The Ohalo II 1999-2000 seasons of excavations: A preliminary Report

/ אוהלו II — דו"ח ראשוני על עונות החפירה 1999—2000 The Ohalo II 1999-2000 Seasons of Excavation: A Preliminary ReportAuthor(s): DANI NADEL, ALEXANDER TSATSKIN, DANIELA E. BAR-YOSEF MAYER, MIRIAMBELMAKER, ELIZABETTA BOARETTO, MORDECHAI E. KISLEV, ISRAERL HERSHKOVITZ, RIVKARABINOVICH, TAL SIMMONS, UDI WEISS, IRIT ZOHAR, OMAR ASFUR, GIL EMMER, TUGANGHRAIEB, EHUD GRINBERG, HANAN HALABI, LIOR WEISSBROD, YOSSI ZAIDNER, דני נדל,,מרדכי כסלו ,אליזבטה בוארטו ,מרים בלמייקר ,דניאלה בר-יוסף מאייר ,אלכסנדר צצקין... ,רבקה רבינוביץ ,ישראל הרשקוביץSource: Mitekufat Haeven: Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society / מתקופת האבן, כרך ל"בpp. 17-48 תשס"ב, 2002Published by: Israel Prehistoric Society / העמותה הישראלית לפרהיסטוריהStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/23388392 .

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Journal of The Israel Prehistoric Society 32 (2002), 17-48

The Ohalo II1999-2000 Seasons of Excavation: A Preliminary Report

DANINADEL, DANIELA E. BAR-YOSEF MAYER ALEXANDER TSATSKIN

Peabody Museum,

Zinman Institute of Archaeology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Haifa University, 31905, Haifa, Israel. MA 02138, USA.

MIRIAM BELMAKER ELIZABETTA BOARETTO

Department of Evolution, Radiocarbon Dating Lab, Department of

Systematics and Ecology, Environmental Sciences and Energy Research,

The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Weizmann Institute of Science,

91904, Israel 6100 Rehovot, Israel

MORDECHAIE. KISLEV ISRAERL HERSHKOVITZ

Faculty of Life Sciences and Department Sackler School of Medicine,

of Land of Israel Studies, Bar Ilan University, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Gan 52900, Israel Tel Aviv 69978, Israel

RIVKA RABINOVICH TAL SIMMONS

Department of Evolution, Department of Anthropology,

Systematics and Ecology, The Hebrew Western Michigan University,

University of Jerusalem, 91904, Israel Kalamazoo, MI 49008, USA

UDI WEISS IRIT ZOHAR

Faculty of Life Sciences and Department Department of Zoology Tel Aviv Univertsity, of Land of Israel Studies, and The Department of Maritime Civilizations

Bar Ilan University, University of Haifa, Mount Carmel, Ramat Gan 52900, Israel Haifa 31905, Israel

OMAR ASFUR, GIL EMMER, TUGAN GHRAIEB, EHUD GRINBERG, HANAN HALABI, LIOR WEISSBROD, YOSSIZAIDNER

Zinman Institute of Archaeology, Haifa University, 31905, Haifa, Israel

17



18 NADEL et al.

ABSTRACT

Following three seasons of excavations (1989-1991) the Ohalo II site was submerged for six years. The western part of the site was exposed again in the fall of 1998, and

small-scale studies were conducted. In the following two years water level dropped

dramatically, the site was completely exposed, and large-scale excavations took place.

Previously sampled loci and newly discovered brush hut remains and hearth concentrations

were excavated. There was an emphasis on geoarchaeology, searching for evidence related

to past lake water levels, as well as to the depositional environment of the camp and the

bedrock lacustrine layers. Accordingly, trenches totaling more than 100 m in length were

cut through the site and studied in detail.

The current report describes fieldwork and the relevant loci, and presents a stratigraphie section with the main three units of deposition. Provided are preliminary results of studies

in botany, micromorphology, paleontology and shell-bead use. Also presented are the

finds from Ohalo II South (mostly flint, but there was one human bone and many animal

bones), located some 100 m from the central area of excavation. These material remains

resemble in many aspects the finds from the central area, including '4C dates (presented here for the first time). It is suggested that this location was occupied contemporaneously with the central area, or only a short time before/after.

INTRODUCTION

The submerged site of Ohalo II is located on the southwestern shore of the Sea of Galilee,

Dead Sea Rift, Israel. It was excavated for three successive seasons immediately following

discovery (1989-1991), as water level dropped and much of the site was exposed. The

site was re-submerged for several years, rendering fieldwork difficult. However, in 1999

2000 droughts and heavy pumping from the lake caused a new water level drop, to ca.

213.80 m below msl. During these years two long seasons (6 weeks each) were conducted.

It is the aim of this report to describe our fieldwork as well as preliminary results of

several on-going studies. For details of previous works see reference list.

Excavation of each locus was conducted using 0.5X0.5 m units, with vertical intervals

of 5 cm or less. All excavated material was collected in 5 liter buckets so that volume

calculations of loose sediments and actual excavated loci could be provided (Table 1).

All the excavated sediment was wet sieved through a 1 mm mesh that was inserted

into a special framework and immersed in the lake water. Every bucket of sediment was

poured into the mesh and the floated charcoal was collected with a 0.25 mm sieve. In

addition, a 0.5 mm mesh was used to collect fine remains from 20% of the sieved units

(see also botanical section). Material was dried in the shade and collected in plastic bags.

Unsieved samples and sediment blocks were recovered from all loci as well as from



THE OHALO II 1999-2000 SEASONS OF EXCAVATION: A PRELIMINARY REPORT 19

Table 1: Volume of excavation presented by loci (in cubic meters). Volumes were

calculated by field measurements and counts of five-liter buckets removed from each

excavated unit. Note that some loci were excavated in more than one season. Loci 1 and

3 were also excavated in 1989-91 ; volumes of other loci from these seasons are omitted.

LOCUS/SEASON 1989-91 1999 2000 TOTAL

1 0.82 1.18 2.00

3 0.29 0.54 0.29 1.12

10 (north- central) 0.28 0.39 0.67

10 (L85-87) 0.13 0.13

10 (sec. M-N78) 0.28 0.28

12 0.59 0.59

13 0.32 0.32

14 0.37 0.37

15 0.32 0.35 0.67

16 0.25 0.06 0.31

17 0.11 0.11

18 1.05 1.05

19 0.70 0.70

TOTAL 1.11 2.41 4.80 8.32

underlying and overlying lacustrine sediments. All trenches were back filled by the end

of each season, and a large area of the site was covered by black plastic sheets.

THE 1999 SEASON

Fieldwork focused on the excavation of brush hut 3, brush hut 13, brush hut 12, locus 10,

and trenches through loci 15, 16 and 17 (Figures 1,2).

Brush Brush hut 3. This hut was the first locus to be sampled in the site (1989 season). Then,

two deep and parallel trenches were cut through the sediment in the southern half of the

hut. In 1999 the rest of the floor / fill above floor were excavated. As seen when first

discovered, the shape was pear-like, and different from the oval shapes of huts 1,2, 12

and 13. Most of the stones and bones larger than 3 cm were recorded in three coordinates.

This procedure was not used for most of the site, as it was very time consuming and the

site is submerged during most years. A small area of the bottom floor was left and only excavated in 2000 (see below).



20 NADEL et al.

TT

□

A

N

0 20 m 1 I =i

1 I I I I I 1 I I T~

\L

\a

\ V} \\ ^ \ * i i i i i i i i m

Figure 1 : A general plan of Ohalo II, indicating the relative location of the main area of

work and the southern area discovered and tested in 1999-2000. At Ohalo II South, the

dashed lines represent the location of higher densities of finds while the dotted lines

mark a dark layer with isolated finds. In both areas the east-west lines represent trenches.



THE OHALOII 1999-2000 SEASONS OF EXCAVATION: A PRELIMINARY REPORT 21

„ «v ao AL ag ABCDH1MN S x 301 «— 30

40

50

60

90

-812.43m 0 5 M

0 L.14

L.13 N 40

-212.40n

Trench 58 1 ~8ie.35n

HUMAN MANDIBLE

SO

L19

60

Trench 70-72 701 —

ZZZZZZZZZZZZ1 170

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80

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-ai2£8n

| Trench 104-106

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Jij no

w [aq [al [ag r*i ETd hTi hTn Is fx

Figure 2: The main area of excavation. Legend: 1 - brush hut, 2 - concentration of

hearths, 3 - limit of excavation area, 4 - trench.



22 NADEL et al.

Brush Brush hut 13. This was the first in situ feature found to the north of the central area of

excavation. During previous excavation seasons it was submerged and/or covered by sand and vegetation and thus not visible. The hut was oval in shape, with a north-south

long axis. The thickness of the deposit was ca. 10 cm in the center, and much less around

the walls. Flints were particularly abundant, and a preliminary count showed there were

more than 50 cores on the floor. Many of the flints were cracked and shattered by fire.

Gazelle mandibles, scapulae and leg bones were also common. Several limestone and

basalt implements were recovered, including a small broken bowl. One 0.5X0.5 m square was left untouched for reference and section studies.

Brush Brush hut 12. This feature appeared to be another brush hut. It was oval, deeper than

most features (up to 30-40 cm in the center) and contained the darkest black deposit found at the site. In addition, the surface contour line was hard to follow. This could be

the result of modern vegetation growth, as this part of the site was not protected by black

plastic sheets between 1991 and 1999. In terms of flints and animal bones, the sediment

appears to be less dense than other brush hut floors. A complete right mandible of a

fallow deer was found lying horizontally by a burnt branch.

Locus Locus 10. A small section of this long phenomenon, mostly in squares J-L/74-79, was

exposed with all large specimens being recorded by three coordinates. Discrete

concentrations of bones were most conspicuous, and flint was not common here. Small

hearths (in situ) were visible, indicating that this deposit could not be a secondary accumulation of debris.

Trench Trench 79 East. By the end of 1991 a short trench (2X0.5 m) at the eastern edge of the

site (as known then) showed a steep dip of the archaeological layer eastward. This trench

was extended by 4 m and deepened (0.5 m). It now became apparent that locus 10 was

cut by a natural process and later another anthropogenic layer was deposited, labeled

locus locus 15. Thus, some of the material from the 1991 trench thought to belong to locus 10

is actually part of locus 15. Consequently, publications presenting material from locus

10 are actually a mixture of loci 10 and 15. During the 2000 season a further exposure of

this area showed locus 15 to be a brush hut. Unburnt wood remains were retrieved. The

eastern section revealed yet another deposit, deeper and different in color and matrix

from locus 15, labeled locus 16. Within the small area exposed of the latter (1 m2) two

fallow deer mandibles and other bones were found in a row.

Trench Trench 79 West. In order to better understand the depositional sequence at the western

edge of the site, an 8 m long trench (0.5 m wide) was placed from locus 6 westward. No




archaeological features were recorded here. The sections showed fine laminated lacustrine

layers, almost horizontal. No stones/pebbles/bones were visible.

Trench Trench 86. This trench was cut in order to have another section through locus 10 and the

complex phenomena observed in trench 79. Again, there was a steep dip of the

archaeological layer eastward. The upper part of the layer contained many animal bones

and some flints. Further east the concentration of finds dropped rapidly (locus 17). Two

dark layers, also dipping to the east, were recorded below the archaeological layer.

The The black layer and square El 01. A wide black layer covering large portions of the

surface along the western and southern parts of the site was studied this year. The layer was usually 2-5 cm thick. Along the western edge it disappeared under fine lacustrine

sediments. It contained very low densities of finds (flints, bones, charcoal), and merged into archaeological features in various locations (e.g., locus 12).

In five locations the black layer was sampled in order to assess whether it was natural

or a part of an in situ feature (squares AD92, AH74, AI77, F105 and N66). The samples

(ca.(ca.(ca. 1 liter) were collected and sieved with the active participation of a botanist (E.

Weiss). Charcoal floatation was also carried out, and the charred remains were studied in

the filed. Thus, within several hours we had the full range of finds from each of the five

samples. Indeed, they all contained flints, small bones, charred seeds and plant fragments.

However, the densities in most cases were much lower than the typical densities on

floors or in hearths. In two squares the botanical remains were more varied and in higher

densities, similar to the finds from hut floors and hearths. Combined with field

observations, the results indicate that: 1) the dark layer contains archaeological remains,

but is not an archaeological locus senso stricto, and 2) the densities of finds within this

black layer vary considerably.

Square Square E101. The square is located at the southern area of the exposed black layer. Here

work exposed the presence of small remains (flints, bones and charcoal fragments) as

well as round root fossils. These had an inner diameter of 2-3 cm, and hundreds of

similar hard-mud fossils were observed to the south, along a beach stretch of more than

100 m (exposed only in years of low water level).

It appears that the dark layer is the beach surface during the time of occupation. The

quick cover of the beach by the rising waters buried the shore vegetation in anaerobic

conditions, creating a dark horizon of partially decomposed organic matter.

Trench Trench 104-106 (by a JCB tractor). The trench was placed at the southern edge of the

visible area of exposed features (Figure 3). It was ca. 1.5-2 m deep, except for a section



24 NADEL et al.

Figure 3: Photo of work along trench 104-106 at the southern edge of the main area of

excavation (the end of the 1999 season). People on the left are exposing locus 12.

of 2 meters in the western edge, where it reached a 5 m depth. The width of all JCB

trenches was 60-80 cm. The black layer visible on the surface of the site (see above) was

recorded in the section, with a clear dip to the east-southeast. Within the sequence of

finely laminated lacustrine deposits, certain plains of unconformity were observed,

probably indicating events of wave aggradation on the Pleistocene beach.

Trench Trench 70-72 (by JCB). The trench runs through the site, immediately to the north of the

most concentrated area of in situ features. The above-mentioned black layer was visible

along the eastern half, again with a clear dip to the east-southeast. In squares AJ-AK/72

the trench cut through a hearth. It was up to 5 cm thick and several flints and bones were

visible in the charcoal-rich lens. In the following season this area was excavated (locus

18).

Trench Trench 52 (by JCB). The trench was located adjacent to a large area cleared this season.

The clearance exposed no features, though in 1989a human mandible was found



THE OH ALOII1999-2000 SEASONS OF EXCAVATION: A PRELIMINARY REPORT 25

here. Though this trench was only 1 -1.5 m deep, it rapidly filled with underground water.

The The pebbles trench (by JCB). An ancient alluvial fan covered by rounded flint pebbles was discovered to the north of the site, ca. 50 m from the northernmost observed feature.

The pebbles represent a channel running into the basin, but later than the local Lisan

Formation. The trench was cut through this Late Pleistocene formation, in a west-east

direction. The thickness of the pebbly layer was 20-30 cm, with underlying fine lacustrine

sediments. Later that winter 10 additional trenches were placed along the ancient exit of

the Jordan River from the lake (immediately to the north of the site).

Southern Southern Area ( Ohalo II South). Low water level exposed a flat stretch of some 200 m to

the south of the main area of excavation. Here, at elevations of 212.50-213.50 m below

msl, lacustrine layers were exposed on the surface. These are the same layers covering the site, and in some places they are dark and covered with large numbers of round plant fossils. To the south of the main part of the site, along an area of ca. 60-100 m, there

were no flints and bones visible on the surface. However, from this distance onwards, at

212.50-213.50 m below msl, flints and bones became visible again. They were not as

densely concentrated as at the main area of the site, but they were fresh and resembled in

all characteristics the Ohalo II finds. Accordingly, the area was labeled Ohalo II South.

An independent grid was placed here, similar to the one in the main area of excavation.

Three concentrations of finds were submitted to a total surface collection. This was

done by scraping the top sand and collecting it with the finds into buckets, later to be

wet-sieved through a 1 mm mesh. The concentrations are J-P/66-69 (21 m2), Z-ZC/35

39 (16 m2) and ZE-ZF/30-32 (4 m2). In addition a small test pit was sunk in AI65 (0.25

m2). In the first area, following the surface collection, small trenches in squares J66c and

L66cd were dug to a depth of 0.3 m, but no in situ features were visible. In square 067 an

oval lens (ca. 50 cm wide) appeared to be of darker material and included specks of

charcoal. However, as the sediment was wet (just exposed after the retreat of the lake), no further work was possible. A tentative conclusion suggests that an eroded hearth was

located here.

There are three dates available from here, ranging between 19,500 and 20,200 BP

uncalibrated (see Table 2 below). These dates correlate very well with the published Ohalo II dates (Nadel et al. 1995). There is also one date (12,830+80) from a post

occupation layer (Nadel et al. 2001). The finds from Ohalo II South include a large flint assemblage, very similar to the

Ohalo II assemblages (see below, flint section). Animal bones are not numerous, but

they include bones of gazelle, as well as small complete fish vertebrae. Also, a small

Dentalium bead identical to the Ohalo II beads was recovered.



26 NADEL et al.

THE 2000 SEASON

Fieldwork focused on the excavations of the three brush huts: the bottom floor of hut 1, a small final portion of hut 3, and a sample of hut 15. Also, work was carried out at the

hearths of loci 14, 18 and 19, as well as at loci 10 and 16.

Brush Brush hut 1. In previous work ( 1991 ) a partially preserved top floor (floor I) and a complete second floor (II) were excavated. This year, the full exposure of floor III took place. It

extended further eastward than the upper two floors.

The use of stones is widely documented. These were not used as floor pavement or

wall alignment. Rather, in several cases small pebbles were deliberately placed in unusual

arrangements. In some places they were erect, though too small to be part of a pole or a

wall support (only 5-8 cm high). Flints and animal bones were abundant.

Brush Brush hut 3. The last part of the bottom northern layer was exposed. Here, again, several erect stones were found on the floor and outside the hut. Flints and bones

were common, and so were charred remains. A rare find was the complete upper mandible of a gazelle, placed on the floor with the teeth upwards. On the same level, about 0.5 m away, were a strange piece of a flaked tabular flint and a small polished animal bone.

Brush Brush hut 15. This is the deepest preserved hut, which was not visible on the surface like

all other hut remains. Instead, it was covered by lacustrine layers (up to 40 cm thick) and

discovered by trench 79 going through locus 10. The limits of the floor are known only from the section, and the exact size is yet unknown. Locus 15 is later than locus 10, located in a layer truncating the latter. This is the only example of stratification between

distinct archaeological features. The details and the environmental implications (water level changes, wave action and tectonics) will be presented elsewhere.

Preservation is excellent here, and unburnt wood remains were encountered. These

include a large piece (probably worked) which is now in a water tank. In addition, the

remains of leaves and small implements were recovered. At least one hearth was found

on the floor, and again stones were not used for pavement or alignment. Complete land

snails, as well as molluscan lake dwellers were common.

Locus Locus 14. A dark oval area rich with flints was observed to the northwest of hut 13

during 1999. At first it was thought to be another small brush hut. Excavations revealed

the presence of two adjacent hearths. The dark material observed on the surface included

the top layer of the two. The hearths were fully excavated. The southern one was the

larger, ca. 80 cm in diameter and 30 cm thick in the center. This is the thickest hearth




deposit discovered so far. Flints and animal bones were recovered, including small fish

vertebrae.

Locus Locus 18. An area with a concentration of several hearths was discovered by studying the sections of trench 70-72 (Figure 2). The northern part of the concentration is missing, but this could not be much - as there was no record of hearths in the northern section of

the trench (80 cm wide). The hearths were 50-80 cm in diameter and usually about 5 cm thick. Flints were

relatively scarce, though animal bones were abundant. Several polished bone points were

recovered, and it appears to be the largest concentration of such implements. One was

found 5 cm from a fox mandible, pointing to its center. Very large numbers of land snails

and lake shells were found here, both complete and fragmentary. This is the most westerly feature discovered so far. The full size of the locus is unclear,

as it continues under the sections in both south and west directions. It is also the

topographically highest locus, some 20-40 cm above most features. The depositional

sequence presents an example of a hearth truncated by an erosional process (see

geoarchaeological section, below).

Locus Locus 19. This is the only in situ feature between the main area and the northern loci 13

14 complex. A 5X5 m square was cleared at first, exposing hearth remains creating a

large semi-oval area with a dark matrix and high numbers of flints and bones. The thickness

of the remains did not exceed 10 cm. Basalt implements and fragments appeared to be

more numerous than elsewhere.

A narrow trench (0.5 m) was extended from the concentrated remains to the south. It

exposed a continuous dark layer, 5-10 cm thick and ca. 10 cm below surface, slightly

dipping to the southeast. It appears that the hearths of locus 19 were embedded or covered

by this large layer. A preliminary study of the sorted material from the trench revealed

low numbers of heavy flints and bones, and large numbers of small fish bones and other

debris. This layer could be a part of the dark layer observed elsewhere at the site,

representing the palaeo surface of the beach at the time of occupation.

Locus Locus 10. Two areas were investigated. The first was on the northwestern edge of the

exposed layer, especially in squares H-J/74-76. The ca. 10 cm thick deposit included

large specimens like a gazelle horn core and mandibles. One mandible was found lying on a long flint blade (long blades are rare at the site). The layer was excavated to bedrock,

which was a yellow sandy silt.

The second area was immediately to the north of hut 15. A small trench was placed in

squares M78b-N78ab, parallel to trench 79. It was aimed at exposing the northern edge



28 NADEL et al.

of hut 15. It was also expected that the new sections will provide more data on the

depositional sequence and unconformities observed in trench 79. Indeed, the sections

showed the very edge of hut 15 and two underlying dark layers, with a dip to the east

southeast.

Locus Locus 16. Two 0.5X0.5 m squares were excavated. Animal bones were abundant and

flints uncommon. The finds were deposited in a 5-7 cm thick layer.

Trench Trench 79 east. The trench was elongated eastward, and in sq Q79 an unconformity was

detected. The lacustrine layers were truncated by a later event. This event also cut the

eastern edge of locus 16.

By the end of the season another JCB trench was dug, beginning 1.5 m to the east of

trench 79. This trench was 36 m long at an average depth of 1.5 m, but reached a depth of 4.5 m at square ZA. No archeological features were observed, and the sections showed

laminated layers with a certain dip to the west.

OhaloOhalo II South. Two JCB trenches were set perpendicular to the strike of the bedrock

layers. Both were 0.6 m wide and 1 m deep. The longer (49 m) exposed a possible in situ

feature, a black lens containing charcoal fragments and small numbers of bones and

flints. The limits were unclear, and it could indeed be an eroded or badly preserved hearth. The second trench, 15 m long, exposed no archaeological features.

Test Test pits. One test pit was located 50 m southeast of M92. It revealed a dark layer with

isolated flints and charcoal fragments. Sediment samples from various natural layers around the site were collected. These will be used to study faunal and floral distributions

in local lacustrine deposits.

GEO ARCHAEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS (TSATSKIN) In 1998a systematic geoarchaeological study was begun. In order to identify specific

depositional and post-depositional processes the focus was on detailed geomorphological

observations, as well as on micromorphological and mineralogical investigations of

anthropogenic and natural lake sediments. It was previously observed that dark-colored

anthropogenic deposits are found within the floors of brush huts, fireplaces and middens, and hence show a complex intra-site patterning of activity zones. Presently, it is possible to recognize numerous disturbances and displacements of anthropogenic features and to

establish their complex relations with lake deposits in different loci. Although the

geoarchaeological studies are still in progress, it is clear that preservation of the



THE OHALO II1999-2000 SEASONS OF EXCAVATION: A PRELIMINARY REPORT 29

stratigraphie sequence in the eastern side of the camp was somewhat different from that

in the western side due to erosion/deposition effect of an encroaching lake. Indeed, the

stratigraphie sections in different loci are not identical. Their variations seem to result

from the complex topography of the ancient lakeshore and from different intensities of

post-depositional erosion. Taking into account these limitations, it was attempted to

compile the cultural/depositional stratigraphie sequence at the site from several key loci

(Figure 4). The gross stratigraphy includes three major units: an upper, post-occupational Unit I, a complex anthropogenic Unit II, a lower, pre-occupational Unit III.

Unit Unit I: Post-occupational. In the area of locus 18 post-occupational deposits are

recorded at -211.80 to -212.10 below msl; they are light greenish, laminated, lacustrine

muds, whitish when dry, occasionally with brownish laminae of sand mixed with

nanoplankton (?) up to several mm thick. The contact of this layer with the underlying

archaeological deposit is sharp and almost linear, suggesting an erosional gap of unknown

duration.

Unit Unit Unit Unit II: Early Epipalaeolithic, 19-20 ka. In several trenches within the site, stretching eastward from locus 1 through a midden zone and other features, it was possible to

identify strong variability in thickness and in vertical heterogeneity of anthropogenic

deposits, as well as their general dipping eastward to the ancient lake shore. Because of

excellent preservation of anthropogenic deposits in locus 1, it is depicted in the key

stratigraphie section (Figure 4). Here three successive occupation floors are recognizable in the middle of the hut, while to the edges of the hut these levels weld. The two upper

occupation floors, ca. 3-5 cm thick, are dark gray, charcoal-rich deposits with rusty root

casts; they alternate with non-laminated lacustrine muds. At ca. 212.50 m depth lies the

lowest occupation level, 10-15 cm thick, represented by dark charcoal-rich patches, whitish ash-like materials, and orange-brown mottles. The lower contact with the

underlying lacustrine layer is clear, showing bioturbations (krotovinas) and root

bifurcations which testify to at least incipient pedogenesis.

Unit III:Unit III: Pre-occupation layer. This is the uppermost portion of lacustrine deposits, which

grade to deep water Lisan cyclites. The unit consists of spatially variable and

predominantly clayey deposits with sandy lenticular layers. The upper part contains

biogenic features related to the overlying unit II. In pits and geological trenches, dug

beyond the confines of the campsite, these deposits grade to Melanopsis containing muds

and then to thinly laminated greenish Lisan cyclites. From the above descriptions and surmised stratigraphie relationships of major

depositional units, it may be inferred that the site-formation processes at Ohalo II were



30 NADEL et al.

Loc. 18

-212.0 m

-212.2 m -j

Figure 4: Composite section at the site, through loci 1 and 18. Legend: 1 - post-occupation lacustrine sediments, 2 - light-colored archaeological sediment, 3 - gray-colored

archaeological sediment, 4 - black-colored archaeological sediment, 5 - intra

occupational lacustrine marls, 6 - Lisan marls.



THE OHALO II 1999-2000 SEASONS OF EXCAVATION: A PRELIMINARY REPORT 3 !

t-S* x. mr

Figure 5: Microphotograph of the anthropogenic deposits upon Lisan marls in Locus 1.

Note the horizontal position of the (almost) undisturbed charred and ferruginized plant tissues from the occupation floor (top), lying upon strongly calcareous lacustrine muds

(bottom). Plane polarized light; ca. X45 magnification.

dominated by accumulation of man-made, ash-derived and charred materials at the margin

of a fluctuating lake, around 19-20 ka ago. The geological history of the lake strongly influenced human habitation on its shores, possibly causing short-time abandonment of

the site, and eventual drastic inundation.

Microscopic studies of archaeologically related deposits and their magnetic

susceptibility measurements provided some important insights into geoarchaeological

interpretations. For example, pétrographie thin sections inspected thus far from an

undisturbed floor (Unit II, floor II of hut 1), show a heterogeneous microfabric of charred

and ferruginized plant tissues, predominantly of grass and small bushes, embedded in

the strongly calcareous, light-brown, matrix (Figure 5). The section shows the contact

between 1) the occupation floor, composed of charred tissue fragments which are found

in their pristine position; they are mixed with calcite nodules 0.1-0.2 mm in size, a few



32 NADEL et al.

fragments of snail shells, a few sand-sized feldspar, olivine and pyroxene crystals, and

2) the lacustrine deposit represented by a calcareous mud with uneven degree of secondary micrite crystallization, and a few cracks which probably originated from trampling.

Interestingly, calcareous matrix occasionally incorporates less than 5% silt - and fine

sand-sized feldspars, strongly weathered biotite and pyroxenes which are presumably derived from the flux of detrital material from basaltic rocks in the Sea of Galilee

catchment area. Along the fissures and occasionally within the compacted groundmass individual crystals of gypsum ca. 0.25 mm in size occur. Gypsum testifies to a post

depositional precipitation under conditions of increased salinity of waters that flooded

the site.

In light of these first results we tentatively suggest that the demise of the site may have been caused by increased salinity and eventual transgression of the lake. However,

these sedimentological interpretations need to be further validated and compared with

other paleoenvironmental evidence.

RADIOCARBON DATES (BOARETTO) The radiocarbon measurements were performed at the 14C AMS Laboratory, Institute of

Physics and Astronomy, Univeristy of Aarhus, Aarhus (Denmark). The four samples from Ohalo II South were treated with acid-base-acid procedure that separates carbonates

and humic substances from the dated material (Table 2). It is interesting to note that

three samples have a 813C characteristic of C3 plants, while one (3538) has a 813C of a C4

plant. 14C dates are reported in conventional radiocarbon years (before present =1950) in

accordance with international convention. Thus, all calculated 14C ages have been

corrected for the fractionation so as to refer the results to be equivalent with the standard

813C value of -25%0 (wood).

Table 2: New uncalibrated 14C dates from Ohalo II South,

(for previous dates see Nadel et al. 1995).

RTA Type 14C Age (BP) Location 813C (%c) PDB

3276 plant 12830 + 80 Post-occupation lacustrine layer

-26.6

3538 charcoal 19490+ 150 AI65c -11.9

3540 charcoal 20270 ± 180 ZA36 -25.2

3541 roots 19910 ± 170 L66c -25.1




Three dates fall well within the range of the previous Ohalo II published dates (Nadel et et al. 1995). One date is stratigraphically later, and represents the continuous deposition of lacustrine layers towards the end of the Pleistocene.

THE FLINT ASSEMBLAGE (ZAIDNER, GHRAIEB, HALABI AND NADEL) The entire assemblage retrieved during the 1989-91 seasons was studied and presented elsewhere (Nadel 1997,1999,2000,2001). It was generally assigned to the beginning of

the Epipalaeolithic in the Jordan Valley (Nadel 1997, in press). The assemblages from

the loci excavated in the 1999-2000 seasons are now under study. However, it is already clear that debitage and tools are present in all. It is the aim of this section to present the

Ohalo II South material from three areas where a total surface collection took place. This

included the wet-sieving of the top sand through a 1 mm mesh.

The three assemblages are very similar in having sharp unrolled specimens and in

their general counts (Table 3). The 15 cores include nine bladelet cores, three flake cores

and one blade core (Figure 6:1-3). Two are burnt and scar patterns are invisible. Eight of

the cores are narrow and have one striking platform, usually oval or sub-oval in shape. The bladelets are the most common product, forming 33% - 45% of the assemblages.

It is interesting to note that all reduction stages are present at this part of the

site. Furthermore, there are small chips (<1 cm) in all three assemblages. These

Table 3: The flint assemblage from Ohalo II South, presented by areas of surface collection.

Collection was carried out by wet-sieving through a 1 mm mesh the entire surface

sediment.

J-P/66-69 ZE-ZF/30-32 Z-ZC/35-39 TOTAL

N % N % N % N %

TOOLS 72 5.6% 6 3.7% 13 2.2% 91 4.5%

CORES 11 0.8% 0 0.0% 4 0.7% 15 0.7%

BLADELETS 433 33.1% 70 43.2% 265 44.7% 768 37.2%

BLADES 235 18.0% 36 22.2% 108 18.2% 379 18.5%

FLAKES 342 26.2% 33 20.4% 134 22.6% 509 24.6%

PRIM. ELEMENTS 137 10.5% 14 8.6% 60 10.1% 211 10.3%

C.T. ELEMENTS 63 4.8% 1 0.6% 9 1.5% 73 3.5%

BURIN SPALLS 11 0.8% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 11 0.5%

PRE-CORES 2 0.2% 2 1.2% 0 0.0% 4 0.2%

TOTAL 1306 100.0% 162 99.9% 593 100.0% 2061 100.0%



34 NADEL et al.

Figure 6: Flint cores from Ohalo II South.




two observations indicate that knapping took place locally. Signs of exposure to

heat, and sharp shattered fragments in various dimensions also support the contention

that the assemblage is more-or-less in situ, and not rolled to this beach from

elsewhere.

The tools are not numerous (N=91, Table 4). Within the larger tools, retouched blades

(12, Figure 7:13,14) and retouched flakes (11, Figure 8:1) are the dominant types, while

scarpers (2) and burins (3, Figure 8:2) are relatively rare.

Table 4: Retouched flint implements from Ohalo II South.

TYPE J-P/ z-zc / ZE-ZF/ TOTAL %

66-69 35-39 30-32

END SCRAPER 2 2 2.2

BURIN 3 3 3.3

RETOUCHED BLADE 9 3 12 13.2

RETOUCHED FLAKE 10 1 11 12.1

TRUNCATION 1 1 1.1

NOTCH/DENT 1 1 1.1

MICROLITH 46 9 6 61 67.0

TOTAL 72 13 6 91 100.0

Within the microliths (N=61) the Ouchtata bladelets (partially and fully retouched) are dominant (44.3%, Table 5, Figure 7:7-10). Retouched fragments and backed fragments

comprise together a fifth of the assemblage. The backed varieties form altogether 27.8%

of the microliths (Figure 7:1-6, 12,11, the latter larger than most microliths). The

frequencies of these three groups are very similar to those recorded for the assemblages from the main area of excavation. Another similarity is the rare occurrence of obliquely truncated backed specimens (Figure 7:1,3) and the absence of micropoints. However, it

is the combination of Ouchtata bladelets with backed and pointed bladelets that is typical for all Ohalo II assemblages. It is noteworthy that proto triangles were not recovered

from the southern part and from most loci at Ohalo II (so far only present in locus 1,

Nadel 1999). Also, the presence of one complete elongated proto trapeze (Figure 7:4) is

interesting, as no such specimens were recovered elsewhere at the site.

The apparent similarities between the southern assemblage and the central ones point to one flint knapping tradition (Figure 9). Though a short time gap between the two is

possible, a long one will be hard to accept taking into account the pace of change in tool

morphology evident for the period.



36 NADEL et al.

Table 5: Microliths from Ohalo II South.

TYPE J-P/ Z-ZC/ ZE-ZF/ TOTAL %

66-69 35-39 30-32

Ouchtata bladelet 21 4 2 27 44.3

Inversely retouched bladelet 1 1 1 3 4.9

Straight backed, pointed bladelet 4 1 5 8.2

Arch backed, pointed bladelet 4 4 6.6

Truncated bladelet 3 3 4.9

Obliquely truncated and backed bladelet 1 2 3 4.9

Microgravette point (atypical) 1 1 1.6

Proto-trapeze 1 1 1.6

Varia 1 1 1.6

Retouched fragment 6 2 2 10 16.4

Backed fragment 3 3 4.9

TOTAL 46 9 6 61 99.9

TAPHONOMICALTAPHONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS - MAMMALS (RABINOVICH)

Ohalo II mammals are part of a large faunal spectrum at the site, the remainder

being fish, birds and reptiles. The introduction of other animal taxa to the site should be

further studied and incorporated with the mammals in a wider taphonomical discussion.

The general observations noticed on a large mammalian sample from previous excavations (1989-1991) are valid for the latter excavations (1999-2000). Bone

preservation is good, including complete small elements of various taxa and minute

splinters of long bones. Some remains from brush hut 13 were weathered, probably due

to their exposure near the surface.

Bone fragments were examined under a light microscope (10x-40x), and modifications

such as striations, cut marks, scratches, tooth marks, gnawing, burning and pathology were scored with their exact location along the bone. These aspects are the key to

understanding the accumulation history of animal bones and can facilitate the

understanding of past hunting, butchery, dismemberment, and other relevant activities.

The current results indicate that:

a) Modification of animal bones (cut marks) is a negligible phenomenon.

b) There are more examples of bone tool manufacture at the site, in addition to those

published (Rabinovich and Nadel 1994-5). Among these there are complete pointed tools

and an unfinished specimen, (see Figure 10) as well as several splinters.



THE OHALOII1999-2000 SEASONS OF EXCAVATION: A PRELIMINARY REPORT 3 ך

Figure 7 : Flint tools from Ohalo II south.



38 NADELefa/.

Figure 8: Flint tools from Ohalo II south.

■CORES

■ TOOLS

□ CTE

■ BURIN SP

B PRIMARY

m FLAKES

B BLADES

B BLDLTS

0% NORTH J-P46 D-H83 AB78

Figure 9: Flint assemblages from Ohalo II. The figure presents two in situ assemblages

(huts 1 and 3), three total surface collections from the main area (AB78, DH83 and

North) and three total surface collections from Ohalo II South. BLDLTS = bladelets, PRIMARY = primary elements, BURIN SP = burin spalls, CTE = core trimming elements.




Figure 10: Unfinished bone point. Note scars and partial smoothing of surface.

It is clear that the inhabitants were responsible for the mammalian faunal accumulation

recovered from the site. In addition, bone tools were manufactured here and not

imported. Butchery was performed elsewhere, and only parts of the animals were brought

to camp. The mode of butchery may also have been of a kind that does not leave many marks on the bones. For example, cooking, or a subsequent processing such as bone

breakage for marrow consumption, may have reduced the frequency of observable cut

marks.

The most prolific species is mountain gazelle (Gazella gazella), followed by Dama

mesopotamica.mesopotamica. Most long bones of these species are broken longitudinally suggesting that the increase in long bone splinters at Ohalo II (and also at Hayonim C) might indicate

the existence of a change in the pattern of animal exploitation. This pattern differs from

the one observed for the earlier assemblages of Hayonim and Qafzeh (Upper Palaeolithic

layers, Rabinovich 1998). Accordingly, the change took place around 19,500 BP or a

little earlier. The phenomenon is well documented for the recently excavated brush hut

13, where thousands of bone splinters prevail. The minimum number of individuals for gazelles is low at each locus, only 1-3 animals.

The distribution of body parts and the part present from each bone is very small in terms

of quantity (1-3 specimens). Thus, as stated above, the remains reflect a behavior of

butchering away from camp, probably at the hunting locale. Only selected body parts were transported to the site.

VIII.VIII. THE BIRD REMAINS, 1999 SEASON (SIMMONS) Identifications from previous seasons include more than 1000 specimens (Simmons and



40 NADEL et al.

Table 6: Identified bird bones from the 1999 season (MNI in brackets). SPECIES L. 12 L. 13 L. 16 L. 17 SURF. TOTAL

Podiceps cristatus

(great crested grebe)

20 (3) 71(7) KD 92

Podiceps nigricollis (black grebe) 1(1) KD 2

Podiceps grisegena (red-necked grebe)

KD 1

Plegadis falcinellus (glossy ibis) KD 1

Pelecanus onocratalus

(white pelican) KD 1

Phalocrocorax pygmeaus (pygmy cormorant)

Id) 1

Phalocrocorax carbo (cormorant) KD 1

Cygnus bewickii (Bewick's swan) 2(1) 2 Anser fabilis (bean goose) 2(1) 2 Anser albifrons (grelag goose) 1(1) 1 Anas clypetea (shoveler duck) 2(1) 4(1) 6 Anas acuta (pintail duck) 2(1) 2 Anas crecca (teal duck) HI) 1

Ay thy a fuligula (tufted duck) Id) 1

Egretta ibis (cattle egret) Id) 1 Alectoris chukar (chukar) 1(1) 1 Milvus migrans (black kite) 4(1) 4

Circus aeruginosus (marsh harrier)

2(1) 2

Circus cyaneus (hen harrier) KD 1(1) 2 Larus ridibundus

(black-headed gull) 1(1) 1

Accipter gentilis (sparrowhawk) 1(1) 1 Buteo buteo (buzzard) 1(1) 1 Falco columbarius (merlin) 4(1) 1(1) 5 Coturnix coturnix (quail) 2(2) KD 3 Tetrax tetrax (little bustard) 2(1) 2 Fulica atra (coot) 4(3) 4

Passeriformes (song birds-unidentified)

3 3

TOTAL 56 79 1 4 6 146



THE OHALO n 1999-2000 SEASONS OF EXCAVATION: A PRELIMINARY REPORT 41

Nadel 1998). The preliminary results of the 1999 season include 146 identifications

(Table 6). The current sample is very similar to the remains from the 1989-1991 loci. The only

new species are the Larus ridibundus (black headed gull) and the Pelecanus onocratalus

(white pelican). The proportions of one species to another and also the proportions of

body parts represented in each species (type of species - water birds vs. raptors, etc.)

appear to be very similar to the published results (ibid.).

THE MICROMAMMALS, 1999 SEASON (BELMAKER)

The rodents and insectivores were picked out of the sieved material and viewed under a

stereomicroscope at X10 magnification. As opposed to the finds from previous seasons,

only 13 micromammal remains were found. These could represent one specimen. Three

molars are identified as the field vole (Microtus guentheri). Field voles are one of the

most common species in the region since the Middle Pleistocene and are indicative of

the Mediterranean biome (Tchernov 1988). Other post-cranial remains were tentatively

assigned to the same species based on body size and gross morphology. An updated

species distribution for the 1989-1999 seasons is presented (Table 7).

Table 7: Micromammal species from the 1989-1999 seasons.

SPECIES NISP* MNI**

Microtus guentheri 155 18

Meriones tristrami 43 8

Mus cf. macedonicus 15 5

Rattus rattus 3 1

Erinacaeus europaeus 3 1

Rodentia gen. et sp. indet. 42 8

TOTAL 261 33

NISP * = Number of Identified Specimens

MNI** = Minimum Number of Individuals

Despite the small number of finds, the preliminary taphonomic analysis suggests similarities with the finds from previous seasons (Belmaker et al. 2001). This includes a

high percentage of loose molars and incisors, absence of maxillae and mandibles, limb

bones broken at midshaft and the absence of digestive corrosion. Such a spectrum is

indicative of a trampled assemblage (Andrews 1990). The absence of shaft fragments



42 NADEL et al.

without the epiphyses suggests that the assemblage has not been fluvially transported since deposition (Andrews 1990) and is in accordance with the analyses of other finds,

indicating that the site was submerged quickly and immediately after occupation. The small size of the assemblage recovered in 1999 reinforces the uniqueness of

locus 1 (floors I and II, floor III still under analysis). Of the micromammal remains

recovered from in situ features, the overwhelming majority (72%) were found within

hut 1 (Table 8). In addition, ca. 50% of the bones were found on the surface of the

site. These isolated remains comprise very low densities (commonly less than

one specimen per square meter) and hence cannot be securely assigned to the site. A

detailed analysis of the spatial-temporal distribution of micromammals at the site is in

progress, which may further illuminate the depositional processes of micromammals at

the site.

Table 8: Micromammal NISP distribution by loci for the 1989-1999 seasons.

LOCUS NISP % % within loci

1 162 62.0 76.6

2 8 3.0 3.9

3 15 5.8 7.1

7 4 1.5 1.9

10 11 4.2 5.2

12 3 1.2 1.4

13 8 3.0 3.9

Surface squares 50 19.2 n.a.

TOTAL 261 99.9 100.00

THE FISH REMAINS (ZOHAR)

A preliminary analysis of the recovered fish remains demonstrates their presence in

large numbers in the excavated structures. The fish bones are well preserved, as

observed from the low frequency of fragmented bones (ca. 15%), and from the

scarcity of deformations (1.2%) resulting from digestion or burning. Fire signs are rare,

appearing on 3.5% of the bones. Identification of the different skeletal elements

shows that most are present, including small elements (e.g., vertebrae with 0.9 mm

diameter). Species identification is now in process and the results will be presented elsewhere.




THE CHARRED SEEDS/FRUIT (Kislev and Weiss)

One of the interesting botanical remains of the 1989-91 seasons was the extensive

discovery of algae's nucleus ("seeds") from the Chara (seaweed) species. We discovered

that these nucules were "falling between the seats" of our flotation system. The length of

the calcified Chara nucules is ca. 1 mm, their width ca. 0.5-0.7 mm and its specific

weight is heavier than water. Therefore, they had sunk in the water rather than floated to

the surface, and passed through the 1 mm holes of the heavy residue mesh. To solve this

problem, the flotation system for the 1999-2000 seasons was upgraded by placing a 0.5

mm mesh sieve under the 1 mm mesh in 20% of the samples. The improved flotation system worked very well. Not only were Chara nucules

recovered from the excavated units, but additional small and heavy finds were also found.

Within this fraction, tiny fish bones were identified, but the impression is that further

sorting will bring more discoveries.

The preliminary analysis of the 1999-2000 samples exhibits the occurrence of plant remains in all excavated loci. These plant remains show close similarity to the variety and composition of those from previous seasons. A high preservation level of charred

seeds and fruits is found in the newly excavated features.

MOLLUSC AND OTHER BEADS (BAR-YOSEF MAYER)

One hundred and forty eight specimens were submitted for study, from the 1989-1991

seasons of excavations. The molluscs were initially identified by the excavators as

originating in a marine environment, and not from the local fauna of the Sea of Galilee.

The latter assemblage is being studied by H.K. Mienis.

Molluscs included three specimens of a small marine gastropod, Columbella rustica.

The latter is very common in the Mediterranean and is commonly found in various

Epipalaeolithic sites (Bar-Yosef 1989; Hovers et al. 1988). All three had an artificially

perforated hole in the body whorl.

The most abundant type of shell was Dentalium sp., including 136 specimens from

previous seasons and tens more found now. They belong to at least two different species, one with a smooth surface and another with a ribbed surface. However, all are apparently of Mediterranean origin with two possible exceptions. These shells were very thick and

had a larger diameter, making it more likely that they originated in the Red Sea. The

most interesting phenomenon regarding the Dentalia beads, is that they were very finely cut into narrow slices, measuring 1-2 mm in length (only six specimens were longer,

measuring about 3 mm). Such finely sliced Dentalium specimens were also observed in

the Kebaran site of Urkan e-Rubb Ha (Hovers et al. 1988). Two additional specimens are noteworthy. One is a cut claw (14 mm long) of Potamon



44 NADEL et al.

fluviatilis,fluviatilis, the freshwater crab, and another, even more intriguing, is a slice of such a

claw, measuring 3 mm in length, suggesting that indeed crab claws may have been

substituted (or mistaken) for Dentalium beads by the original inhabitants of Ohalo.

In addition, there were six beads made of minerals (found on the surface); four were

made of a translucent reddish stone (garnet?), a fifth was black (hematite?) and the sixth

is unidentified. Two of the beads were measured. One was 6 mm in outer diameter, 2 mm

in diameter of the hole, and 3 mm long. Another was 4 mm in outer diameter, 1 mm in

diameter of the hole, and 2 mm long. In most cases the hole is a bicone, i.e. it was drilled

from both sides.

Although currently the presence of Red Sea shells at Ohalo II is only a possibility, a

connection of northern populations during this period to the Red Sea has been suggested before. Long distance trade during the early Epipalaeolithic was observed with the

presence of several Red Sea species of Nerita spp. at Kharaneh IV in Jordan (Bar-Yosef

1989), and on the other hand, the presence of several Mediterranean shells in the Geometric

Kebaran site of Wadi Sayakh in southern Sinai (Bar-Yosef and Killebrew 1984). In various

Epipalaeolithic sites in Northern Sinai, interestingly, both Red Sea and Mediterranean

shells were present. There, too, Dentalium sp. was the dominant type. However, they were not so finely sliced. Rather, they were usually longer than 3 mm (Bar-Yosef and

Phillips 1977; Bar-Yosef Mayer in press). This phenomenon may reflect differences in

archaeological sieving practices. The presence of the six mineral beads, all of which did not originate in the vicinity of

the Sea of Galilee, in addition to shells deriving from the Mediterranean and the Red Sea

testifies to long range connections of the inhabitants with other environments and/or

other populations in the region. Also, the presence of shells from the Sea of Galilee

(Theodoxus(Theodoxus jordanï) in contemporaneous sites such as the Meged rockshelter (Kuhn et

al.al. in prep.) provides additional evidence for an exchange pattern existing during the

early Epipalaeolithic of the Levant.

HUMAN REMAINS (HERSHKOVITZ)

One small piece from the right parietal bone was found on the surface of Ohalo II South.

It is patinated, somewhat similar to other Upper Pleistocene faunal remains from this

area. It most probably belongs to a young individual.

MISCELLANEOUS

Stone implements were found both in situ and on the surface. The most conspicuous are

limestone and basalt notched pebbles. They are usually oval with two opposed notches




and their weight is 200-350 gr. It is believed that they were used as weights for fishing nets (Nadel and Zaidner 2002).

Small numbers of broken stone bowls and other types were recovered. It is noteworthy that in various places erect stones were still in situ.

Wood remains from these seasons include unburnt specimens. Some finds are small

fragments, yet there is one large specimen now in the process of drying and separation from the wet clay matrix.

CONCLUSIONS

The new sections along the western and eastern edges of the site present a detailed and

complex depositional stratigraphy. Before occupation, the area was under relatively deep water and finely laminated layers were deposited, accumulating for at least 5 m (visible in two trenches).

Then lake Lisan receded, and the exposed beach was settled by an Early Epipalaeolithic

group. There are at least three phases of alternating occupation and inundations lasting

altogether several tens of years and probably not more than a century or two. The details

of these phases are currently under study, but it is clear that most features at the site (at

least loci 1-12) belong to the middle phase. Following these phases, the site was re

submerged for a long time.

The Ohalo II South finds are identical in most characteristics to the finds from the

main area. The radiometric dates support the suggestion that this part of the beach was

one of the first places to be settled, by the group(s) occupying the main area. Preservation

here is not as good as at the main area, probably due to local topography, location of

shoreline and a relatively long exposure to the elements before water level rise.

The combined data available so far, provides a detailed picture of daily life at the

camp (Nadel 2002). The diet was composed of a wide range of animal meat

(predominantly gazelle, fish, fallow deer and waterfowl) and vegetal sources of which

wild cereals are quantitatively outstanding. Within the camp, there were no specific locations for food preparation or tool manufacture and maintenance. These activities

took place in all brush huts and in the open around fireplaces. The Ohalo II inhabitants

had long-distance connections with other areas (e.g., Mediterranean and probably even

the Red Sea area), which is not unusual for the period.



46 NADEL et al.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We wish to thank S. Belitzky, S. Marco, A. Agnon, N. Hazan and M. Stein for their

advice and cooperation in the study of geological aspects. For their advice and assistance

with the plant remains we thank E. Werker, T. Shick, Y. Cahanov and P. Peled. Our

sincere thanks to Z. Ortenberg and Y. Gal for their help, and Kvutzat Kinneret and Kibutz

Afikim for their continuous assistance. We also wish to thank all volunteers and students,

and especially Polina Spivak, Svetlana Zagorskaya, Gregory Leiperer and Peri Livne.

The flint and bone drawings were prepared by Polina Spivak The project was generously supported by the Irene Levi Sala CARE Archaeological

Foundation, The Jerusalem Center for Anthropological Studies, the L.S.B. Leakey

Foundation, the MAFCAF Foundation, the M. Stekelis Museum of Prehistory in Haifa, the National Geographic Society, the Israel Antiquities Authority (license numbers:

1999 - G-21 ; 2000 - G-20), The Israel Science Foundation (No. 831/0) and the Zinman

Institute of Archaeology (Haifa University). We also wish to thank Chen Lamdan and

Checkpoint for kindly supporting our work.

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ON THE WEB:

1) The Ohalo II Page:

http://ohalo.haifa.ac.il.

2) Page news on the National Geographic Site:

http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/01/0102galilee.html



Documents

The Ohalo II 1999-2000 seasons of excavations: A preliminary Report