs read Hafs.

60 , 7 , for Sulat read “ S alat

1 24, 29 , for“rights read “

rites .

P rinted oy BA LLA NTYNE , H A NSON Co .

E d inhurgh and London



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