UBAID PLANT USE АТ TELL ZEIDAN, SYRIA

UBAID PLANT USE АТ TELL ZEIDAN, SYRIA

А. SMITH, P.J. GRAHAM and G. STEIN

Abstract: This paper preseпts data from 47 archaeobotaпical samples recovered from domestic апсl пoп-clomestic portioпs of Tell Zeidaп, а large Ubaid period site iп Syria that lies at the cmifiueпce of the Euphrates апd the Balikh rivers. Numerous pyroteclmic features iпdicate iпteпsive апd repeated craft productioп. Charred wood remaiпs were very well represeпted iп all pyroteclmic features, whereas duпg remaiпs were sparse, suggestiпg that wood was the predomiпaпt fuel. Cultivars recovered from tl1e site iпclucle Hordeum vulgare subsp. distichum, Triticum dicoccum, free-threshiпg Т. durum/aestivum, Lens culinaris, Vicia ervilia, cf Pisum sp., апd Linum usitatissimum. Statistically sigпijicaпt differeпces were observed betweeп botaпical assemЬlages from tl1e pyrotechпic

features апd domestic portioпs of the site. !п geпeral, tl1e preservatioп апd diversity of plaпt use is greater iп the domestic areas relative to the iпdustrial area, although cultivars are preseпt iп both portioпs of the site. Cereal clшff апсl weed data iпdicate that hulled wheats were stored iп cleaпed spikelet form where they could Ье used оп ап as-пeed basis. It is possiЬle that labor was pooled

to process crops immediately post-harvest .. The iпhaЬitaпts ofTell Zeidaп тау have usedfioodwater recessioп agriculture to cultivate

aops апd the uпpredictaЬility of this system тау have prompted а social respoпse that led to епhапсеd social complexity.

Resume: Cet article preseпte les dоппееs de 47 echaпtilloпs archeobotaпiques collectes daпs des zoпes domestiques et поп domestiques

а Tell Zeidaп, large site de l'Obeid еп Syrie, а la coпfiueпce de l'Euphrate et du Balikh. De пombreuses structures pyrotechпiques

iпdiqueпt ипе productioп artisaпale iпteпsive et repetee. Alors que les restes de bois carboпises soпt tres Ьiеп represeпtes daпs toutes les stтuctuтes de combustioп les traces de fumier soпt rares, се qui suggere l 'utilisatioп predomiпaпte du bois сотте coтbustiЬle. Les

plaпtes cultivees attestees suт le site сотрrеппепt Hordeum :vulgare subsp. distichum, Triticum dicoccum, fтee-threshiпg Т. durum/ aestivum, Lens culinaris, Vicia ervilia, cf Pisum sp. et Linum usitatissimum. Des differeпces епtте les echaпtilloпs proveпaпt des

zoпes doтestiques et iпdustrielles soпt statistiqueтeпt sigпijicatives. Еп geпeral, la preservatioп des plaпtes et la diveтsite de leuт utilisatioп soпt plus elevees daпs les zoпes doтestiques que daпs la zопе de productioп, тете fi des plaпtes cultivees soпt attestees

daпs les deux espaces. Les dоппееs тelatives а la balle des ceтeales et aux especes adveпtices iпdiqueпt que les premieтes etapes du traiteтeпt des recoltes se deroulaieпt hors du site et que le Ьlе vetu etait stocke sous la forтe d'epillets пettoyes pour des besoiпs

ulterieurs. Il est possiЬle que се traiteтeпt des тecoltes ait ete effectue еп соттип juste артеs la тoissoп. Les haЬitaпts de Tell Zeidaп

опt pu pmtiquer ипе agriculture utilisaпt les eaux de decrue et la пature iтpтevisiЬle de се systeтe peut avoir suscite ипе repoпse

sociale qui а coпduit au developpemeпt d'uпe coтplexite sociale accme.

Keywords: Syria; Ubaid; АтсhаеоЬоtапу; Agricultuтe; Social coтplexity.

Mots-cles: Syrie; Obeid; Archeobotaпique; Agriculture; Coтplexite sociale.

INTRODUCTION

The Ubaid period in Southwestern Asia witnessed important increases in social complexity as societies transitioned from egalitarian villages present during the preceding Halaf period. Archaeologically this shift was characterized Ьу the earliest monumental buildings, enhanced social stratification

Paleorient, vol. 41.2, р. 51-69 © CNRS EDIТIONS 2015

evidenced in part through differential house sizes and artifact inventories, and the emergence of а two-tier settlement hierarchy with large settlements surrounded Ьу much smaller villages (e.g., Carter and Philip 2010). Intensification of these shifts laid the foundations for the first urban settlements that developed during the succeeding Uruk period. The control of food surplus is often cited in theories of early social complexity

Manuscrit rer;u le 2 juillet 2014, accepte le 17 juin 2015

52 А. SMIТH, P.J. GRAHAM and G. STEIN

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(e.g., Childe 1950; Earle 1991; Joffe 1998; Redman 1978; Stein 2001) yet, to date, very little is known about the nature and organization of agriculture during the Ubaid period (Gfaham and Smith 2013). This paper presents preliminary archaeobotanical data from both domestic and non-domestic areas related to craft specialization at Tell Zeidan in order to better understand the plant-based economy at а large Ubaid period settlement in Northern Mesopotamia.

TELLZEIDAN

Tell Zeidan, а long triple mound, lies roughly 5 km east of Raqqa on the eastern bank of the Balikh River, close to its conflпence with the Eпphrates River (figs. 1 and 2). The southern moпnd is the largest, reaching а height of 15 m; two smaller mounds lie to the northeast and northwest,

Fig. 2 - View of the southern mound of Tell Zeidan (photograph Ьу А. Smith).

connected to the southern mound Ьу а lower town (fig. 3). Spanning 12.5 ha, Tell Zeidan is the largest Ubaid settlement in Northern Mesopotamia and rivals many of the large Ubaid settlements of Southern Mesopotamia in size. The Ubaid occupation covers the entire site and is readily accessiЬle providing an exceptional opportunity to document the spatial differentiation and social organization of а large Ubaid


Ubaid plant use at Tell Zeidan, Syria

D 2008-09 Trenches

201 О Trenches

100m

Tell Zeidan 201 О

3 - Plan of Tell Zeidan showing locations of trenches for tl1e 2008, 2009, and 2010 seasons (courtesy of G. Stein and tl1e Tell Zeidan Project).

period site and better understand the process of urbanization in Northern Syria during the Ubaid 3-4 period (Stein 2009). While other sites in Northern Mesopotamia such as Kosak Sl1amali (Nishiaki et al. 1999; Nishiaki and Matsutani 2001), Tell al-'Abr (Hammade and Yamazaki 2006), and Tell Brak have yielded Ubaid strata, they are typically buried beneath deep layers of more recent occupation allowing for on1y small exposures (fig. 1). Furthermore, Tell Zeidan's continuoнs occupational sequence from the Halaf through the Late Chalcolithic 2 periods (са 5800-3850 ВС) provides а rare opportunity to examine developmental trends in subsistence economy in relation to the evolution of complex societies in Greater Mesopotamia during the 6tь_5tь millennia ВС (Stein 2011):

Understanding how people were аЬlе to sustain such а large settlement in а semi-arid region is important. Today tl1e region receives roughly 200 mm of rainfall per annum, below the generally admitted minimum of 250 mm of rainfall

Paleorient, vol. 41.2, р. 51-69 © CNRS EDITIONS 2015

53

per annum required to sustain rain-fed agriculture, and food production is largely supported Ьу intensive irrigation (Ryan 2011). The palaeo-environment of Northern Mesopotamia during the Ubaid period is not tremendously well documented, but the region is thought to have been wetter relative to modern day conditions (Hole 1997; Roberts et al. 2011), thereby allowing rainfed cultivation. Even with elevated moisture, however, it still remains unclear how а settlement as large as Zeidan could have emerged and flourished for two millennia as а major Chalcolithic population centre in the region (Stein 2012). There is no evidence of formalized canal irrigation at the site, but fiood water recession agriculture may have been possiЬle. Tell Zeidan is strategically located at the juncture of the Balikh and Euphrates rivers, which would have allowed ready access to large tracts of land within the fioodplain as well as for convenient trade over а large area (Stein 2009: 128). С. Hritz (2013: 150) argues that the low average flow of the Balikh (6 m3/second) would have minimized the river's potential as а route for navigation, but overland transport and use of the Euphrates was certainly possiЬle. Numerous artifacts at Tell Zeidan attest to long distance trade including Ьitumen from 70 km to the south, obsidian from either Bingбl or Nemrut Dag, located close to Lake Van roughly 400 km to the north in Eastern Anatolia, and steatite and copper from sources in the Upper Tigris region (Stein 2009: 134). It is possiЬle that trade cornЬined with fioodwater recession agriculture stimulated the growth of the Ubaid settlement to such а large size.

In an attempt to understand the development of social complexity at Tell Zeidan and examine how food production was managed in а marginal environment, excavations began in 2008 as part of the Joint Syrian-American Archaeological Research Project under the direction of Gil Stein (the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago) and Anas al-Khabour (Raqqa Museum in association with the Syrian General Directorate of Antiquities and Museums). Excavations continued in the summers of 2009 and 2010 under the direction of G. Stein and Muhammad Sarhan (Raqqa Museum) (Stein 2009; 2010 and 2011). Sadly, owing to the current conflict in Syria, further excavations have not been possiЬle.

ComЬined survey and excavations have revealed substantial Halaf, Ubaid, and Late Chalcolithic 1 (LC1) and Late Chalcolithic 2 (LC2) occupations at Tell Zeidan with а continuous radiocarbon sequence from са 5800 to 3850 ВС (lists of radiocarbon dates are provided in taЬle 1 of Stein 2009; and taЬle 1 of Stein 2011). The Ubaid occupation has been radiocarbon dated to roughly 5300-4500 cal. ВС, documenting an early spread of Ubaid material culture into Northern

54

Syria. Following the LC2 occupation, the site was abandoned for roughly а millennium before being briefly reoccupied during the early yct millennium. It was permanently abandoned са 2800 ВС (Stein 2011: 122). Transitions from the Halaf to the early Ubaid and from the late Ubaid to the LC1 are well documented in association with intact architecture allowing for а detailed understanding of the timing and nature of these

shifts. То date, рнЬliс buildings, private houses, and specialized

craft areas have been exposed at Tell Zeidan, along with the use ofprestige goods (Stein 2010: 117)._Within Operation 1 for example, а 2 х 22m step trench dug on the south-western corner of the southern mound (fig. 3), approximately б m of wellpreserved Ubaid deposits were exposed, revealing а sequence of domestic architecture, floors, hearths, and trash deposits sandwiched directly between earlier Halaf period remains and monнmental рнЬliс architecture dating to the later Ubaid period (Stein 2009: 131-132). Both domestic and non-domestic portions of the site were sampled extensively, yielding rich assemЬlages of archaeobotanical remains. This paper presents presence/absence data for samples recovered from domestic architecture spanning Operations 11 and 14 and а concentration of pyrotechnic features exposed within Operation 8. Differences in plant assemЬlages between the domestic and non-domestic portions of the site are presented together with а consideration of patterning of plant remains within the large domestic strнcture.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONTEXT OF ARCHAEOBOTANICAL SAMPLES

OPERATION 8: PYROTECHNIC FEATURES

Towards the southern end of the lower mound, excavations in Operation 8 (а 10 х 10m trench) revealed ten pyrotechnic features associated with ashy trash deposits (fig. 3). Eight of these features were excavated during the 2009 season (Stein 2010: 108). The features, measuring roughly 1-1.5 m х 1 m (fig. 4), typically displayed severallayers of mudbrick, which would have been used to support а superstructure (Stein 2010). They were not all used contemporaneously, and seem to represent features repeatedly used, repaired, and modified within an outside sнrface. Their function is not clear, but they resemЬle kilns exposed at other sites in the region. Although

А. SMIТH, P.J. GRAHAM and G. STEIN

Fig. 4- Pyrotechnic feature (Locus 32) in Operation 8 ( courtesy of G. Stein and the Tell Zeidan Project).

several kiln wasters of Ubaid style ceramics have been foнnd at the northeast mound of Tell Zeidan, no wasters or other industrial debris unamЬiguously associated with ceramic production were found in the pyrotechnic area. Given the density of these features within а non-domestic portion of the site, it seems highly likely that they were used for intensive specialized craft production. All of the pyrotechnic featнres demonstrated the use of intense heat and the inner parts of the walls were vitrified, crumЬly, and pale green (Stein 2010: 109). Large quantities of small vitrified nodules were recovered from the flotation samples corroborating the use of high temperatures. High temperatures in the presence of oxygen typically convert botanical remains to ash (Boardman and Jones 1990), resulting in а paucity of identifiaЬle remains: while this occurred in some of the samples, large quantities of well-preserved charred remains were recovered from this area.



OPERATIONS 11, 14, AND 18: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE

Within Area В, Ubaid period domestic architecture was exposed in three adjacent trenches (Operations 11, 14, and 18) along the eastern slope of the northeastern mound (figs. 3 and Ubaid architecture revealed in Operation 11 during the 2009 season was further excavated during the 2010 season, along with Operations 14 and 18, which lay further south. Related architecture spanned all of the trenches revealing а 300 m2 complex of Ubaid houses representing several phases of occupation (Stein 2011: 124). Within Operation 11, at least seven rooms and а courtyard were exposed during 2010. The strнctures had been built over two phases dating to 5300-5100 ВС, the earliest Ubaid occupation at Tell Zeidan. Owing to the size of the structure and the use of three hearths contemporaneously, it is possiЬle that an extended family lived there (Stein 2011: 124). During а later phase of this building, large amounts of ceramics, а kiln waster, and pieces of sealing clay were found along with а number of prestige goods, including an exotic carved steatite rod with а hook at the end and fragments of an obsidian ground stone cup. Both prestige items may have originated in Eastern Anatolia, possiЬly attesting to the wealth of the household, despite the simple plan and constгнction of the structure (Stein 2010: 115).

Architecture in Operation 14 was oriented similarly to that in Operation 11, running northwest-southeast, suggesting а continuation of the structure. Within the earliest phases of construction, four rooms and а possiЬle courtyard built with yellowish brown mudbrick were present. Associated artifacts include numerous kiln wasters, four spherical clay tokens, а hematite mace-head fragment, and fragments of two chloгite or steatite carved bowls (Stein 2011: 127). These remains suggest that small-scale domestic ceramics production took place concurrently with much larger scale production in Operation 8. The upper phase of construction was represented

three gray brick walls, an infant burial, and а floor surface. Artifacts include а rare find of а ceramic boat model and а clay figurine of а seated female. While architecture was exposed, гemains in Operation 14 were not preserved as well as those in Operation 11 (Stein 2011: 127).

Excavations in Operation 18 began in 2010, the last field season, and progressed for one week only. Architecture preseгved in the upper levels appears distinct from the earlier houses in Operations 11 and 14 and was oriented north-south (Stein 2011: 127). No archaeobotanical samples were taken


55

Fig. 5- View ofremains within Operations 18, 14, and 11 at end of 2010 season. Each trench measures 10 х 10 т; North is to the right ( courtesy of G. Stein and the Tell Zeidan Project).

from Operation 18 so it is not possiЬle to comment on plant use within these rooms.

METHODS

SAMPLE COLLECTION AND RECOVERY

Between the 2008 and 2010 field seasons at Tell Zeidan, 102 macro-botanical samples were collected from Ubaid and transitional Ubaid-LC1 contexts across the site. This report discusses the presence/absence of taxa within 47 Ubaid period samples from Operations 8 (n=17), 11 (n=24), and 14 (n=б) (taЬles 1-3). The large exposures of Ubaid occupation allowed for а broad sampling strategy designed to examine spatial patterning in plant deposition and use across the settlement. Owing to the large scale of the excavation, it was not possiЬle to collect samples from every excavated locus. Instead, collection targeted а wide range of domestic and industrial contexts, including burials, floors, courtyards, hearths, pits, ovens, trash deposits, and pyrotechnic features.

Attempts were made to restrict samples to 10 L, but sediment volume varied between samples (1 to 20 L) owing to the nature and size of each context being sampled. The volume of sediment collected was measured to the nearest quarter of а litre prior to flotation. Charred plant remains (the light fraction) were recovered via bucket flotation at the dig house using а 250-micron mesh and then dried in the shade in order to minimize damage. Heavy fractions were sorted in the field and any plant material retrieved was stored with the related light fraction.


ТаЬlе 1 _ Descriptive information of samples within each operation (within cleaned dataset unless noted).

Operation 8

Number of samples 16

Total volume of sediment (L) 229.5

Total volume of light fraction (ml) 539

Total mass of light fraction (g) 93.8

Mass of wood (g) 25.0

Mass of seeds >1 mm (g) 30.7

Mean (standard deviation)/median density of charred plant 2.2 (2.2)/ 1.9 remains (mi/L)

Mean (standard deviation)/median density of charred plant 0.38 (0.46)/ 0.27 remains (g/L)

Mean (standard deviation)/median density of seeds >1 mm g/L 0.13 (0.20)/ 0.05

Mean (standard deviation)/median density of wood g/L 0.1 о (0.16)/ 0.05

Total number of taxa within operations (number of taxa in 31 (48)

uncleaned dataset)

Minimum-maximum number of taxa рег sample 5-20

Mean number of taxa рег sample (standard deviation) 10.1 (4.1)

Mean number of taxa per sample within uncleaned dataset 13.1 (5.3)

(standard deviation)

SAMPLE ANALYSIS AND IDENTIFICATION

All of the plant remains were transported to the Archaeobotany Laboratory at the University of Connecticut fOI analysis. For the first phase of analysis, the volume of each sample was measured in millilitres. Samples were then sieved using 4 mm, 2 mm, and 1 mm sieves in order to facilitate the sorting process. The mass of each fraction was weighed to provide а rough sense of the level of relative preservation and fragmentation between samples. Fш all fractions > 1 mm, wood was removed, placed in а labelled container, and collectively weighed in шder to determine the proportion of wood гemains гelative to seeds and plant paгts per sample. Identification of the wood remains is pending. All seed, seed fгagments, and plant parts > 1 mm were sorted in full and the Iemains wеге identified to the most specific taxonomic rank possiЫe using the refeгence collection in the Aichaeobotany Laboiatшy at the Univeisity of Connecticut which is Iich in flшa fiOm Southwestern Asia. In some instances, fш example, ceieal fiagments could Ье identified to genus or species, but in othei instances they could only Ье identified as ceieal. А Iange of floia, seed identification manuals, and archaeobotanical puЫications weie also used to assist with identifications and piovide ecological and ethnobotanical infшmation (e.g.,

Davis 1965-1985; NesЬitt 2006; van Zeist and Bakker-Heeies 1984 and 1985).

All Iemains within the <1 mm fiaction were fully scanned and any identifiaЫe plant part was Iemoved for identification. Awn fшgments, when present, were not Iemoved however,

11 14 All samples

24 5 45

220.5 49 499

1011 220 1770

308.6 72.4 474.8

87.5 14.2 126.7

90.5 24.6 145.8

5.0 (4.5)/ 4.2 4.9 (1.3)/ 4.7 4.0 (3.7)/ 3.2

1.49 (1.22)/ 1.25 1.58 (0.27)/ 1.51 1.1 о (1.06)/ 0.90

0.38 (0.31 )/ 0.30 0.52 (0.27)/ 0.47 0.30 (0.30)/ 0.20

0.41 (0.59)/ 0.28 0.40 (0.29)/ 0.28 0.30 (0.47)/ 0.20

36 (65) 31 (38) 36 (76)

5-24 13-18 5-25

12.3 (4.8) 16.0 (2.3) 12.0 (4.6)

17.1 (6.3) 17.2 (7.7) 15.7 (6.3)

owing to their fiiaЬility but weie Iecшded using а relative scale (few, some, many, abundant).

The first sшting phase is complete and the presence/ absence of species within all of the samples has been Iecorded. The second phase of targeting veiy small numbeis of unknown species (typically less than five per sample) and counting specimens is currently undeiway. Because the second phase of analysis has not been completed, oui conclusions should Ье viewed as pieliminary, but interpietations Iegarding the main cultivais and the uЬiquity and general spatial patterning in the data aie unlikely to change diamatically.

DATA ANALYSIS

For each sample, the density of charred remains per litie of sediment was calculated using both the volume (ml) and the mass (g) of the light fiaction. Further density measures of chaпed Iemains pei litie of sediment were calculated using the mass of wood (g) and the mass of seeds > 1 mm (g) pei sample. Diffeiences between the mean number of taxa and the mean density of chaпed remains pei sample from each opeiation were examined using 2-tailed independent t-tests to assess variaЫe patterns of plant deposition and preservation across the site. T-tests weie conducted using SPSS Statistics Version 21.

Patterning within the piesence/absence dataset was explшed using uЬiquity analysis, coпespondence analysis (СА), Canonical Correspondence analysis (ССА) and paitial


Ubaid plant use at Tell Zeidan, Syria 57

ТаЬlе 2 - The ublquity of taxa per Operation within the cleaned dataset (fr. = fragment).

Family Taxon Ор8 Ор 11 Ор14 All

(n=16) (n=24) (n=5) (n=45) ,_ - Wood* 93.8 100.0 100.0 97.8

Роасеае (domesticated) Hordeum sp. (2-row) 68.8 79.2 80.0 75.6

Triticum monococcum 25.0 29.2 40.0 28.9

Triticum dicoccum 37.5 37.5 40.0 37.8

Triticum durumlaestivum 0.0 12.5 40.0 11.1

Triticum sp. 62.5 75.0 100.0 73.3

Triticum glume bases 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Free threshing Triticum rachis fr. 18.8 37.5 80.0 35.6

Hordeum rachis fr.

Culm fr. with node (>2 mm)

Awn fr.

Fabaceae (domesticated) Fabaceae (large)

Lens cu/inaris

Linaceae Linum usitatissiumum

Rubiaceae Galium/Asperula spp.

Caryophyllaceae Silene type

Malvaceae Malva/Aithea spp.

Boraginaceae Boraginaceae

- Chenopodium type

Polygonaceae Rumexsp.

Fabaceae (wild) Fabaceae (small)

Astraga/us sp.

Medicago sp.

Melilotus sp.

Роасеае (wild) Роасеае indet.

Culm fr. without node (<2 mm)

Culm fr. with node (<2 mm)

Aegilops sp.

Bromus sp.

Hordeum sp. (wild)

Lolium sp.

Phalaris sp.

Cyperaceae Cyperaceae

Bolboschoenus maritimus

Carex spp.

- Dung

* Wood was not included in the statistical analyses.

Canonical Correspondence Analysis (рССА). Correspondence analysis has proven to Ье particularly robust when analyzing both presence/absence and abundance datasets with large пнmbers of samples, taxa, and many null values (e.g., Colledge et al. 2004; Smith and Munro 2009; Smith 2014; ter Braak 1996: 1). As Colledge et al. (2004) note in their study of the spread of farming in the Eastern Mediterranean, presence/ absence data can Ье extremely informative in enhancing our understanding of ancient plant use. СА is an open-ended and exploratory technique, and allows patterning between samples and species to Ье observed within ordination diagrams. ССА aпalyses associated with Monte Carlo permutations testing


12.5 16.7 20.0 15.6

0.0 25.0 20.0 15.6

0.0 16.7 20.0 11.1

25.0 41.7 60.0 37.8

37.5 37.5 60.0 40.0

37.5 8.3 40.0 22.2

43.8 25.0 80.0 37.8

18.8 50.0 60.0 40.0

6.3 25.0 20.0 17.8

81.3 62.5 80.0 71.1

0.0 20.8 0.0 11.1

12.5 12.5 20.0 13.3

6.3 20.8 0.0 13.3

6.3 37.5 40.0 26.7

6.3 20.8 40.0 17.8

18.8 16.7 0.0 15.6

81.3 62.5 80.0 71.1

6.3 25.0 80.0 24.4

25.0 16.7 60.0 24.4

0.0 12.5 20.0 8.9

31.3 45.8 40.0 40.0

87.5 54.2 100.0 71.1

75.0 83.3 100.0 82.2

37.5 16.7 40.0 26.7

12.5 37.5 20.0 26.7

6.3 45.8 0.0 26.7

12.5 20.8 0.0 15.6

12.5 4.2 20.0 8.9

differ from СА in that the variaЬility within the dataset caused Ьу known variaЬles can Ье assessed and the statistical significance of any differences can Ье formally gauged (further detail is provided in Smith 2014).

ССА was used here to assess differences in plant assemЬlages between domestic and non-domestic areas of the site, where 'Operation' was used as an explanatory variaЬle to constrain the axes. Since the sediment volume between samples was not constant, and variation in sediment volume could affect resultant archaeobotanical assemЬlages, an attempt was made to extract the variation caused Ьу differences in un-floated sediment sample size prior to examining spatial


ТаЬiе 3- Presence and uЬiquity oftaxa present in small amounts at Tell Zeidan. All of the following taxa were omitted through data cleaning (fr. = fragment).

Taxon Ор8 Ор 11 Ор14 А/1 samples

Family (n=17) (n=24) (n=6) (n=47)

Роасеае (domesticated) Aegilops cf. crassa base + 2.1

Culm fr. without node (>2 mm) + 8.5

Basal cu/m fr. (>2 mm) + 2.1

Fabaceae (domesticated) cf. Pisum + + 8.5

Prosopis farcta + 4.3

Lathyrus spp. + 4.3

Vicia!Lathyrus + 2.1

Vicia ervilia + + + 6.4

Linaceae Linum usitatissimum + 4.3

cf. Linum usitatissimum* + + + 17.0

Asteraceae Centaurea spp. + 2.1

Aizoaceae Aizoon sp. + 2.1

Lamiaceae Teucrium/Ajuga sp. + 4.3

Valerianaceae Valeriane//a sp. + 2.1

Ranuncu/aceae Adonis sp. + 2.1

Oipsacaceae Cephalaria spp. + 2.1

Caryophyl/aceae Vaccaria pyramidata + + 6.4

Cucurbitaceae CucurЬitaceae + 2.1

P/antaginaceae cf. Plantago sp. + + 4.3

Fabaceae (wild) Trigonella sp. + 4.3

Coronil/a sp. + + 8.5

Thymelaeaceae Thymelaea sp. + 2.1

Роасеае (wild) Stipa sp. + + 8.5

Triticum boeticum type + + 4.3

Eremopyron sp. + 2.1

cf. Avena sp. + + 4.3

Basal culm fr. (<2 mm) + 4.3

Miscellaneous Capitulum indet. + 2.1

Nut she/1 fr. + 2.1

Parenchyma + + 6.4

* Despite а fair/y high uЬiquity, cf. Linum usitatissimum was cleaned from the database owing to its tentative identification.

differences using рССА. For рССА analyses, 'Operation' was used as the constraining variaЬle and 'sediment volume' was partialled out as а co-variaЬle prior to analysis. This was done to attempt to control for differences in sample size since the number of taxa generally increases as sediment volume increases. Given that it is impossiЬle to know what range of species may have been present if sediment volumes had equalled the largest sample size, this method is imperfect, but it offsets differences caused Ьу sample size to some degree and allows consistency in patterning observed via ССА to Ье examined more closely.

Since rare taxa and small samples can obscure real trends within а dataset when using СА or ССА, the data were cleaned prior to multivariate analyses Ьу deleting samples containing fewer than five taxa, and taxa occurring in fewer than four samples. Таха with tentative identifications were

also deleted. Analyses were conducted on the full cleaned dataset as well as cultivar-only and weed-only subsets of the cleaned data in order to further explore the reproduciЬility of patterning (taЬle 2). The bulk of the discussion below relates to analyses of the cleaned dataset but since some of the rare taxa that were omitted via data cleaning (taЬle 3) were economically or ecologically important, these species are qualitatively mentioned alongside the quantitative analyses where relevant.

Multivariate analyses were conducted and attribute plots created using Canoco version 5.0. Symmetric Ьiplot scaling was used in all plots. Rules for interpreting the diagrams are detailed Ьу Leps and Smilauer (2003: 149-167), Smilauer and Leps (2014: 184-207), ter Braak and Prentice (1988), and ter Braak and Smilauer (2002). In summary, two axes of multi-dimensional spaces can Ье viewed at any given time, representing the chi-



square distance between sample and species points (Smilauer and Leps 2014). The largest amount of variance within the dataset is represented Ьу separation of samples and species along the horizontal (first) axis, with secondary variance represented Ьу the vertical (second) axis. Only the first two axes are examined here. As Smilauer and Leps (2014: 51) note, ordination axes typically coincide with an explanatory variaЫe, and when this

оссшs we generally correlate the variaЫe with the ordination axis. Samples that contain similar assemЫages of species tend to fall closer together on the plots, as do species that frequently co-occur within samples. Commonly encountered species tend

to cluster around the intersection of the axes, with rarer species lying towards the outer edges of the diagram.

UBAID PLANT REMAINS АТ TELL ZEIDAN

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS

Within the 47 samples examined here, 66 different taxonomic categories were identified, representing 54 different species, genera, or family level identifications (taЫes 2 and 3). Following data cleaning, 45 samples and 35 taxa remained for

the uЬiquity and correspondence analyses. The two samples that were deleted contained fewer than 5 taxa but were sizeaЫe and dominated Ьу wood.

The 45 light fraction assemЫages were recovered from 499 litres of sediment. Sediment volume per sample varied between 3 and 18 L, averaging 11.1 L per sample (with а

standard deviation of 4.4 L and а median of 12 L). The recoveтed light fractions totalled 1770 ml of charred remains. The volume of charred remains per sample ranged between 3 and

154 ml, with а mean of 39.3 ml (standard deviation: 31.7 ml) and а median of 29.9 ml. The density of plant remains per sample in terms of both mass and volume of light fraction pei litie of sediment also vaiied widely between samples, but

mean and median densities weie consistently much highei in Opeiations 11 and 14 relative to Opeiation 8 (tаЫе 1). This pattein was repeated when densities weie calculated fш wood only and seeds laigei than 1 mm only (material <1 mm was not included in the seed mass calculations since the <1 mm fiac

tion was consideiaЬly large and consisted mostly of unidentifiaЫe charcoal fragments). Such dispaiities in the density of charred remains between samples is common within assemblages from Southwestein Asia and, in pait, reflects vaiiation in plant use, deposition, and/ш preseivation across the site. In

this instance, it would appeai that plant use was much mше


59

vaiied within the domestic pшtions of the site. Contextual and

spatial diffeiences in the density of charred Iemains between

opeiations are discussed in mше detail below.

FUEL USE

It is cleai from the macrobotanical data that wood was the main fuel source during the Ubaid peiiod at Tell Zeidan. Wood charcoal fragments were present in all but one of the 45 samples piesented heie (with а uЬiquity of 97.8%), and weie paiticulaily abundant in all features associated with fuel use or disposal (e.g.,

heaiths, ovens, pyrotechnic featuies, and Iefuse pits). Conveisely, animal dung, а common fuel source in post-Ubaid peiiods acioss Southwestern Asia (Millei 1997; Millei and Smait 1984), was identified in very small amounts within only foui of the samples piesented heie (8.9%). The sporadic piesence of dung, comЬined with а carefпl consideration of weed seed composition and likely activities associated with the resultant assemblage indicate that while dung was пsed as а fuel at Tell Zeidan dпring the Ubaid peiiod, it was not the predominant fпel soпrce (table 2). Mean seed to wood weight ratios are not considered here Ьесапsе the vaiiaЬility between samples within each operation was too great to provide meaningfпl compaшtive valпes.

In light of the wetter conditions evident dпring the Ubaid period Ielative to today (e.g., Hole 1997; Roberts et al. 2011), comЬined with the abundance of wood within the samples, it is Ieasonable to assume that plentifпl wood soпices were locally available dпiing the Ubaid peiiod, paiticпlaily within Iipaiian environments along the Balikh. This contшsts with latei time peiiods across Nшthein Syria, when а complex inteiplay of environmental change and hпman-indпced deforestation led to significantly redпced forest cover in the region (Fiorentino et al. 2012). Deckers and Pessin (2010) argue that during the Bronze Age, riparian environments were the first to experience intense clearing followed Ьу clearance of the woodland steppe.

Archaeobotanical analyses along the Eпphrates and further east at Malyan in Iran demonstrate that as prefeпed stands became exhaпsted, this shift was accompanied Ьу the initial selection of less preferred fпel woods, followed Ьу an incieased reliance upon dпng fпel (Miller 1984; 1985 and 1997; Miller and Smart 1984). At Malyan, for example, between the 4th and 2nct millennia ВС, poplar and jпniper were initially chosen fш

fпel. As their availaЬility decieases, oak was selected concomitant with а steady increase in dung fпel. The wood charcoal

remains from Tell Zeidan have not yet been identified, Ьпt once identification is complete, it will Ье possible to discпss fuel choice and the local environs of the site in more detail.

60

CULTIVARS

The cereals recovered from Ubaid period at Tell Zeidan include Hordeum vulgare subsp. distichum (2-row barley, with а пЬiquity of 75.6%: taЬle 2), Т. dicoccum (emmer, 37.8%), and small quantities of Triticum monococcum (einkorn, 28.9%) and free-threshing Т. durum!aestivum (durum/bread wheat, 11.1%). It is clear that both 2-row barley and emmer wheat were heavily exploited. In general, cereal grains were relatively poorly preserved and present in very small numbers (typically fewer than five per sample), but they appeared consistently across the site. Hulled wheat glume bases were recovered in tremendous numbers and appear in every single sample (taЬle 2). Hordeum rachis fragments (15.6%), Triticum durum!aestivum rachis fragments (35.6%), and culm (15.6%) and awn fragments (11.1%) are much less пЬiquitous than hulled wheat processing debris, the latter of which appears in every sample. The secure identification of Т. durum rachis fragments documents cultivation of durum wheat at Tell Zeidan. High proportions of heat and drought tolerant crops sпch as barley in the Ubaid deposits are consistent with what one would expect for а semi-arid zone such as the Middle Eпphrates valley (Miller 1997; Riehl2009). The nature and distribution of cereal grains and processing debris across the site is interesting, and is considered in more detail below alongside а discпssion of spatial patterning and cereal crop processing.

Legumes are very poorly preserved at Tell Zeidan, а common phenomenon at many Southwest Asian sites, although Lens culinaris (lentil) was well represented in 40% of the samples (taЬle 2). Sporadic finds of Vicia ervilia (Ьitter vetch), Lathyrus spp. (vetchlings), and Pisum sp. (реа) were also recoveied, but in such limited frequencies that all thiee taxa weie deleted via the data cleaning process (taЬle 3). No fruit remains and very few nut shell fragments weie Iecoveied from the samples examined heie (taЬle 3).

Flax seeds (Linum usitatissimum) were Iecovered in 22.2% of the samples, and appeared across the site (taЬle 2). While the piesence of flax seeds alone cannot Ье used to aigue for the production of linen textiles at Tell Zeidan, it is highly likely that textiles were cieated given the piesence of 1oom weights within the domestic areas spanning Opeiations 11, 14, and 18. Abundant flax seeds were Iecoveied from the roof of а buint Ubaid period house at Kenan Тере in Southeastein Anatolia that contained loomed weights, suggesting the plant's continued impшtance at this time (Giaham and Smith 2013). Giossman and Hinman (2013) examined faunal Iemains from Tell Zeidan and document а shift from wild to domestic animals between the Halaf and Ubaid peiiods, which they tentatively link to а shift towaids specialized wool/textile pioduction, so it is pos-

----r А. SMIТH, P.J. GRAHAM and G. STEIN

siЬle that the relative emphasis given to linen and woollen textiles began to change during the Ubaid period. The clear shift to elite production of wool is well documented Ьу the Bronze Age across Northern Syria (Zeder 1991; McCorriston 1997).

SPATIAL PATTERNING IN PLANT USE BETWEEN DOMESTIC AREAS AND PYROTECHNIC FEATURES

N one of the samples recovered from Tell Zeidan were preserved through catastrophic fire or heat that had the potential to destroy an entiie structure and preseive large quantities of in situ remains Iepiesenting а very shoit use-peiiod. Instead, the Iemains were preseived via mше mundane means, so dramatic diffeiences in pieservation conditions aie an unlikely souice of the disciepancy in density of remains. Many of the samples from the domestic structuies in Operations 11 and 14 were collected from hearths and ovens-features that are geneially associated with the use of fire-and Iefuse pits that are geneially associated with the disposal of cleanings from heaiths and ovens along with other household debris. Samples weie also collected from floшs and occupational debris that do not necessarily imply diiect exposure to fiie. The majority of the samples from the industrial aiea in Opeiation 8 weie collected from pyrotechnic features, which, Ьу their very nature, involved fiie. The preservation potential, theiefшe, сап Ье viewed as Ielatively consistent between the two aieas (although temperatures Ieached within the fiies may have varied between the two areas).

Compaiison of the mean density of charred Iemains between samples fiom the domestic Operations 11 and 14 using 2-tailed independent t-tests Ievealed no statistically significant differences fш density measures in ml/L (p-value = .766) and g/L (p-value = .770). Density measures calculated on wood only (g/L: p-value = .217) and seeds largei than 1 mm (g/L: p-value = .885) also revealed no statistically significant difference between samples from Opeiations 11 and 14. Given that the Iemains from these Opeiations Iepresent contiguous aichitectuie, this is not too suipiising. Consequently, samples from Operations 11 and 14 weie giouped in ordei to considei differences between the domestic areas and the pyrotechnic featuies within Operation 8. The mean density of charred Iemains from samples within the domestic areas (Operations 11 and 14) was significantly higher than that for Operation 8 when calculated in both ml/L (p-value = .006) and g/L (p-value = .000), as well as wood only (g/L: p-value = .001) and seeds largei than 1 mm (g/L: p-value = .008) components of the samples. This implies that while plant deposition and pieservation was variaЬle between individual contexts within each area, greatei densities of plant remains weie



Chenopodium type ldl

Bolboschoenus manrumиrs-1/r--'.;;

Awnfr.ii:ij Axis 1

............................... ~ ................................ .

Triticum durumlaestivum

Rumex sp. !:!

j Triticum glume bases

Lolium sp. J ~Hffrfr~~'!JJ?;~0(~i!d) ......... тritiёiiт~ .... ',:л; ..... Vl(.I?I ................................ ..

N (/)

·х <(

Melilotus sp. !:il

Кеу:

61

monococcum 11\ Dung rJ,Lens culinaris Bromus sp.i:/! l Triticur; dicoccum

"'' в . Тriticum spi oragmaceae (")

Operation 8 (n=16)

А Operation 11 (n =24)

8 Operation 14 (n= 5) 1 ~----------т---------~----------~----------т---------~

Fig. 6 - Correspondence analysis Ьiplot of the cleaned species and sample dataset. The eigenvalues of the first and second axes are 0.173 and 0.158, explaining 9.7% and 18.4% of the cumulative variation within the species data respectively. The total inertia is 1.798. Data points surrounding the intersection of the axes are shown in the inset Ьох to enhance clarity of the diagram (Ьiplot prepared Ьу А. Smith).

-3

pieserved in domestic areas re1ative to the non-domestic pyrotechnic features. This difference most 1ike1y results from more repetitive and repeated p1ant processing and p1ant use within the domestic area. The possiЬi1ity that higher charring temperatures within the pyrotechnic features converted many botanica1 remains to ash cannot Ье comp1ete1y discounted, however.

The mean number of taxa per samp1e within the unc1eaned dataset was compared between Operations 11 and 14 using 2-tai1ed independent t-tests. The unc1eaned dataset was used siпce this provided а more accurate representation of the range of taxa present within each samp1e. Again, no statistically significant differences were observed in the mean number of taxa between Operations 11 and 14 (p-va1ue = .901), so data were comЬined in order to assess differences in the mean number of taxa between samp1es from the domestic areas with those from Operation 8. No statistically significant differences in the mean nнmber of taxa per samp1es were observed between the domestic areas and Operation 8 (p-va1ue = .057), but since the p-va1ue was so much smaller than that observed for the differences between Operations 11 and 14, and since the p-va1ue was so c1ose to the


2

.05, or 5% significance cut off point, it seems fair to conc1ude that differences in the number of taxa between the pyrotechnic features and the domestic areas do exist, with а greater diversity of taxa being recovered in the 1atter. This difference seems to reflect а more diverse use of p1ants within the domestic architecture.

Patterning within the c1eaned dataset was examined using а variety of correspondence ana1yses. The resu1ts of the correspondence ana1yses (СА) of the entire c1eaned dataset, as well as cu1tivar on1y and weed on1y data, are presented in Figures б, 7, and 8 respective1y. It is important to note that since СА ana1ysis allows for open-ended exp1oration of the data, samp1es are not categorized as be1onging to one operation or another for ana1ytica1 purposes. The enve1opes drawn around samp1es from each operation within Figures б, 7, and 8 are inc1uded for visua1ization purposes on1y and provide an extra too1 for examining differences in p1ant use both within the domestic structure and between the domestic and craft -specia1ization portions of the site.

The correspondence ana1ysis of c1eaned comЬined cu1tivar and weed dataset (fig. б) yie1ded eigenva1ues of 0.173 and 0.158


Culm fr. with node

1:1; Triticum durum!aestivum Кеу:

N

Operation 8 (n=16)

~ Operation 11 (n=24)

1111 Operation 14 (n=5)

Fig. 7 - Correspondence analysis Ьiplot of cultivar data only. The eigenvalues of the first and second axes are 0.253 and 0.190, explaining 19.6% and 34.31% of t1'1.e cumulative variation within the species data respectively. The total inertia is 1.289 (Ьiplot prepared Ьу А. Smith).

1 Lr------------~------------~----------~------------~ -2

for the first two axes, exp1aining 9.7% and 18.4% of the cuтu1ative variation within the species data. Whi1e this percentage va1ue of variation тау appear 1ow, ter Braak and Sтi1auer (2002: 123) note that:

"[With] abundance data or presence-absence data, these

percentages are usually quite low, in particular when analyzed with СА/ССА, but this is nothing to worry about. Species data

are often very noisy [and] an ordination diagrarn that explains

only а low percentage rnay Ье quite inforrnative."

Figures б, 7, and 8 are, indeed, inforтative: within Figure б, which exaтines both cu1tivar and weed data together, whi1e таnу species are соттоn to both the doтestic and industria1 portions of the site, the c1uster fш Operation 8 is partially separated froт the c1usters for Operations 11 and 14 along the first (horizontal) and second (vertical) axes, further deтonstrating the difference between botanical asseтЬlages froт the doтestic area and the pyrotechnic features. With the exception of three saтples froт Operation 8 that fall to the bottoт left of

2

the cluster (close to the point for Phalaris sp.), the distribution of saтp1es froт the doтestic areas and pyrotechnic features are relatively distinct, with sоте over1ap towards the тiddle representing соттоnlу encountered species found across the site. When considering patterning in cultivars only, the separation between the doтestic and the pyrotechnic features is тuch less distinct although тiniтal separation of saтples froт Operation 8 is apparent (to the right of Axis 1 of fig. 7). In genera1, the saтples froт Operation 14 fall within the envelope fш saтp1es froт Operation 11, further indicating siтilarity of cu1tivar use across the doтestic area. Togetheг, this infштation suggests that while sоте differences in the presence of cultivars do exist between the doтestic area and the pyrotechnic features, таnу cu1tivars are found in both operations. The nature of differences in the presence of cultivars is discussed in тоrе detail be1ow. Consideration of the weed data in isolation highlights the diversity of weedy taxa within saтples froт Operation 11 as well as тinor separation of saтples froт Operation 8 along the second (vertical) axis

Paleorient, vo1. 41.2, р. 51-69 © CNRS EDIТIONS 2015


N

-3

Fabaceae (small) ~

Кеу:

Operation 8 (n=16)

Ь Operation 11 (n=24)

11111 Operation 14 (n=5) N (/)

~

Culm fr. without node (<2mm) [).]

Chenopodium type

Meli/otus sp. е:!

Axis 1

3

63

8- Correspondence analysis of non-cultivar data only. The eigenvalues of tl1e first and second axes are 0.239 and 0.222, explaining 11.7% and 22.6% of the cumulative variation within the species data respectively. The total inertia is 2. 040 (blplot prepared Ьу А. Smitl1).

(fig. 8). The reason for this is unclear, but in part may re:flect the greater number of samples from Operation 11 combined with an emphasis on more diverse and repeated plant processing in the domestic area. It is likely that consideration of abundance data, when availaЬle, will clarify differences in the distribution of cultivars and weeds across the site.

Canonical correspondence analysis using 'Operation' to constiain the axes was paired with Monte Carlo permutations testing to assess the statistical significance of differences between assemЬlages from the domestic areas and pyrotechnic features (taЬle 4). Given their similarity and architectuial association, samples from Operations 11 and 14 were comЬined. Significant differences were observed through the ССА test between the domestic area and pyrotechnic features for the entire cleaned dataset, as well as cultivar and weed-only data. This pattern was largely confirmed through рССА tests where the original пnfioated sediment volume for each sample was extracted prior to examining differences between the areas (taЬle 4; fig. 9). For


ТаЬlе 4- p-values associated tvith Monte Carlo pennutations testing of ССА and рССА tests compт-ing assemhlages between Operation 8 and domestic Operations 11 and 14; 999 permutations were used. Statistically significant results allowing the null l1ypothesis (that species compositions do not vary between operations) to Ье rejected аге noted witl1 asteгisks (* ::;.0.5%, ** ::;.0.1, NS = по statistically significant diffeгence).

Test Cultivars Cultivars Weeds

and weeds only only

ССА using Operations 8 and 11/14 .002** .015* .004**

to constrain the axes

рССА using Operations 8 and 11/14 to constrain the axes. Sediment volume .004** .075NS .006**

was partialled out as а covariaЬie

the рССА tests, the comЬined cultivar and weed dataset and the weed subset of the data show statistically significant differences whereas the crops alone do not. It is likely that differences in crop use do exist between the two areas and that this will become clearer once abundance data is availaЬle.

64

! Meli!otus sp.

Culm fr. without node (<2mm)

Fabaceae (large)

Malva!Aithea spp. 1:! !:м о Astraga/us

Linum usitatissimum Carex spp.

Chenopodium type Triticum glu/ne bases Culm fr. with node (<2mm) Hordeum)(2-row) 'ьl:"

,- Hordeum sp. (~ild) о!:!? !:!Ga!ium/Asperula spp. Bolboschoen~s maritimus Lens!culinaris I:!Poaceae Ах:

1 ........................... $.i!~D..~.}Y.P.~ .............................•............... ) .........................................•....................................... '~·-··· .

о t . 1:1

11 d 14 ~Lolium sp. ~:~ Operation 8 pera юns an !::( rJ Dung . ! ~ Triticum monococcum

Triticum d_it;:occum~p Boraginaceae Tпt1cum sp.u/!

Bromus sp.!

Awn fr.u i . Medicago sp. !

Culm fr. Wlth node (>2mm) 1:! ьоСуре~асеае Phalaris sp.

1:! Aegilops sp. 1:!

Free threshing i Triticum rachis frf

Hordeum rachis fr. FаЬафае (small)

Triticum durum/aestivum

1:! Rumexsp.

~ Lr------~------т-------~----~-------т------~ -1.5 1.5

Fig. 9- Partial canonical correspondence analysis Ьiplot of all species datafrom Operations 8 and 11. Operation was used to constrain ti'ze first axis and sediment volume was partialled out. The eigenvalues of the first and second axes are 0.039 and 0.027, explaining 3.4% and 5.7% of the cumulative variation within the species data respectively. The total inertia is 1.798 and the p-value is .004 (Ьiplot prepared Ьу А. Smith).

In general, the samples within the domestic areas contain а greater нЬiqнity of Triticum durum!aestivum grain, free-threshing wheat rachis fragments, and cereal processing debris sнch as cнlm fragments and awn fragments compared with samples from Operation 8. The samples from the domestic areas also contain а greater presence of weeds typically associated with late stage cereal processing (Jones 1984) inclнding Aegilops sp., Silene type, Malva!Althea spp., vari-


онs Cyperaceae taxa sнch as Bolboschoenus maritimus and Carex sp., and smalllegнmes-Astragalus sp., Medicago sp., Melilotus sp.-(taЫe 2; fig. 9). The varying distribнtion of these taxa and plant parts sнggests that the bнlk of on-site cereal crop processing took place in the domestic areas.

CEREAL PROCESSING AND ТНЕ ORGANIZATION OFLABOR

Cereals formed an important staple at Ubaid period Tell Zeidan. Remains of 2-row barley (Hordeum vulgare sнbsp. distichum) and both hнlled (Triticum monococcum and Т. dicoccum) and free-threshing wheat (Т. durum!aestivum) are present. Т. dicoccum is Ьу far the best represented with large nнmbers of spikelet forks and glнme bases present in all operations (tаЫе 2). The natнre of chaff parts recovered across the site is particularly telling, and provides additional information аЬонt how the Ubaid inhaЬitants cereal crop processing. Ethnographic stнdies of manнal crop processing Ьу Hillman (1984а) and Jones (1984) demonstrate that each major crop processing stage is associated with sets of crop prodнcts and by-prodнcts that can Ье readily distingнished from one another based on the presence or relative abнndance of grain, and varioнs types of processing debris and weeds.

Conseqнently, when post-depositional mixing is minimal, and samples have not originated from dung fнel (as woнld appear to Ье the case in most samples from Ubaid period at Tell Zeidan), it is possiЫe to assess whether the contents of а sample represent either а crop prodнct or by-prodнct and sнppositions regarding crop processing may Ье made from the archaeobotanical record. It is fair to assнme that the samples collected from pits represent mixed assemЫages of disposed debris, Ьнt the consistent natнre of finds between pits sнggests that they represent accнmнlations of repeated activities involving late-stage processing of Triticum dicoccum spikelets on an as-need basis.

Most of the availaЫe literatнre on cereal processing refers to free-threshing cereals, Ьнt some reports of hнlled cereals sнch as emmer do exist (Charles 1984; D'Andrea and Haile 2002; Hillman 1981 and 1984а and Ь; NesЬitt and Samнel 1996). It is well known that emmer needs to Ье threshed, winnowed, and sieved in order to concentrate the spikelets, Ьнt it is not well нnderstood how the spikelets were dehusked to remove the sнrroнnding chaff from the grain. Methods cited in the ethnobotanical and archaeological literatнre inclнde parching or sнn-drying followed Ьу poнnding (D'Andrea and Haile 2002; Harlan 1967; Hillman 1981;



NesЬitt and Samuel 1996). These processes separate the grain from the surrounding glumes, lemmas, and spikelet forks (which often break into two glume bases), and the grain can then Ье concentrated via basket winnowing or fine sieving. Glпme bases, indicative of spikelet processing, are found in abпndance across the site.

The remains have not yet been counted, but based on the volпme of glume bases recovered, it is clear that they are relatively more abundant within the domestic areas where food preparation likely took place. Despite this relative difference, glпme bases are still abundant within the specialized craft area within Operation 8. The reason for this is пnclear since the many pyrotechnic features recovered within this trench resemЬle kilns and are thoпght to have served an industrial ршроsе unrelated to food preparation. PossiЬle explanations for tl1e presence of large numbers of Triticum dicoccum glume bases in Operation 8 include: 1) intentional use of straw in the firing process; 2) intentional disposal of processing debris via combustion within Operation 8; 3) intensive late stage processing of hulled wheat at Tell Zeidan which created an abundance of processing debris as 'background noise' within the sediments across the site; or (less likely) 4) some degree of unanticipated crop processing around the pyrotechnic features; or 5) inclusion of chaff in mпdbrick used to construct the pyrotechnic features, whereby the chaff became charred while the pyrotechnic features were in use and, following abandonment of the site, left а scatter of processing debris as the mudbrick deteriorated.

The weeds recovered from Tell Zeidan correspond with the late-stage processing of spikelets. G. Jones (1984) condпcted an ethnographic study of non-mechanized processing of free-threshing wheat in Amorgos, Greece and determined that certain weed taxa were selectively removed at particular crop processing stages, based on the aerodynamic qualities of their seed. Aerodynamic qualities are determined Ьу the seed's size, weight, and tendency to remain in large seed heads during threshing. The vast majority of weed taxa within the cleaned dataset correspond with taxa that are typically removed at the sieving stage (taЬle 2). Silene, Malva, and Plюlaris, for example, are all classified as small, heavy and headed and are typically removed during coarse sieving (Hald 2008: 63; Jones 1984: 50; van der Veen 1992). Big, free, and heavy seeds include Galium!Asperula, Aegilops, Bromus, wild Hordeum and Lolium, which are also typically removed at the coarse sieving stage. Since some wild Hordeum, Aegilops and Lolium tend to mimic domesticated cereals in size and shape, it may have been necessary to hand pick many of the large wild grasses. Rumex, Astragalus, Medicago and Melilotus are all


65

classified as small, free, and heavy (Jones 1984: 50), and tend to Ье removed in greatest abundance at the fine-sieving stage. It would appear, then, that sieving and processing of intact emmer spikelets took place on-site, predominantly within the domestic areas.

Awns, which can sometimes persist partially intact on spikelets after threshing and winnowing, are restricted to domestic samples (taЬle 2). None were recovered from the pyrotechnic features. It is likely that the majority of any awns remaining on cleaned spikelets were removed within the domestic area prior to storage since the presence of awns can dramatically increase the bulk of а crop, thereby decreasing storage potential. Culm or stem fragments that are typically removed off-site through post-threshing raking (Hillman 1984а and Ь) are rarely encoпntered at Tell Zeidan. А similar phenomenon was witnessed at Kenan Тере where а conflagration of an Ubaid period hoпse led to exceptional preservation of large caches of emmer grain in association with glume bases and weeds. The remains at Kenan Тере indicate that emmer was stored in cleaned spikelet form and that intact spikelets were sieved and processed on the roof of the structure (Graham and Smith 2012 and 2013). While grain was poorly preserved relative to glume bases at Tell Zeidan, а parallel pattern of preservation was repeated at Ubaid Kenan Тере away from the bпrnt house in areas of the site where more mпndane preservation conditions prevailed (Graham 2011; Graham and Smith 2013).

If emmer was stored in clean spikelet form at Tell Zeidan also, as the archaeobotanical data strongly suggest, then it is possiЬle that during the Ubaid period labor was pooled to process the crop prior to storage. C.J. Stevens (2003: 73) developed а model to examine agricпltural prodпction in Iron Age Britain, where he eqпates storage of grain or spikelets in cleaned states with commпnal or pooled labor. Since the amoпnt of efforts expended in manпally processing а crop is determined Ьу the crop itself, rather than the time period or the geographic area, it seems fair to apply this reasoning to sites in Ubaid N orthern Mesopotamia. Pooling of labor coпld Ье as informal as several families working together collectively, but could also indicate а more formal arrangement that involved social control. At present, it is not possiЬle to use archaeobotanical data alone to distingпish between these two extremes of labor organization, Ьпt it is possiЬle to imagine extended families acting cooperatively. Throпgh ,time emerging elite may have attempted to formalize the organization of labor in order to further enhance their status.

66

USE OF FLOODWATER IRRIGATION

The crops recovered froт Tell Zeidan are very similar to those recovered froт Ubaid period Kenan Тере, the only other site where а coтprehensive study of Ubaid period archaeobotanical reтains has been conducted (Grahaт 2011; Grahaт and Sтith 2012 and 2013). The sizes of the Ubaid period occupation differ however, with Zeidan being тuch larger. Kenan Тере lies in а higher rainfall zone than Tell Zeidan and although rainfall is thought to have been higher at Tell Zeidan during the Ubaid period coтpared with today, it is still unclear how such а large Ubaid period settleтent could have sustained itself in Northern Mesopotaтia. The location of the settleтent adjacent at the conftuence of the Balikh and the Euphrates is noteworthy and it is possiЬle that the inhabitants of the settleтent used flood recession and/or basin iпigation to increase crops yields, thereby enhancing their ability to feed а larger population. In а paper exaтining ethnographic data froт Senegal and historic data froт the Nile Valley, Т. Park (1992: 91) argues that the unpredictaЬility of ftood recession agriculture in arid areas creates the need for "additional, and тоrе intrinsically social responses, such as the developтent of соттоn property, stratification, and institutionalized ways" of controlling population. Park (1992: 91) further argues that such responses could result in an:

"[ ... ] early pre-state form of economic stratification ...

[that]. . . provides а plausible linkage between early societies

characterized Ьу significant degrees of equality ... and

sнcceeding, more complex states in which both social and economic stratification are well developed."

Such а тodel could bear relevance to Ubaid period sites like Tell Zeidan that rapidly grew to а large size in close proxiтity to two large rivers where flood recession agriculture was possiЬle.

Unfortunately, it is not possiЬle to deterтine whether the inhaЬitants of the structures in Operations 11 and 14 used ftood recession agriculture to cultivate their crops using the data presented here, although it is interesting to note that reтains of the Cyperaceae faтily, such as Carex sp. and Bolboschoenus nют'itin7us, are found тоrе frequently within the doтestic areas where spikelets were processed (fig. 9). These taxa are often associated with wetlands, riparian environтents, or soils with а high тoisture content (Davis 1985), but since the range of haЬitats for species within each genus is often very broad, it is not possiЬle to use the presence of these seeds alone to argue for wetland use or elevate soil тoisture. Future тorphoтetric analysis of phytoliths recovered froт the sediтents at Tell Zeidan (Нагt 2014), coтЬined with ongoing isotopic analyses


of archaeobotanical reтains, тау provide additional information on the use of soils with elevated soil тoisture contents Ьу the Ubaid inhaЬitants of Tell Zeidan.

CONCLUSIONS

This paper docuтents the presence of plant remains froт 47 archaeobotanical saтples spanning domestic areas (Operations 11 and 14) and non-doтestic craft areas (Operation 8) of Tell Zeidan. Chaпed wood reтains were very well represented, whereas evidence for dung use was sparse, suggesting that wood was the fuel of choice for the Ubaid period inhaЬitants. Given the тoister conditions evident during the Ubaid, coтЬined with the abundance of wood in the гiparian environs, this is not too surprising.

Cultivars recovered froт the site include Hordeum vulgm'e subsp. disticlщm, Т. dicoccum, free-threshing Т. durum/aestivum, Lens culinaris, Vicia ervilia, cf. Pisum sp., and Linum usitatissimum. No fruits and very few nuts were present in the saтples discussed here. Statistically significant differences exist between botanical asseтЬlages froт the pyrotechnic features and doтestic portions of the site. Both the теаn density of chaпed reтains and the теаn nuтber of taxa per saтple are higher within the doтestic areas relative to the industгial area. In general, saтples froт the doтestic rooтs contain greater uЬiquities of Triticum durum!aestivum gгain, freethгeshing wheat rachis fragтents, and cereal processing debris coтpared with saтples froт industrial Operation 8. They also contain greater uЬiquities of certain weedy taxa associated with late stage cereal processing including Aegilops sp., Silene type, Malva/Althea spp., various Cyperaceae taxa such as Bolbosclюenus maritimus and Carex sp., and sтall leguтes. Together, these observations suggest а greater intensity and diversity of plant use in the doтestic spaces.

While cereal grains were relatively poorly preserved, hulled wheat gluтe bases were present in all of the saтples, soтetiтes in very large concentrations. The cereal chaff and weed data indicate that hulled wheats were stored on-site in cleaned spikelet forт where they could Ье sieved, processed, and used on an as-need basis. It is possiЬle that labor was pooled to process crops iттediately post-harvest. The presence of large nuтbers of hulled wheat gluтe base in association with the pyrotechnic features is intriguing, and тау result froт the widespread processing of spikelets at Tell Zeidan in general or the intentional use of straw within the pyrotechnic features. Given Tell Zeidan's size and proxiтity to both the



Euphrates and Balikh rivers, it is possiЬle that the inhaЬitants of the site used floodwater recession agriculture to cultivate their crops and form the subsistence base needed for the large settlement. The unpredictaЬility of this system in а semi-arid environment may have led to а social response that favoured а shift to enhanced social complexity.

Using the baseline data presented here, we hope that future comparisons of the Ubaid material with archaeobotanical remains from the earlier Halaf period and the postUbaid LCI and LC2 periods at Tell Zeidan will give us а solid diachronic perspective on the relationship between patterns of change in agricultural systems and the evolution of socially stratified, politically complex societies in Chalcolithic Northern Mesopotamia in the бth through the early 4th millennium ВС.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We are immensely grateful to Anas al-Klшbour and Mohammed Sarhan of the Raqqa Museum, who co-directed the excavations of the Syrian-American Tell Zeidan project during the 2008 and 2009/2010 seasons respectively. Many thanks are owed to the Syrian Diiectorate General of Antiquities and Museums for their assistance in facilitating the export of the archaeobotanical samples. We thank Abu Turki and Thomas Hart for their help floating samples during the 2009 and 2010 seasons respectively and Madelynn von Baeyer

67

for translating the abstract into French. We would also like to thank the entire Tell Zeidan team and in particular Michael Fisher and Kate Grossman for providing contextual information for the samples discussed here. We also thank Cathleen Hammel for her help with the initial processing of some ofthe samples. We are particularly grateful to three anonymous reviewers for their detailed and insightful comments and suggestions. Their careful reading of the first draft helped improve the paper tremendously. Funding for this project was provided Ьу а University of Connecticut Large Faculty Grant and а NSF Faculty Early CAREER Award (No. 1136516) granted to А. Smith. Figure 1 was modified from an image prepared Ьу А.В. Wesolowsky Graphics and Figure 3 was reproduced Ьу К. Grossman and provided courtesy of the Tell Zeidan excavations. We dedicate this paper to the people of Syria with the hope that а resolution to the current conflict

comes quickly.

Alexia SMITH Philip J. GRAHAM

Depaгtment of Anthгopology Univeгsity of Connecticut

Beach Hall Unit 1176 354 Mansjield Road

Stoггs, СТ 06269-1176- USA alexia. smith @uconn.edu

[email protected]

Gil STEIN The Oгiental Institute 1155 East 58th Stгeet

Chicago, IL 60637- USA [email protected]

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Paleorient ancien, Paleorient шоуеn, Paleorient л~cent .. ./ Early Paleorient, Middle Paleorient, Recent Paleorient ... par О. DAUNE-LE BRUN et А.-м. TILLIER ........................................................................ .

Articles М. BENZ, К. DвсквRs, С. RossNER, А. ALEXANDROVSКIY, К. PusтovoYтov, М. ScнEERES, М. FвснвR, А. CO$KUN, S. RIEHL, K.W. АLт and V. ОzкАУА Prelude to village life. Environmental data and building traditions of the Epipalaeolithic settlement

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at Kortik Тере, Southeastern Turkey ............................................................................................................... 9-30

УН. HILBERT, V.I. UsiК, C.S. GALLEтп, M.W. MoRLEY, А. PARTON, L. CLARK-BALZAN, J.-L. ScнwENNINGER, L.P. LINNENLUCKE, R.G. RoвERTS, Z. Jлсовs and J.I. Rosв Archaeological evidence for indigenous human occupation of Southern Arabla at the Pleistocene/ Holocene transition: The case of al-Hatab in Dhofar, Southern Oman ........................................................ 31-49

А. Sмпн, P.J. GRAHAM and G. SтEIN Ubaid plant use at Tell Zeidan, Syria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51-69

М. BIALOWARCZUK Experimental reconstruction of Late Neolithic !оса! quartz exploitation patterns in the Arablan Gulf New discoveries from Bahra 1, Kuwait, an Ubaid-related site .. .. . .. .. .. .. .... .. ... . .... ...... .. .. . .. ..... ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. 71-84

М. ARIMURA and А. SuLEIMANt А cultural unity in Northwestern Syria during the Neolithic. Tell Ain Dara 111, а PPNB site in the Afrin Valley ....................................................................................................................... 85-99

А. SotтYSIAK, А. WшRсп~sкл and S.K. Koztowsю Human remains from Nemrik, 1raq. An insight into living conditions and burial customs in а Pre-Pottery Neolithic village .................................................................................................................... 101-114

V. EsнED and D. NADEL Changes in burial customs from the Pre-Pottery to the Pottery Neolithic periods in the Levant: The case-study ofTel Roim West, Northern Israel .................................................................................. 115-131 ·

М. HEYDARI, Н. FAZELI Nлsнu, Е. CoRTESI and М. VIDALE А surface collection at Chegerdak, а Bronze Age centre in the Jazmurian basin (South-Eastern 1ran) 133-155

Droit de reponse С. MARRO, V. ВлкнsнАLIУЕV and R. BERTHON А reply to G. Palumbl and С Chataigner .................................................................................................... 157-162

G. PALUMBI апd С. CнATAIGNER Answer to С. Marro, V. Bakhshaliyev and R. Berthon . .. ... . .. .. .... .. .. .. .. ....... ... .. .. . . .. .. .. .. . .. ... .. .. . .. ...... .. .. . . . .. . .. .. 163-166

Recensions .................................................................................................................................................... 167-176

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UBAID PLANT USE АТ TELL ZEIDAN, SYRIA