Tremper Mound, Hopewell Catlinite, and PIMA Technology. (with T. E. Emerson, R. E. Hughes, S. U. Wisseman, and M. Hynes) 2005 Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 30(2):189-216

Maney Publishing

Tremper Mound, Hopewell Catlinite, and PIMA TechnologyAuthor(s): Thomas E. Emerson, Randall E. Hughes, Kenneth B. Farnsworth, Sarah U. Wissemanand Mary R. HynesSource: Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 30, No. 2 (FALL, 2005), pp. 189-216Published by: Maney Publishing on behalf of the Midwest Archaeological Conference, Inc.Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20708229 .

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Tremper Moundr Hopewell Catliniter and A Technology

Thomas E. Emerson, Randall E. Hughes, Kenneth .

Farnsworthr Sarah U. Wissemanr and Mary R. Hynes

Thomas E. Emerson ([email protected]), Kenneth . Farnsworth

([email protected]), and Mary R. Hynes ([email protected]). Illinois Transportation Archaeological Research Program, 209 Nuclear

Physics Lab, 23 East Stadium Drive, University of Illinois, Champaign, IL 61820. Randall E. Hughes ([email protected]), Illinois State Geological Survey, 6515 East Peabody Drive, Champaign IL 61820. Sarah U. Wisseman ([email protected]), Program on Ancient

Technologies and Archaeological Materials, 78 Bevier Hall, 905 South

Goodwin, University of Illinois, Urbana, 61801

abstract Archaeologists have long recognized that the Hopewell period was

marked by the movement of exotic raw materials and artifacts across

the eastern United States. The use of archaeometric techniques to trace

the sources of these materials is well established. However, little work

has been done on sourcing the pipestone used in Hopewell pipes. In this research we use Portable Infrared Mineral Analyzer ( A) technology to identify the presence of Minnesota catlinite as a raw

material used for pipes recovered from the Tremper Mound (33SC4) caches in the Scioto Valley of Ohio. A new radiocarbon date places the deposition of these caches between B.C. 50 and A.D. 79. The pres ence of catlinite pipes in Ohio and in Wisconsin, but rarely in Illinois, suggests the existence of a direct west-to-east route from the catlinite

quarries through Wisconsin to Ohio. This movement of catlinite ap

pears to have been a short-term Hopewellian event and the material

was not used again until late prehistoric times.

The Hopewell period (ca. A.D. 1 to 400) contained one of the major climax es in the creative expression of religious and social symbolism in precolum bian native America. Its visibility to early Europeans in monumental forms

such as large mounds and elaborate geometric earthworks invited antiquar ian investigations. These nineteenth-century excavations revealed a rich ar

ray of artifacts including stone carvings, plain and effigy platform pipes, ritual bodily adornments (e.g., earspools), figurines and decorated pottery.

By the early twentieth-century increasing professional inquiries began to

Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 30, No. 2 (Fall 2005), pp. 189-216.

Copyright ? 2005 Midwest Archaeological Conference, Inc. All rights reserved.

189



190 Emerson et al.

seek broader patterns of commonalities and variation among the precolum bian inhabitants of the Eastern Woodlands. Almost from the onset scholars

recognized that comparable "Hopewell" iconography and objects seemed to co-exist at a series of localities widely spread over great geographical dis tances (e.g.,Deuel 1952; Setzler 1933; Shetrone 1930). While the dominant centers of Hopewell expression appeared to be concentrated in southern

Ohio (Scioto tradition) and the Illinois River valley (Havana tradition), nodes of Hopewell artifacts and practices occurred as far west as the eastern

Plains (the Kansas City Hopewell), the upper Mississippi Valley (Trempea leau Focus), the lower Mississippi River valley (Marksville tradition), the

Gulf Coast (Santa Rosa-Swift Creek tradition), and as far north as New York

and Ontario (Point Peninsula tradition) (Seeman 1979:257-290). Ever since the first recognition of the existence of widely separated pock

ets of similar Hopewell artifacts and practices explanations of these phenom ena have taken a number of different paths. In the early 1950s Deuel (1952)

probably expressed what was the conventional wisdom of the Hopewell cultural "expansion". He believed that group migration and colonization

might have been instrumental in the process or that Hopewell "ritual" may have been spread through a dispersal of elites and priests who mission

ized local populations. Other options included arguments that Hopewell was best conceived as a broad "shared community" comprised of regional groups who came to resemble each other through shared beliefs and social

interaction. This concept became formalized in Joseph Caldwell's now fa mous Hopewellian Interaction Sphere (HIS) (1964) model. Caldwell's con

ceptualization of the HIS as consisting of independent regional traditions

and adaptations that participated in the interregional exchange of ideas,

especially religious iconography and mortuary behaviors and symbolically potent artifacts, has exerted a powerful influence on Hopewell studies down

to the present.

Archaeological explanations of Hopewell interactions took a distinct turn in the early 1970s and consequently reflected the dominance in the

discipline at that time of economic anthropology and systems theory. Stuart

Struever (1964; Struever and Houart 1972; more recently see Braun 1986) redirected HIS research by focusing on the Hopewell genesis that was pre sumed to rely on new methods of food production and increasing popula tion densities. These factors were thought to have initiated innovative forms

of social organization that were coupled to the promotion of status and

prestige. Such a system required, or at least encouraged, the circulation of

exotica in the form of raw materials and finished artifacts. These materi

als and the accompanying beliefs served to validate the regionally diverse

Hopewell leadership. Based on these premises Struever and Houart (1972)



Tremper Mound, Hopewell Catlinite, and A Technology 191

proposed that the HIS came into being as a complex economic network that

enabled the distribution of Hopewellian exotica. Their model was complete with "regional transaction centers'7 that served to accumulate raw materials

and critical artifact types from subsidiary sites for redistribution to other

similar centers. The various centers may have specialized in the distribution

of different types of materials. For example, Ohio sites were thought to be

the centers for the manufacture and distribution of effigy pipes while Illinois

centers may have distributed pearls and Hopewell ware. The Struever and

Houart model, as observed by Seeman (1979:245), significantly changed the conceptual framework for understanding regional "Hopewell" connec

tions from the movement of "ideas" to the movement of "materials".

Some scholars (e.g., Brose 1990; Pr?fer 1982; Seeman 1979) have reser

vations about both the descriptive validity and the interpretive utility of the

Struever and Houart model. Its effectiveness as an exchange network has been

questioned by Seeman ( 19 79: 411 ) who points out the low volume of materi

als and their uneven distribution (most items ending up in Ohio sites) must

have created, as he says, "a one-sided proposition". Pr?fer (1982) has been in

the forefront of those who argue that the large Hopewell centers were, in fact, interested in the acquisition of exotics rather than their exchange. The pro

posed concentration on acquisition, not trade, also seems to be in keeping with the observation that such goods were incorporated into public rites in

volving conspicuous contributions at a few selected centers and were visibly

destroyed as part of an elaborate ceremony. It is difficult to envision the util

ity of such destructive rituals in a system that depends on the constant flow of

exotica between large regional transaction centers. Some recent discussions

of the movement of Hopewell material goods have tended to characterize

it in more moderate, less systemic terms that emphasize low-level, group to

group interactions, perhaps resembling historically documented trade fairs

(e.g., Clay 1988; Farnsworth et al. 2004; Fortier 1998). While some of the foundational assumptions of the economic interac

tion model may be in doubt, the model did have one advantage?some of

its propositions were testable. It was possible to examine the objects said

to have been transported between regions and determine the locations of

their sources. As a result, Middle Woodland scholars have a long history of

utilizing archaeometric techniques to understand the source and distribu

tion patterns of Hopewell artifacts. These studies have generally demonstrat

ed the Hopewell "trade network" is extremely complex and likely consisted

of overlapping layers of exchange involving varying levels of group interac

tions, distances, directions, and volumes. For example, one of the earliest and

most dramatic investigations by Griffin and his colleagues (1969; Hughes

1992) demonstrated that Wyoming obsidian had been exchanged across the



192 Emerson et al.

Great Plains into the midcontinent during this period. Other exotic materials

such as silver (Spence 1982), copper (Goad 1979; Rapp et al. 1990), galena

(Walthall 1981; Walthall et al. 1979,1980), Wyandotte Cave aragonite (Tank

ersley et al. 1990), and meteoric iron (Carr and Sears 1985) have been exam

ined and attributed to specific sources with variable degrees of success.

Despite such an active interest by Middle Woodland scholars in sourc

ing studies, little research had been done on one of the premier Hopewell artifacts, the pipestone plain and effigy platform pipes. The early documen

tation of Feurt Hill pipestone quarries in the Scioto Valley in Ohio along with the recovery of hundreds of platform pipes in the nearby Tremper and Mound City earthworks led early researchers to propose that the Ohio

Hopewell sites were centers for the production and distribution of such ar

tifacts (Mills 1916, 1922; Shetrone and Greenman 1931; Squire and Da

vis 1848). This identification has been perpetuated in modern summaries

(Brose 1985, 1990; Fagan 1995; Griffin 1967; Otto 1992; Seeman 1979; Struever and Houart 1972), however, ongoing investigations by Universi

ty of Illinois researchers have demonstrated there are serious questions as

to its widespread applicability. Hughes' research (Farnsworth et al. 2004;

Hughes et al. 1998), using X-ray diffraction (XRD), x-ray florescence (XRF), Mossbauer spectroscopy and scanning electron microscope/energy-disper sive x-ray (SEM/EDX) analyses conclusively demonstrated that in a sample of thirty-four Illinois Hopewell pipes twenty-two were manufactured from

betheriene-rich flint clay from the Neda Formation that overlays the Late

Ordovician shale and dolomite units of northwestern Illinois. None of the

analyzed Illinois pipes were made from Feurt Hill pipestone. The authors

suggest that at least some Illinois Hopewell pipes were not prehistorically obtained as finished products from Ohio Scioto Hopewell centers but were

manufactured from the Sterling pipestone quarries in northern Illinois and

used locally. This finding, and the acquisition of NSF-funding, encouraged us to explore this Middle Woodland pipestone issue further, and with the

permission of the Ohio Historical Society and the help of Martha Otto we

undertook a mineralogical study of the Middle Woodland Ohio pipes re

covered from Tremper Mound in the Scioto Valley.

Pirna Technology and Pipestones

Hughes and Emerson have been working on the issue of sourcing midconti

nental United States pipestones and flint clays for nearly a decade, focusing

recently of the identification of the flint clay sources used in the manufac

ture of the large Mississippian period Cahokia-style figurines (Emerson and

Hughes 2000; Emerson et al. 2002a, 2003). Concurrently, Hughes was pur



Tremper Mound, Hopewell Catlinite, and A Technology

suing the identification of Middle Woodland pipestones, especially those

used in Illinois (Farnsworth et al. 2004; Hughes et al. 1998). We have also

initiated investigations into the prehistoric use and distribution of catlinite

(Emerson and Hughes 2001). This sourcing work demonstrated that when

dealing with the sourcing of midcontinental pipestones one must consider a number of potential quarry sources. These range from the bauxite sources

of Arkansas and flint clay distria of Missouri, to the catlinite quarries of

southwestern Minnesota, to the pipestone quarries of western and northern

Wisconsin, and northern Kentucky to the Feurt Hill sources in Ohio (Figure

1). Accordingly when we undertook the sourcing of the Tremper site pipes all of these sources were considered as potential candidates for the raw ma

terial.

Figure 1 Northern midcontinent showing general locations of sites discussed in the text and

pipestone quarries.



194 Emerson et al.

y Missouri Flint Clay

Our initial geological sourcing efforts for pipestones in the mid-1990s

involved destructive analysis with a primary emphasis on XRD techniques. While extremely reliable, this technique requires samples be removed from

the object being examined and therefore is poorly suited to the analysis of

valuable artifacts from museum collections. Since 1999 we have used A

technology to determine the mineral composition of pipestone samples from the midcontinent. Since we have explained the technique in detail

elsewhere (Emerson et al. 2003:292-294; Wisseman et al. 2002:691-695) we only briefly outline the process here. The Portable Infrared Mineral Ana

lyzer ( A) uses the shortwave infrared (SWIR) portion (1300-2500 nm) of the electromagnetic spectrum to measure reflected radiation from a sam

ple surface. The signature of the radiation absorbed by the specimen reveals

the inter-atomic bond energies that characterize specific miner

als and displays them as A

spectra. What makes A ideal

for pipestone sourcing is that the

instrument is especially sensitive to minerals that have hydroxol,

water, carbonate, or phosphate bonds - such minerals dominate

the pipestone groups. Addition

ally we have demonstrated that

the major pipestone groups, i.e., Missouri flint clay, catlinite, and

Feurt Hill, Sterling, and Wiscon

sin pipestones, have distinctive

mineralogical compositions and

produce recognizably different

A spectra (Figure 2).

1700 1900 2100

Nanometer

Figure 2 Diagnostic A spectrum from various midcontinent quarry sources. These spectra are derived from

multiple samples from both artifacts

and quarry sources and represent the

most "diagnostic" characteristics of each

pipestone.




Tremper Mound

Located on the west side of the Scioto River near where it enters the Ohio

River, the Tremper Mound site and enclosure (33SC4) site was excavated in 1915 by pioneer archaeologist William C. Mills (1916). Covering less than 1.34 hectares (four acres), the earthworks consisted of a round-cornered

rectangular embankment surrounding a single long irregular mound mea

suring about 76.2 m (250 ft) long, 36.58 m (120 ft) wide, and reaching a

height of 2.59 m (8.5 ft) (Mills 1916:270). The irregular mound covered a

large (perhaps roofless?) structure with multiple rooms that probably func tioned as a communal mortuary facility (Mills 1916; Weets et al. 2004).

The Tremper Mound and enclosure has been identified as one of the earliest of the Scioto Hopewell earthworks to be constructed in the Scio to Valley (based on DeBoer 1997:Table 3; Pr?fer 1964, 1996:422; Seeman

1977:52-55). Olaf Pr?fer (1968:152-153) obtained an initial radiocarbon date of 100 B.C. + 100 (UCLA-290) on Tremper charcoal. As part of this proj ect we were able to obtain an additional radiocarbon date on material from the mound. The OHS provided us with a large fragment of carbonized white oak that was associated with one of the floor deposits exposed by Mills.1 We

suspect the sample is from a carbonized structure post but cannot confirm that context. The sample (ISGS 5645, 1990 ? 70 BP, 813C =-25.9) provided three calibrated (CALIB rev. 4.3) intercepts of A.D. 4, 8, and 21. At one sigma the date range varied between B.C. 50 and A.D. 79 (Stuiver et al. 1998). This date confirms earlier intuitive and stylistic placement of Tremper Mound at

the beginning of the Scioto Hopewell sequence. Of particular interest for this study was Mills' (1916:284-285) discov

ery of two spectacular artifact caches. The largest (great) cache, 6 feet in

diameter, consisted of over 500 objects including

. . . beads, gorgets and boat-shaped ornaments of copper; crystals of mica and galenite; ear ornaments of stone; cones cut from quartz

crystals and galena; ornaments made from jaws of animals and of

man; flint cutting implements; mealing stones; woven fabrics; and the large stone disk . . . (and) there were in the cache many objects

made from wood and bone, mostly decomposed or burned. [Mills

1916:284-285]

The premier artifacts in the great cache were 136 plain and effigy plat form pipes.2 These were all in a fragmentary condition and ultimately only 106 could be restored, at least 60 of these were effigy forms (Otto 1992:2). While the deposit was placed in a crematory basin in a room on

the east end of the mortuary structure, Mills was convinced that the stone



196 Emerson et al.

artifacts had not been destroyed by fire but rather were deliberately smashed.

Mills' excavations revealed the builders had placed a second cache of

artifacts on a mound surface about .76 m (2.5 ft) above the structure's floor

during the process of submound construction. Unlike in the case of the

great cache, the contents were undamaged and intact. This smaller cache

contained nine pipes including examples of modified tubular, tubular, and

plain platform forms. The cache also included a pair of earspools, and a

drilled slate tablet.

Mills (1916:290-291) was interested in the source of the pipestone used to manufacture the pipes and some of the other artifacts he found at

Tremper Mound. The Tremper site itself, fortuitously perhaps, is located im

mediately across the Scioto River from the Feurt Hill pipestone formations.

Ultimately he concluded that all of the pipestone artifacts from the Tremper Mound caches were made from Feurt Hill pipestone. He also proposed that

the pipes in the only other large pipe cache found in Ohio, that recorded by

Squier and Davis (1998) from Mound City, were also manufactured from

Feurt Hill pipestone. From the outset then, the Tremper site collections were

critical in establishing Ohio pipestone as the primary raw material used for

the crafting of Hopewell plain and effigy platform pipes.

Tremper Pipestone Analysis

Although there has been a general acceptance of the identification of the

Tremper pipes as crafted entirely from Feurt Hills pipestone this has not

gone unchallenged. One of the earliest endeavors approached the issue

as part of a wider study to identify the ubiquitous "red pipestones" of the

midcontinent, most especially catlinite (Sigstad 1973). Sigstad (1973) car

ried out a wide-ranging neutron activation analysis (NAA) of red pipestone sources from Minnesota, Wisconsin, South Dakota, Ohio, Nebraska, Kan

sas, and even Arizona. He obtained raw material samples from the Feurt

Hill quarries in Scioto County, as well as two samples from Tremper Mound

artifacts, Ohio Historical Society Numbers (OHS#) 125-59 and 125-69.

While he determined 125-59 was probably manufactured from Minnesota

catlinite, he identified the other pipe, 125-69, as being made of pipestone from quarries near Del Rio, Arizona (Sigstad 1973:39,44). None of Sigstad's Ohio Middle Woodland artifacts appeared to have been manufactured from

the nearby Feurt Hill sources. Regional archaeologists have seemed hesitant

in accepting the source identifications provided by Sigstad.

Recently David Penny and Gary Carriveau (as reported in Weets et al.

2005) conducted NAA analysis of Tremper artifacts and Feurt Hill quarries.




Their project sampled five Tremper pipes and 21 samples from the Feurt Hill

quarry site. Analysis revealed that none of the five Tremper pipes were made

from the Feurt Hill source. The testing of one of the tall-bowl style pipes associated with the small, upper cache suggested the raw material was cat

linite and a second pipe may have been from the same source.3 Ultimately additional analysis of the NAA data led Weets et al. (2005) to postulate that

the raw materials for the Tremper pipes likely was derived from at least four

different sources and that none of these included the Feurt Hill pipestone. We undertook a A analysis of the Tremper Mound pipestone materi

als in 2002 and 2005. As part of this process nearly four hundred A spec tra were collected. Multiple spectra are taken on each specimen to confirm

the accuracy of the reading and also to analyze inclusions, color variations, or areas that, in general, visually appear to vary from the overall composi tion of a specimen. As is the case with most collections that date from the

dawn of professional archaeological investigations there are a number of

provenance and recordation problems with the collection. There are also some specimens that were unavailable for study. Where possible, analyzed

specimens were identified by using their OHS#s, however, in a number of cases these numbers were indistinct or missing. In some instances it was

not clear that fragments could confidently be associated with the Tremper Mound collection and these were not included in the study. Additionally, either because of intense burning (that negatively affects A spectra4) or

unresolved spectra, a few specimens were also removed from the study sam

ple. Ultimately we were able to collect reliable A spectra from 105 pipes or large pipe fragments (representing 52 effigy platform pipes, 50 plain

platform pipes, 2 tube pipes and 1 modified tube pipe) and a pair of stone

earspools. Given the vagaries of excavation, inventorying, and early cura

tion practices, the exact number of pipes recovered from Tremper Mound

is uncertain (Martha Otto, personal communication 2005). This sample

represents a considerable proportion, perhaps more than 90 percent, of the

restorable pipes from Tremper Mound.

Seeking Hopewell Catlinite

Our initial Tremper A analysis identified four material groupings that we are refining with ongoing research. The focus of this article is on a sub

set of pipes that are stylistically unique in the Tremper collection and that

have a bearing on recent research carried out by Boszhardt and Gunderson

(2003) and by us (Emerson et al. 2002b). These investigations focus on the

evidence for the early use of catlinite by Hopewell people. Given the Hopewell proclivity for acquiring exotic lithics and minerals,



198 Emerson et al.

on the face of it, it does not appear unusual that they would have valued

and exploited the easily worked catlinite from southwestern Minnesota.

However, despite visual identification of some red Middle Woodland pipes as likely made from catlinite there had been little archaeometric confirma

tion of such use. In his early study Sigstad (1973:Table XII) identified catlin

ite or one of the other western pipestones as being present in the Adena Dill

Mound, at Mound City, and the Hopewell site as well as at Tremper. Despite this, perhaps because of the perceived similar appearance to most research

ers of catlinite and other red pipestones (especially the red Feurt Hill vari

ety), the Ohio Hopewell-catlinite connection continued to be treated, at

best, with reservations.

These reservations are well founded when we consider the general re

cord of catlinite studies (Emerson and Hughes 2001; Gundersen and Tif

fany 1986; Penman and Gundersen 1999; Woolworth 1983). Ever since the

recognition of the famous catlinite quarries in Minnesota and their asso

ciation with the native calumet smoking pipes by early explorers, the term

catlinite has been applied rather indiscriminately to almost all native red

pipes. However, many years of research by James Gundersen (e.g., 1987,

1988, 1991, 1993) have demonstrated that, in fact, the southwestern Min

nesota quarries produced a mineralogically recognizable fine-grained argil lite that is distinguishable from other red pipestones in the midcontinent

(Figure 2). The distinguishing characteristics of catlinite are the dominance

of pyrophyllite and muscovite, and traces of diaspore with the possible in

clusion of kaolinite. Unlike other midcontinental pipestones quartz is not

present in catlinite.

Although Feurt Hill pipestone can occur in a cream, tan to red, or ma

roon color that superficially mimics catlinite, the mineralogical signature of the two is markedly different. The Feurt Hill pipestone is primarily pure and well-crystallized kaolinite (Hughes et al. 1998; Morgan 1929; Murphy 1996; Stout 1916, 1923). The red pipestone issue became more complex

when Hughes and his colleagues (Hughes et al. 1998) identified a northern

Illinois pipestone source near Sterling-Rock Falls, Illinois (Figure 1). This

source is mineralogically unusual because it is rich in berthierine and has

been noted to include red colored variants.

Variants of red pipestone are commonly found in archaeological con

texts in the midcontinent and thus must all be considered as possibilities when attempting to source red pipestone artifacts. Sigstad (1973) has dem

onstrated that the mineralogical identification of catlinite is the only reliable

way to distinguish it from other common red pipestone. Thus the miner

alogical message is straightforward?all red pipestones are not catlinite. In




100

94H

2

764

70? 1300 1500 1700 1900

Nanometer 2100 2300 2500

Figure 3 A Hull quotient spectra examples from catlinite, Feurt Hill, and Sterling

pipestones are contrasted. The strong Fe-OH peak at 2265 nm and the Li-OH(?) peak at

2000 nm are diagnostic indicators of Sterling pipestone berthierine suite (heavy black). The

doublet peaks at 1398-1414 and 2162-2208 nm are indicators of kaolinite-rich flint clay suite

of Feurt Hill pipestone (gray). Catlinite (light black) shows strong peaks for pyrophyllite at

1394 and 2166 nm, and lesser, shoulder peaks for high-Al muscovite at 1410 and 2200 nm.

Note too that the 2200 nm peak for muscovite is at a lower nm position than illite and other

mica-containing pipestones, such as Wisconsin Baraboo pipestone (Figure 2). Finally, note

that the 1900 nm peak is distinctly of less intensity than would be found in claystones and

similar sedimentary rocks that contain some of these minerals.

We use the term "peak" for convenience; normal and derivative Hull quotient A peaks are actually valleys below background. When normal spectra are converted to hull quotient

spectra, they are normalized to remove background differences by calculating a concave-only

background line for the normal spectra that is normalized to 100 percent for all wavelengths with the reflectance value of the most intense peak depth at the bottom of the spectral window. The first differential spectra are the first derivative of the normal spectra and display

positive and negative peaks where slope changes occur.

Figure 3 we show the diagnostic A spectra for the major quarry source

"contenders" (Pipestone National Monument, Feurt Hills, and Sterling) for

the large red stone pipes at Tremper Mound.

A recent summary of native catlinite use in the upper Mississippi River

valley seemed to confirm common assumptions about its pattern of use

?for the most part catlinite consumption was confined to the late prehis toric period with an increasing volume of the stone becoming available in

the historic period (i.e., Emerson and Hughes 2001; Henning 1998). For

example, despite their use of the local red flint clay quarries, the artisans

of Cahokia (ca. A.D. 1100-1300) did not utilize the similar materials from

the catlinite quarries. In fact Penman and Gundersen (1999) make a strong case that catlinite was not generally available in this region until late in the

thirteenth century. Archaeological evidence from the quarries themselves



200 Emerson et al.

(Beaubien 1983; Sigstad 1970) also confirms that there is little evidence of

habitation or utilization around the quarries until late prehistory. The role of catlinite in earlier Woodland times, at least in the upper

Mississippi River valley, began to be clarified with an important study by Boszhardt and Gundersen (2003). They performed XRD analysis on a series

of Early Woodland tube pipes and Middle Woodland plain platform pipes from Wisconsin that were mostly part of the George West Collection, Mil

waukee Public Museum (West 1934). Their analysis identified the presence of two tubular catlinite pipes and three catlinite plain platform pipes, all

recovered from far eastern Wisconsin bordering on Lake Michigan. Addi

tional A analysis by the authors identified several other probable Mid

dle Woodland catlinite pipes in the West collection, again all from eastern

Wisconsin.

The only geographical exception to this eastern focus was the plain plat form pipe recovered by William McKern in his excavations at the Nicholls

Mound in the Trempealeau Lakes group of about two dozen mounds in

Trempealeau County on the Mississippi River in western Wisconsin (Mc Kern 1931). The pipe that McKern (1931: 220, 244-245; Figure 4) identi

fied as made from "dull-red Ohio pipestone", was recovered as an inclu

sion in a restricted scatter of lithics, copper, obsidian, and potsherds on an

internal submound (?) surface of Nicholls Mound. Both XRD (Boszhardt and Gundersen 2003) and A analyses (this article) confirmed the pipe as catlinite. The analysis of Wisconsin's Middle Woodland materials by Stoltman (1979) depended on McKern's Trempealeau area excavations, in

cluding the Nicholls Mound, to define a Trempealeau phase that was chron

ologically placed at about 100 B.C. to A.D. 200-300. More recent revisions, additional excavations, and dating of Early Woodland sites have pushed the

Trempealeau phase later in time with regional specialists now dating it to

A.D. 100-200 (Stevenson et al. 1997). We now know that catlinite had been utilized, albeit in moderate quan

tities, by Early and Middle Woodland peoples in Wisconsin. The question of

its presence among Ohio Hopewell groups was still an issue to be resolved.

Seeking to answer the question of catlinite's presence at Tremper Mound ap

peared to be an important first step. Fortunately A spectra for catlinite, once established, are distinctive and easily recognized. Furthermore, PIMA's

nondestructive nature enabled us to overcome one of the major problems of earlier researchers who were limited to extremely small sample sizes from

limited specimens because of the destructive nature of the techniques they

employed (i.e., NAA and XRD). Our analysis of 105 fairly intact pipes available in the OHS collections



Tremper Moundf Hopewell Catlinite, and A Technology 201

revealed that 17 of the objects were crafted of catlinite from the southern

Minnesota quarries that today comprise the Pipestone National Monument

(PNM) (Table 1; Figure 4). However, a distinct variation in mineral compos ition within the catlinite samples was detected (Figure 5). Thirteen of these

pipes contained a mineral mixture of subequal amounts of pyrophyllite and

muscovite (labeled Catlinite A in Emerson et al. 2000b) while three pipes were predominantly pyrophyllite (labeled Catlinite B). One pipe (OHS# 125-Blank A) was a badly burned specimen identifiable only as catlinite

that was indeterminate as to variety. At the time of the initial research the

5025 5027 5066 5067 5065 5063 5069 5552 5553 5554 5555 5557 5558 5026 5068 5556 5070 5064 5031 5032 5030

125-57

125-58

125-59b

125-65

125-69c

125-72

125-73

125-71

125-68

125-63

125-60

125-61

125-67

125-64

125-70

125-66

F77, PI

F78, PII F79

Table 1. Mineralogical Identification of Selected Hopewell Pipes Sometimes

Attributed to the Feurt Hill Quarry Source.

Tremper Mound, OH_ A No. QHS No. Type Cache3_Mills Fig. No. A Reading

Cat. Type A

Cat. Type A

Cat. Type A

Cat. Type A

Cat. Type A

Cat. Type A

Cat. Type A

Cat. Type A

Cat. Type A

Cat. Type A

Cat. Type A

Cat. Type A

Cat. Type A

Cat. Type

Cat. Type

Cat. Type

Cat. (Burned) Feurt Hill Feurt Hill Feurt Hill Feurt Hill

Tall-bowl

Tall-bowl

Tall-bowl

Tall-bowl

Tall-bowl

Tall-bowl

Tall-bowl

Tall-bowl

Tall-bowl

Tall-bowl

Tall-bowl

Tall-bowl

Tall-bowl

Tall-bowl

Monitor

Tall-bowl

SC ? Intact

SC ? Intact

GC ? Broken - Broken - Broken - Broken - Broken - Broken - Broken - Broken - Broken

Intact

GC

GC

GC

GC

GC

GC

GC

GC

SC

125-(BlankA) Plain 125-62 Tall-bowl

125-113 Tube

125-114 Tube 125-134 Ear Spool

Trempealeau Lake Group - Nicholls Mound, WI

GC ? Broken

GC ? Broken

GC ? Broken

GC ? Broken

GC ?Broken

GC ? Broken

SC ? Intact

SC ? Intact

SC ? Intact

F85 F83 F81 F80

F84 F82

F86 F88 F87 F108

A No. MPMNo. Type Context McKern A Reading 5107 14332/3639 Monitor Isolated PI 38, F2c Cat. Type

aGC=Great Cache; SC=Small Cache.

identified by Sigstad (1973:44) as catlinite.

identified by Sigstad (1973:39) as pipestone from Del Rio, AZ.



:s$B3| Emerson et al.

-L-Ljlx 125-57 125-58 125-59

125-61 125-62 125-63 125-64 125-65

I

1- mm^ 125-66 125-67 125-68 125-69

I Jap., . i^BHRJ'i'V"

125-71 125-72 125-73 NicholisMd. 125-{biank)

125-114 125-134

Figure 4 Tremper Mound and Nicholls Mound pipestone artifacts discussed in text.

significance of this difference was not clear since systematic information on

mineral variation within the catlinite strata at the quarries was not available.

However, in 2004, we were able to collect more than 600 A spectra from

James Gundersen's extensive collection of specimens from the various quar ries in the PNM. Analysis of these spectra demonstrated that both Catlinite

Type A and varieties are represented in the PNM quarries. The proportion of catlinite in the Tremper caches, 16 percent of the

examined pipes, is higher than we had expected. We were also intrigued to

see that the use of this source was confined almost entirely to a single pipe

type, the tall-bowl plain platform variety (Table 1; Figure 4). The tall-bowl forms are certainly some of the most spectacular pipes

of the Tremper Mound collection. These would equate with what Seeman

(1977:50) labeled Tremper type. Mills remarked that specimens of the



Tremper Mound, Hopewell Catlinite, and A Technology fp||

tall-bowl form were the largest recovered from the mound and were, in his

estimation, "beautiful". The total number of tall-bowl pipes recovered from

Tremper is unknown but our observations indicated that these forms were

present in both the small and the great cache. Their presence in both the

large and small caches also suggests that the depositional histories of these

caches were roughly contemporaneous. The stylistic similarity of the tall bowl forms, all from catlinite with one exception, leads us to suspect that these pipes were crafted by a limited number of individuals and imported into the Scioto Valley as finished products.

Despite a lack of detailed provenance we were able to assign the tall bowl forms to specific caches. Mills (1916: 284-285) was careful in his



204 Emerson et al.

description of the small cache to note that, unlike the situation in the great cache, all of the objects were undamaged and intact. We were able to iden

tify undamaged OHS Specimens # 125-57 and 125-58 as correlating with

Mills' Figures 77 and 78 that he clearly states were from the small cache.

One other tall-bowl pipe, OHS # 125-61, was intact. All of the other tall

form platform pipes we examined in the OHS collection had been broken

prehistorically and presumably, therefore, can be assigned to the great cache

that appeared to contain only smashed specimens. We were able to examine a number of the artifacts from the small cache.

Mills lists nine pipes from the cache, including platform, tubular, and modi

fied tubular forms. Since these objects were deposited as a single "event" it is

interesting to observe the diverse raw materials and styles involved. As men

tioned above we have identified three of the large tall-bowl pipes (125-57, 125-58, and 125-61) that we examined as being from the small cache and

as crafted from catlinite. We were also able to analyze the two finely made

tube pipes (125-113 and 125-114) and determine they were made of local

Feurt Hill quarry pipestone (Table 1; Figures 4 and 5). We examined the

finely made modified tube pipe from the small cache that is illustrated in

Mill's Figure 89 (Figure 4). A note in the OHS records identified the mate

rial as "a light colored sandstone", and that identification was confirmed

by A analysis. A analysis determined the two spectacularly crafted

"napkin-form" earspools recovered in the cache were made from Feurt Hill

pipestone (Table 1; Figure 4). The drilled slate pendant in the cache was not

examined. Unfortunately the other three pipes from the small cache cannot

be specifically identified in the OHS collection.

Of the remaining 14 catlinite pipes not from the small cache, one was

a short-bowl form (OHS #125-70; Seeman 1977:50 Tremper A type) while

13 were of the tall-bowl type (Table 1, Figure 4). All of these specimens had

been broken indicating, based on Mills observations, that they were part of the great cache. A analysis verified Mills' contention (216: 284) that

the artifacts, at least as concerns the tall-bowl pipes, had not been heavily burned and were therefore more likely broken using percussive force. Only the one catlinite short-bowl form gives any indication that it was heavily burned (see end note 4).

The correlation between the tall-bowl pipe type and catlinite is strong in the sample that we examined. However, there is at least one reason to not

accept a one-to-one correlation between the tall-bowl form and catlinite?

that reason is OHS # 125-62. Mills (1916:359-360) calls this specimen the

"most beautiful and symmetrical of the pipes taken from Tremper mound."

This pipe's large, tall bowl rests on an unusual highly curved (verging on v




shaped) platform. While made from raw material that seems visually simi

lar to the other tall-bowl pipes, this pipe is actually manufactured from the

local Feurt Hill pipestone source (Table 1; Figures 4 and 5).

Observations

A analysis of 105 Tremper pipes has revealed that a moderate number

of them (16 percent) are made from catlinite from the southwestern Min

nesota quarries at Pipestone National Monument. This analysis validates

earlier limited tests such as those of Sigstad (1973) and Penny and Car

riveau (1983, 1985) that suggested Minnesota catlinite was present in Ohio

Hopewell mortuary contexts.5 It is also corroborated by Boszhardt and

Gundersen's (2003) conclusions that catlinite was moving into Wisconsin

by at least Middle Woodland times and may have been a part of the HIS. It

is now apparent that catlinite can be added to the long list of "exotica" that

for a short time and in a limited way circulated among or through Hopewell communities in the midcontinent.

The attraction of western exotics, especially lithics, to Scioto Hopewell

peoples is not a new insight. Past excavations have shown there appeared to have been a fascination at least several centuries long by peoples of the

upper Mississippi River valley and Ohio with obsidian (Griffin et al. 1969), Knife River flint (Braun et al. 1982) and other cherts from the western Plains

(also see Boszhardt 1998; DeBoer 2004). Western lithic materials are consis

tently found in Wisconsin from at least Early Woodland times and are pres ent in some quantities in the state along the Mississippi River valley and the

eastern border on Lake Michigan (see Boszhardt 1998; De Boer 2004:Fig ures 1 and 2). Other objects such as western cherts (Boszhardt 1998), bison

scapulas (Henriksen 1957; Taylor 1929), and, perhaps, grizzly bear canines

(Seeman and Heinlen 2002) and mandibles (e.g., Boszhardt 1998:283), and even bighorn sheep parts (DeBoer 2004) may be added to the list.

With recent research, (Boszhardt and Gundersen 2003; Emerson et al.

2002b, this article) catlinite takes its place among Hopewell western ex

otica. While the Wisconsin evidence is often not of the strongest kind, pri

marily consisting of pipes from early collections that have no more than

county provenance, the patterned clustering of Hopewell platform pipes in

the eastern part of the state appears convincing. The only well-provenienced Wisconsin Middle Woodland catlinite pipe

is the specimen referenced earlier that was recovered by McKern (1931) from the Nicholls Mound. The catlinite in this specimen is identical to the

minority Catlinite found at Tremper Mound. The stylistic similarity of this



206 Emerson et al.

pipe to the Tremper catlinite pipes is apparent, as is its similar placement in a mound cache. Current dating of the Tremper and Nicholls pipes would

place them one to two centuries apart in time. We have too little other in

formation to make more of this observation at present. Our A pipestone and catlinite-sourcing project is currently in its

infancy. Looking from the Mississippi valley, however, our initial findings

support Boszhardt's (1998) earlier observations of a west to east flow of

Hopewell exotica from the plains through the upper Mississippi valley and

beyond to the Ohio region. Its existence may have marked an overland net

work across Minnesota and the Dakotas of down-the-line exchange that

facilitated the movement of western stones and animal parts to the east

(e.g., Boszhardt 1968). Or, they could represent exotic mementos gathered

during a trip to the far west by precolumbian Midwesterners seeking eso

teric knowledge (e.g., DeBoer 2004). From either viewpoint, catlinite is just one more western item in the stream (considering the small volume of most

items involved perhaps better characterized as a trickle) of exotics moving to the east.

What is interesting to us is what the distribution of catlinite says about

the pathway of these exotica. In over three decades of examining prove nienced Hopewellian artifacts, Kenneth Farnsworth has recorded more

than 250 platform pipes and fragments from Illinois mounds and habita

tion sites. Just 11 of them (about 4 percent) are made of fine-grained red to

red-brown sedimentary pipestones. Three of these were found in mounds

on the Mississippi River bluffs in the Adams/Hancock County area north of

Quincy, six were found in mortuary contexts above and below the Illinois/

Mississippi River confluence in the Lower Illinois valley and the Ameri

can Bottom, one is from Wilson Mound #6 overlooking the Wabash Val

ley in White County, and one is from a small-stream habitation context in

Knox County. They include six plain-bowl pipes (Farnsworth, unpublished notes and photos; McAdams 1882:62, PL 2; Stephens 1938:22; Tittering ton c. 1943-1947:Fig. 900), two crested cardinal-effigy pipes (DeBarthe 1982:48-49; Neumann and Fowler 1952:197, 200), a noncrested song

bird-effigy pipe (McAdams 1882:62, PL 2), a turtle-effigy pipe (Henderson

1884:690), and a unique, delicately carved "lizard-effigy" pipe (McAdams 1887:41, 46).

Since two (and perhaps all three) of the bird-effigy pipes are cardinals,

red pipestone was apparently chosen to more accurately portray the animal

represented, not selected just for dramatic color or for technical reasons.

The McAdams lizard pipe may also fall into this category. There are no red




lizards in the Illinois/Mississippi Valley confluence region, but the carved

effigy is an almost photorealistic rendering of the red Cave Salamander

{Eurycea lucifuga), and was found by McAdams in a cave-rich area near the

northern limits of E. luc?fugas distribution (Smith 1961:48-50). From casual observation, six of these red pipes have been characterized

in print as //catlinite,, (DeBarthe 1982:48; Henderson 1884:690; McAdams

1882:62; Stephens 1938:22). But from modern observation and published

descriptions, seven of the 10 pipes appear to be made of a homogeneous matte reddish-brown sedimentary material that likely originated from non

catlinite sources such as those in northern Wisconsin (Barron County pipe

stone), northern Illinois (red-variant Sterling pipestone) or south-central

Ohio (red-variant Feurt Hill pipestone). They may have been made from

other look-alike red sedimentary material as well. We recently subjected one

of these pipes to A analysis (the cardinal effigy from Wilson Mound #6) and it was determined to be calcite (i.e., limestone).

The modern location of the turtle-effigy pipe recorded by Henderson

in 1884 is unknown, but there is a cast of it at the Smithsonian. Henderson notes that:

Professor Baird pronounces this turtle pipe to be made of catlinite.

There has been some question whether any articles made of this

substance have been found in any locality of undoubted antiquity; the shape however, is precisely that of the other mound pipes.

[Henderson 1884:690]

The final three Illinois red platform pipes are bright, glossy, red-and

pink banded, speckled pipestones that do visually approximate catlinite.

They include the Nauvoo cardinal (DeBarthe 1982:48, 49), an Adams

County plain-bowl pipe from the George Harness farm north of Quincy

(Stephens 1938:22), and a Stephens-collection plain-bowl pipe from Cal

houn County. This pipe appears to have been collected from the "Joy Farm"

by Capt. W. P. Hall of Jacksonville, Illinois, and presented to the Putnam

Museum in Davenport, Iowa in 1877 (Farnsworth unpublished notes and

photos). Unfortunately, none of them are readily accessible for A analy sis: one is curated in eastern Kansas, one is in a Georgia private collection, and the present-day location of the third is unknown.

Given the problems of visual identification we do not mean to imply that there were no Illinois Hopewell catlinite pipes, but we do believe that

these observations confirm that they were very rare. This evidence implies that catlinite tended to travel north of Illinois through Wisconsin and thence



208 Emerson et al.

across the tip of Lake Michigan and eventually into Ohio. This is likely the main path followed by other western exotics such as cherts, obsidian and Knife River flint (e.g., Boszhardt 1998; Clark 1984). Yet obsidian and Knife River flint seem to have been dispersed downriver from the upper Missis

sippi valley since they have been commonly found in Illinois sites (DeBoer 2004). A possible alternative path to the Scioto Valley would have been south from the PNM to the Missouri River, thence to the Mississippi River and up the Ohio River. If catlinite followed this path in the first century A.D. we have no discernable evidence of it. Why catlinite was not similarly dis

persed down this southern route is not clear. Of course given the singularly small amount of catlinite involved, the observed pattern could be a product of sampling bias.

Whatever its nature, what makes this early catlinite use intriguing is its transitory character?for a brief time around the beginning of the new

millennium catlinite emerges as an exotic stone sought after by some Wis

consin and Ohio Hopewell people. After a brief "moment in the sun" its use

virtually ceases, even in the source area, until its reappearance a thousand

years later in late prehistoric times.

Acknowledgments This project would not have been possible without the cooperation and assistance of Martha Potter Otto, Curator of Archaeology and the Ohio His torical Society where the Tremper Mound materials are curated. The James N. Gundersen collection of PNM specimens is housed at the Midwest Ar

chaeological Center, National Park Service, Lincoln, NE. Permission to ana

lyze the PNM collection was granted by PNM Superintendent Jim LaRock and MAC Manager Mark Lynott.

Tom Thiessen, Doug Scott, and Mark Lynott provided generous support and assistance in accessing the MAC catlinite collection. Support for this research was provided by the Illinois Transportation Archaeologi cal Research Program (ITARP), Illinois State Geological Survey, the Ancient

Technologies and Archaeological Materials Program at the University of Il

linois at Urbana-Champaign and the National Science Foundation, Grant No. 9971179. Michael Lewis and Michael Farkas (ITARP) prepared the fig ures and Kenneth Farnsworth and Randy Hughes did the photography. All

figures are used with permission of ITARP. We thank Christopher Carr for

graciously sharing unpublished information on Tremper Mound with us.

The research and its presentation have been improved by the assistance, comments, and advice of our colleagues Robert Boszhardt, Andrew For




tier, N'orni Greber, Mark Lynott, Martha Potter Otto, Mark Seeman, John

Walthall, and an anonymous MCJA reviewer. We are grateful to them for

their time and effort on our behalf.

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Notes 1. ITARP Chief Archaeobotanist Mary Simon identified the carbonized wood

specimen. References to charred wood/charcoal from Mills' report on the

excavations at Tremper Mound (OAHSP vol. 25, no. 3; July 1916) include the

following:

p. 273. . . . the proof of the burning of the structure when its purpose had been

served, and preparatory to the erection of the mound, was seen in the partly burned and charred posts. These were present both in the molds, at the floor line, and also where they had fallen during the conflagration, and had been covered

before they were consumed. Specimens of the charred sections of posts were taken out intact and placed on display in the Museum.

p. 274. Upright posts averaging six inches in diameter, set into the ground to a depth of about two and one-half feet, formed the outer walls of the complex structure, as well as the partitions separating them into various compartments,

p. 275-276. The smaller additions along the north side appear to have been

mainly in the nature of long passageways and small rooms. The floors of these, in

great part, were covered with charred leaves, cloth and other charred substances, strewn in places to a depth of several inches.

p. 281. The fireplace was three feet in diameter and in the form of a basin, four

inches in depth, the earth being burned red for one foot below its base. The basin

contained no remains of human bones, but instead charcoal and ashes in great

quantities. The fireplace shown as 7 in Fig. 3, located in the room with the great

depository, was fully four feet in diameter, circular in form, with a basin-like

depression at the center, four and one-half inches deep. It was filled with charcoal

and the earth beneath burned red for fully one foot in depth.

2. The certainty of these numbers is questionable given the fragmented nature of the

assemblage (Martha Otto, personal communication 2005). 3. Penny and Carriveau's samples were analyzed as part of this project and two were

confirmed to be Catlinite B. These were both broken fragments of tall-bowl pipes and probably represent parts of OHS# 125-64 or 125-66.

4. Subjecting pipestones to heat will alter the mineral composition, chemical

solubility and color of the raw material. This factor was initially a significant deterrent in the identification of Missouri flint clays utilized by Mississippians at

Cahokia to make large figurines and figure pipes. Ultimately, through a series of

analyses on burned quarry material samples including X-ray diffraction, sequential dissolution analysis, and inductively coupled plasma analysis Hughes was able to reconstruct the mineralogical signatures for burned flint clay (Emerson and

Hughes 2000:87-90). A similar process needs to be undertaken on the other

Midwestern pipestones and such analyses are part of our ongoing NSF pipestone

sourcing project.



216 Emerson et al.

5. While conducting the A analysis of the Tremper Mound specimens, at the

urging of Dr. N'orni Greber and with the assistance of Dr. Otto, we also obtained

A spectra from a number of Hopewell Mound 17 specimens. In that sampling we recognized a bar amulet and possibly a domed gorget of Catlinite A. Our recent

A analysis of the Squier and Davis Mound 8 cache at Mount City curated at the

British Museum also identified at least one specimen made from catlinite.



Documents

Tremper Mound, Hopewell Catlinite, and PIMA Technology. (with T. E. Emerson, R. E. Hughes, S. U. Wisseman, and M. Hynes) 2005 Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 30(2):189-216