Useful Plants ofBas-Congo Province,

Democratic Republic of Congo

Paul Latham

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Title : Useful Plants of Bas-Congo province

Author : Paul Latham

Second edition : 2004

Copyright © Paul Latham

ISBN No. 0-9543012-8-5

Note : This is the English edition of a manual produced in French to encourage theconservation and planting of useful plants in Bas-Congo province of the DemocraticRepublic of the Congo. Many of the plants mentioned are however present in countriesthroughout the humid tropics of Africa so it is hoped the manual will be of use to farmers,development workers and schools throughout the region.

This publication is an output from a project part funded by the United KingdomDepartment for International Development (DFID) for the benefit of developing countries.The views expressed are not necessarily those of DFID. [Advisory and Support ServicesContract, project code ZX0077]

Warning : A number of the plants listed in this publication are known to be poisonous.The author does not accept responsibility for any harm resulting from their use.

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The author

Paul Latham is a retired Salvation Army officer, who has worked in Africa for over twentyyears, mostly spent on farmer training in East Africa. More recently he has worked with aSalvation Army rural development programme in the Bas-Congo province, DemocraticRepublic of Congo (ex Zaire). He is involved in the development of a beekeeping projectin that province and the preparation of a number of teaching booklets for farmers. He ismarried with two daughters and six grand children and now lives in Scotland.

Then God said, "Let the landproduce vegetation: seed-bearing plants and trees on theland that bear fruit with seed init, according to their variouskinds." And it was so. The landproduced vegetation: plantsbearing seed according to theirkinds and trees bearing fruit withseed in it according to theirkinds. And God saw that it wasgood.

Genesis 1:11,12 NIV

In humble praise of Him who has made all things well.

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Contents

Introduction and acknowledgements 5

Useful plants of Bas-Congo 5

Map of Cataractes & Lukaya districts of DRC 7

Plants in alphabetical order 8 - 302

Bibliography 303

Index of edible caterpillars 309

Index of Kikongo names 310

Index of common names 314

Index of scientific names 317

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Introduction and acknowledgements

I would particularly like to thank Ena, my wife, for her support and encouragement with this book. Iwould also especially thank Majors Gracia and Lydia Matondo and the staff of the Salvation Army’s ruraldevelopment programme, for arranging my visits, and for their generous hospitality, help, advice andfriendship. I am most grateful to Kibungu Kembelo, director of the jardin botanique at Kisantu, and toLuc Pauwels, a previous director, now at the jardin botanique national de Belgique, for identifying manyof the plants in this manual. Luc Pauwels, Rudy Schippers, Eric Boa and Len Budd have given me agood deal of practical help and advice and I have valued their critical and helpful comments. My gratefulthanks also to the staff at the Edinburgh Botanical Garden library who have, as with previous books,always been most helpful. Major Cliff Kew has very kindly proof-read the book.

I am grateful to a number of people who have kindly allowed me to use their photographs. These havebeen acknowledged in the text. The book also contains photographs of people I have been privileged towork with or have met during my visits. I wish to thank them for allowing me to include them here.Unless indicated otherwise photographs were taken by the author.

The province of Bas-Congo has been well researched in past years and the following sources ofinformation, have been particularly useful:- Gillet J. & Pâque E. (1910) Plantes principales de la régionde Kisantu; De Wildeman, E. (1934) Documents pour l'étude de l'alimentation végétale de l'indigène duCongo-belge; Drachoussoff, V. (1947) Essai sur l'agriculture indigène au Bas-Congo; Renier, M (1948)Flore du Kwango; Daeleman, J. & Pauwels, L. (1983) Notes d'ethnobotanique Ntandu (Kongo) andPauwels, L. (1993) Nzayilu N'ti.

Common names are usually given first in Kikongo, and also in French and English where known.

Useful Plants of Bas-Congo

The Bas-Congo province lies between the coast and Kinshasa in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.It covers an area of nearly 55,000 km sq. and has an estimated population of 3.9 million. Soils areeither deep sand or clay in the districts of Cataractes and Lukaya in which the study is based. Altitude atKisantu is 530 m, with a rainfall of 1474 mm per year and an average temperature of 22° C.

Traditionally people have used a wide range of plants and plant products for their daily needs - polesfrom certain trees for building houses; timber for making furniture, tools and equipment; suitable treesfor firewood or charcoal; various leaves for vegetables; fruits and seeds which can be eaten, made intodrinks or used medicinally or to control pests; forage plants for livestock; food plants for edible insectsand plants whose flowers are visited by honey bees for nectar and pollen. The variety of productsobtained from the local forest or savanna is vast and life becomes progressively more difficult if theseresources are unavailable locally and have to be brought in from any distance from the village. Theimportance of having good medical resources and safe water available for rural and urban dwellers indeveloping countries has been well publicised but equal importance needs to be given to maintainingthe availability of a wide range of useful plants on which rural, and also urban life depend. Withoutmany of these products life becomes harder, particularly for the poorest.

The forest fallow, in particular, is a resource which is not only vital for replenishing soil fertility in Bas-Congo but contains a wide variety of useful plants and insects. Traditionally the area for fallow wasdesignated by the village chief and was sometimes enriched by scattering the seeds of valuable treessuch as Pentaclethra macrophylla and P. eetveldeana and of Millettia versicolor or the planting of Miliciaexcelsa and various palm trees etc. (Drachoussoff 1947 p 492, see also Getahun et al. in MacDonald(Ed.) 1982). Many villages however no longer maintain the forest fallow system and have experiencedreal hardship through declining crop yields, increased erosion and loss of bio-diversity. Where there isaccess to transport the increased demand for charcoal has meant that trees have been cut down andremoved before the fallow reached maturity. Other causes have been the increase in population, thelack of properly maintained fire-breaks and the invasion of the exotic Chromolaena odorata whichsmothers the often slower growing indigenous plants. Yet it has been shown that the annual value ofhoney and edible caterpillars alone, produced from an area of forest, can far exceed the value of foodcrops produced at the end of the fallow period off the same area (Munthali & Mughogho 1992). On theother hand by systematically felling the forest every 15 to 20 years not only is maximum use made ofthe built up fertility for staple crop production, but bio-diversity is enhanced, as species which are morelight demanding are able to become re-established. Though much maligned for being wasteful andinefficient the traditional slash and burn system of farming does maintain bio-diversity and thus therange of products required by the village (Nye & Greenland 1960).

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Though the plants listed include some of the major staple food crops and exotic fruit trees with whichmany people will be familiar, I have tried to include information on their recommended propagation andcultivation as well as their various local uses etc. I have also included information about plants whichare less well known and for which information is not so easily found. A number of the species coveredare not normally cultivated and some are increasingly difficult to find in the wild. Some of these plantsare cultivated in other parts of Africa or elsewhere and farmers and development workers areencouraged to try the various methods of propagation mentioned or to try out their own methods.Again a wide range of uses is suggested for many of the plants and again some of the uses listed havecome from other countries. It may be worth trying some of these out though great care should be takenwith some of the medicinal or food uses given as correct preparation is often very important. Wherethere are other uses, which have not been mentioned here, I would be very glad to have information.

Croft Cottage, Forneth, Blairgowrie, Perthshire, U.K. PH10 6SWE mail : paul@latham9.fsnet.co.uk

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Bas-Congo Province (previously Bas-Zaire),in the Democratic Republic of the Congo

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Abelmoschus esculentus (Malvaceae)

Common names Dongo dongo (Lingala), gombo (Fr.), okra

Description An erect annual herb which may grow up to 4 m. high. Leaves are 3 to 5 lobed, spirallyarranged and may be up to 50 cm in diameter with a petiole of similar length. The solitary yellowflowers have a purple centre and arise from the leaf axils. Fruit is produced during the rain season andis a cylindrical capsule 5 – 35 cm long and 1 – 5 cm in diameter.

Ecology A few plants are generally grown near the home, often along with other vegetables. Theplants prefer soils which are well drained, fertile, with adequate organic matter but can also grow onsoils of moderate fertility.

Propagation Seed is normally used and is best stored in the fruits until required. Soak seeds for 24hours before planting, discarding any that float. Sow in deeply cultivated land and, if growncommercially, plant rows 60 - 80 cm apart allowing 15 - 20 cm between plants.

Management Mulching the crop is beneficial as it provides a cool microclimate for the young plantsand suppresses weed growth. The terminal bud is sometimes removed to encourage branching. Thefruits should be harvested while they are still crisp and can be snapped easily. 4 - 6 fruits are producedper plant over a period of 30 - 40 days. The harvesting of young fruits encourages vegetative growthprolonging the harvest. Nematode damage is best controlled by crop rotation, avoiding growing on landwhere okra, cotton, roselle or kenaf have recently been grown, and by applying high amounts oforganic manure.

Uses The young immature fruits are either boiled or fried, being particularly liked in soups and stews.They may also be dried and powdered and used for flavouring. Leaves and young shoots are eaten bothfresh or fried, either alone or with the fruits and flowers and are a common market vegetable. Eatingthe plant is known to prevent goitre. The roasted seed can be used as a substitute for coffee.

References Tindall 1983, Siemonsma & Kasem Piluek 1993, Burkill 1997, Schippers 2002, Siemonsma& Kouamé 2004

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Abrus precatorius (Fabaceae)

Common names Ngenguba, lucky bean

Description An herbaceous, sub-woody creeper with stems up to 3 m long and 1.5 cm thick. Smallwhite or purple flowers are borne in dense racemes and are very conspicuous. Seeds are bright scarletwith a black spot at one end.

Ecology Frequently found in the savanna in Bas-Congo but it often grows in the villages or aroundhomes. It grows throughout the tropics and sub-tropics in thickets, clearings and secondary forest,often in slightly damp places.

Uses In Bas-Congo the leaves are either eaten fresh orboiled and the liquid is drunk to treat stomach pain, toincrease breast milk in lactating mothers or to relievecoughing or asthma. The seeds after soaking in waterare used as an anthelmintic and emetic but, unlesscooked, are known to be highly poisonous. They arealso used as necklaces. The plants are also boiled inwater and the liquid given to treat Newcastle disease inpoultry. The roots are sweet tasting. Elsewhere the leafis commonly chewed or sucked for its sweet taste. It isboiled with food as a sweetener and eaten as avegetable. It has possible use as a green manure. Thepulped leaf and sap is used to treat sores, cuts andwounds and the fresh leaves may be pressed on to the gums to relieve mouth sores. There arenumerous other medicinal uses. Stems yield a fibre used for basket making. The flowers are veryattractive to bees. An extract from the plant is reported to have virus-controlling properties.

References Wild 1972, Arkinstall 1979, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Burkill1995, Stoll 2000, Nsimundele 2004

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Acacia auriculiformis grown for charcoal

Imbrasia obscura feeding on leaves

Acacia auriculiformis (Mimosaceae)

Common names Acacia

Description Usually a low to medium sized tree 8 - 20 m high, heavily branched with a short, crookedstem. The yellow flowers are followed by twisted pods containing small black seeds.

Ecology The tree grows on a wide range of deep and shallow acid soils low in nitrogen and organic

material and is particularly useful for poor sterile sandy soils with a moderate rainfall. Branches break inhigh winds and the tree is not fire resistant. It also does not withstand drought as well as Eucalypts andwill not grow in waterlogged soils.

Propagation Sow seed direct or transplant nursery grown plants. Seeds remain viable for 4 years.Seeds should be put in boiling water, which is then allowed to cool. Soak for 24 hours. Germination rateranges from 40 to 80%. Seedlings are susceptible to weed competition in the early stages. Cuttings canbe taken from young twigs.

Management Stems generally grow crooked though selection should be able to produce improvedform. The tree coppices poorly but, after felling, a good crop of seedlings usually emerge. Growth maybe up to 6 m in 2 years or 17 m in 8 years. InIndonesia and Malaya annual wood production of17 - 20 cubic metres per ha. with rotations of 10 -12 years is achieved. Even on poor soilsproduction reaches 10 cubic metres per ha. peryear in moist conditions.

Uses The tree produces a good fine grainedtimber. Branches can be used for rough polesthough they are often crooked. The wood ismainly used for fuel, producing from 16 - 25tons/ha. The charcoal produced glows well andburns without smoke or sparks. The tree isplanted as an ornamental or shade tree as it withstands city heat better than many others. Tannin can

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be obtained from the bark. It is useful for smothering coarse grasses including Imperata butChromolaena odorata thrives beneath it. Because of its densely matted root system it is useful forstabilizing soils on steep sterile slopes. The fallen leaves produce a useful amount of litter, which is noteaten by stock, is nitrogen rich and builds up both fertility and tilth. Bees collect some pollen from theflowers. Edible fungi grow on the wood. Lobobunaea phaedusa, Imbrasia obscura, Imbrasia eblis andImbrasia epimethea edible caterpillars feed on this plant in Bas-Congo. Often people transfer caterpillarsfound in the bush/forest to an Acacia tree in the village to rear the caterpillars and sometimes will allowthem to pupate, in which case they are likely to return the following season.

Remarks A possible soilborne disease frequentlyaffects trees and makes theplanting of pure stands riskyin Bas-Congo. It ispreferable to plant a mixtureof species.

References Leloup 1956,NAS 1979, 1980, 1983,Turnbull 1987, Mbuya et al1994, ICRAF 1998

Traditional forest fallow near Mayenga village (see page 5)

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Acosmium panamense (Fabaceae)

Common names Billyweb Sweetia

Description A tree which can grow to 40 m high. The trees at Lembulu were 8 - 10 m high and wereseen in flower in January and February.

Acosmium panamense in secondary forest at Lembulu

Ecology An introduced tree from South and Central America.

Uses The tree makes a good fire break and is recommended for use in re-afforestation. It has a bitterbark, which is used for the treatment of scrofula and malaria. Wood is strong and durable and can beused for tool handles and heavy construction work. The tree is reported locally as a good bee fodderwith abundant flowering.

Acosmium panamensebearing fruit at Nkundi

in Manianga District

References Uphof 1968,Pauwels et al. 1999.

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f it

Adansonia digitata (Bombacaceae)

Common names Nkondo, baobab

Description A massive deciduous tree notmore than 20 m tall. May have a girth of20 m. Leaves are shed in the dry season.

Ecology The tree is sometimes foundnear villages though is not particularlycommon in Cataractes and Lukaya districtsof Bas-Congo. Found in most countriessouth of the Sahara. Grows on welldrained soils and is drought resistant.

Propagation Can be grown from seed. Immerse in hot water, allowto cool and then soak for 24 hours. Seed can be stored for a longtime if kept cool and dry. Germination takes place over a period of 3- 6 months but good seed can germinate after 30 - 50 days.Seedlings are fragile during the early stages.

Management The tree is fire and termite resistant and coppices well.

Right : Inside the fruit podshowing the edible pulp

Uses The dry pulp surroundingthe seeds is eaten. The pulp canalso be made into a refreshingdrink. The seeds can be ground upto make a flour which is thenboiled and eaten or used to makea cake. Though the leaves are rich in vitamin C, and are eaten asspinach elsewhere, they do not appear to be eaten in Bas-Congo. Theycan also be dried and powdered and used in soups. Fallen leavesprovide a good fodder in the dry season. Young foliage is sometimescut for the same purpose. Roots may be cooked and eaten or used as atonic after a bout of malaria. A soluble red dye is also obtained fromthe root. In some drought prone countries the trunk, after beinghollowed out, is used to store water. Fibre from the inner bark is strongand durable and widely used for rope, cordage, baskets, nets and clothmaking. Glue is made from the pollen mixed with water. The ash fromthe bark and fruit, boiled in oil, is used as soap. The pith can be groundup and used to make a gruel or refreshing drink. It is used as amedicine to reduce fever, to curdle milk and to coagulate the latex of

Landolphia heudelotii. The smoke from burnt pith is used to smoke fish and keep insects away fromstock. The fruit shells are used to make utensils. The fruit can be fed to livestock. The roots and barkare used medicinally. The flowers are attractive to bees.

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Preparing land for planting in Manianga district. Grass is piled up in heaps, covered over withsoil and then set on fire. Cassava cuttings are planted in the mounds.

Leaves of Nkondo are richin vitamin C

Remarks Pollination ismainly by bats, moths andflies.

References De Wildeman1934, Wickens 1982,Mbuya et al. 1994, HDRA2000

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Adenia lobata (Passifloraceae)

Common names N’kenketi, mupemba, or kalawanti

Description A large semi-woody to woody creeper from 5 - 45 m long. The stem may be round orangled up to 2.5 cm in diameter. Leaves 3.5 - 25 cm long by 2 - 20 cm wide. Male and female flowersare separate.

Adenia lobata growing on a pergola near Kisantu

Ecology Found in dense, swamp and riverine forest which may be flooded. Also in secondary or openforest, and sometimes associated with termite mounds in wooded savanna up to 1770 m. The creeperis also present in Rwanda, Burundi, Ethiopia, Angola, Mozambique and from Senegal to Sudan.

Propagation Can be grown fromcuttings.

Management The plant growsstrongly and can be trained to growover a pergola in a similar fashionto passion fruit.

Uses The leaves are occasionallyeaten as a vegetable in Bas-Congoand elsewhere. They are finely cutbefore cooking. The leaves of otherspecies of Adenia are also known tobe edible. If the stem is cut, asmuch as a glass of liquid isproduced, which can be drunk.Stems, leaves and leafy twigs havevarious medicinal uses. As withother species of Adenia, the flowersare very attractive to bees.

Remarks The plant regenerates rapidly after bush fires.

References Renier 1948, Williamson 1975, Peters et al. 1992, Konda et al. 1992, FAC 1995, Burkill1997

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Fruit of Kitundibila

Aframomum alboviolaceum (Zingiberaceae)

Common name Kitundibila, ntunduluDescription Herbaceous plant withcreeping rhizomes relatively deeplyburied, producing stems up to 3 m high.

Ecology Common in the savanna in Bas-Congo. Found in the tall grass - treesavanna from Guinea to east Cameroonand south to Zambia.

Uses The fruit, called Ntundulu, has anacid flavour and is very refreshing. It isoften eaten to ease thirst and fatigue ona journey and is also given to children toease coughing. The young shoots arechewed to ease toothache and swellingof the gums. The sap from the rhizomeis boiled and eaten with honey to expelworms. Nkombo nseke, Imbrasiaanthina, and Imbrasia alopia ediblecaterpillars feed on the leaves.

Left : The fruits of A.angustifolium, called Binsansior Minsansi, are also eaten.They are produced on a thickstalk in groups of up to 6 or7. The plant grows in dampsites in forest undergrowth,beside rivers and swamps inBas-Congo.

References Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Kibungu Kembelo 1995, Malaisse 1997, Burkill 2000,Neuwinger 2000, Ruffo et al. 2002

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Aframomum melegueta (Zingiberaceae)

Common names Ndungu zi nzo, poivre de Guinée, maninguette (Fr.), Melegueta pepper

Description A bushy perennial plant growing from a short, scaly rhizome with surface roots. Stemsgrow from 90 cm to 1.2 m tall and are covered with leaf sheaths up to 2 m long. Flowers are up to 13cm long, trumpet shaped, pale mauve, pink or white, growing from the base of the stem. Fruits are ovalin shape, red, 5 - 10 cm long, with white flesh and contain dark-brown seeds. The whole plant isaromatic, especially the seeds.

Aframomum melegueta growing in a garden at Kisantu

Ecology Grows in shaded forest from Guinea and into central Africa. Widely cultivated with other cropsin Africa and elsewhere. Prefers well drained soils, even if rocky, but the plant is not drought tolerant.It requires some, but not excessive shade.

Propagation By seed or by division of the rhizome.

Management Cropping commences after 3 years and can be continued for up to 4 years depending onadequate weeding and removal of excessive shading. Fruits are picked when ripe and are usually sundried.

Uses Powdered seeds are used in place of pepper and to aid digestion. When eaten fresh with a kolanut they are useful as a cure for coughing. In Bas-Congo seeds are also used medicinally to cure femalesterility, haemorrhoids, mental disorders, hernias, mastitis, rheumatism, asthma, coughing and epilepsy.The fruit flesh is edible, especially before it is fully ripe, and chewed as a stimulant.

References Van Harten 1970, Lock et al. 1977, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Dupriez & De Leener 1989,Abbiw 1990, Borget 1993, Burkill 2000, Kibungu Kembelo 2003

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Albizia adianthifolia var adianthifolia (Mimosaceae)

Common names Mulu

Description A tree 5 - 10 m high in the savanna but it may reach 35 m in forest areas. It has a fewwide spreading branches and a flat crown.

Ecology The tree is common and spreads rapidly. A tree of the moist savanna regions from Senegal tothe Sudan and in southern Africa.

Propagation The tree can be grown from seed, or wild seedlings can be transplanted. Seed should notbe stored for longer than 3 months. Ash can be mixed with the seed to keep insects away.

Management The tree is slow growing and can be grown intercropped with food crops withoutaffecting the yields of the latter.

Uses Young leafy shoots, coarsely cut up, are eaten cooked in R.D. Congo. Fresh leaves are reported tohave a protein content of over 10%. Leaves are also used as a relish in Zimbabwe. A decoction of theleaves is used to treat stomach problems in Bas-Congo. Timber is used for carving and hut building,though it is coarse and soft and not resistant to termites. The firewood gives a good heat but burnsquickly. The wood is also used for charcoal making. The tree fixes nitrogen. It is the food plant ofImbrasia eblis edible caterpillar and of a silkworm species in Bas-Congo, probably an Anaphe sp.

References Irvine 1961, Konda et al. 1992, Mbemba & Remacle 1992, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1995,Katende et al. 2000, Nsimundele 2004

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Albizia chinensis growing in the jardin botanique, Kisantu

Albizia chinensis (Mimosaceae)

Synonym A. stipulata

Common names Chinese albizia, silktree

Description A tree from 5 to 15 m high, but it can grow up to 20 m tall. The compound leaves havefrom 4 to 14 pairs of leaflets each with 20-30 pairs of pinnae. The white flowers are 8-12 mm long, inheads 20-25 mm in diameter, usually borne in wide terminal panicles. The corolla is white with stamensup to 30 mm long. Pods are flat, 10-17 cm long. Seeds are laterally flattened, 7 mm long.

Ecology The tree was introduced from Australia where it grows in mixed, deciduous forests up to aheight of 1,300 m. It is also present in tropical rain forests in south-eastern Asia which have an annualrainfall of 1,000 - 5,000 mm. It is particularly suited to poor soils.

Propagation Can be grown from seed.

Remarks The tree resists wind damage and boring insects better than A. falcataria.

Uses Produces a soft, light timber which can be used for furniture and planking and may be useful forpulp and paper. It is sometimes grown for shade on plantations and for the fertility building value of thefallen leaves. It is also reported as an important browse tree. The branches are used for fodder at theend of the growing season when the leaves are past their succulent stage. In the early stages leavesmay be toxic to animals as they contain saponin. Prolonged feeding, even of mature leaves, may alsocause toxic symptoms.

References NAS 1979, Pauwels 1993, Wagner et al. 1999

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Albizia ferruginea (Mimosaceae)

Common names Sela

Description A forest tree growing to 45 m high with spreading flat branches and a domed crown.Flowers are greenish-white, up to 12 mm long, and are borne in small clusters on hairy stalks. Theyhave long protruding stamens.

Albizia ferruginea near Gombe Matadi

Ecology Grows in the savanna in Bas-Congo. Also present from Senegal to Uganda and south toAngola.

Propagation Can be grown from seed or seedlings collected from the wild.

Uses A good timber tree with possibilities as an oak substitute. The timber is hard, easy to work andresistant to decay. It is often used for charcoal making in Bas-Congo. It is a promising species forafforestation which coppices freely. It is probable that roots nodulate and fix nitrogen in the soil. Foodplant for Minsangula, Mimpemba, N'kankiti, Masela and Minsendi edible caterpillars. Bees work theflowers during September in Bas-Congo. It is also known as a bee forage in Gabon.

References Irvine 1961, NAS 1979, Ambougou 1991, Kibungu Kembelo 1995, Keay 1989, Sutherland1996

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The flowers only last a few days

Albizia lebbeck (Mimosaceae)

Common names Langue de femme (Fr.), woman's tongue tree

Description A deciduous tree from 5 – 15 m high, with characteristic seed pods.

Ecology Occasionally planted in villages in Bas-Congo. Tolerant of grass fires. The tree is not wind-firmbecause of its shallow root system.

Propagation The tree produces large quantities of seed which germinate easily after being put inboiling water. This is then left to cool for 24 hours. Seed can be stored but must be quite dry. It can besown in a nursery or planted direct into the field. The tree can also be grown from stem or rootcuttings. It sprouts root suckers when its roots are injured. Shade inhibits germination and seedlinggrowth.

Management The tree can be pollarded and coppiced.Because of its shallow roots it should not be planted nearhouses. The young plants must be well weeded for the firsttwo years and livestock must be kept away from young trees.

Uses The tree is a useful shade tree which provides erosioncontrol and produces small timber which is good for fuelwoodand charcoal. The wood is sometimes used for furniture andhouse construction but is attacked by borers and fungi. It isdifficult to saw and machine. Leaves can be used for fodder.They contain up to 20% protein and the flowers and pods areparticularly valuable for fodder during the dry season. The treefixes nitrogen in the soil and the leaves are useful as mulchingand for green manure. The pounded bark can be used as asoap substitute. Bees forage for pollen and nectar, especially atlower altitudes and in dry areas. The flowers produce a pleasant, light coloured honey.

References Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, NAS 1980, Pauwels 1993, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Mbuya et al.1994, Burkill 1995, ICRAF 1998

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Male flowers

Alchornea cordifolia (Euphorbiaceae)

Common names Kibunsi, kibunsila, bunzi, Christmas bush

Description Often a scrambling, perennial shrub or small tree up to 4 m high. The stem is woody,much branched and bushy when young. Leaves are simple and alternate, 10 - 28 cm long and 6.5 -16.5 cm wide. The leaf blade is heart shaped at the base, pointed at the apex, and borne on a longpetiole. Male flowers are borne on long spikes while the female flowers are produced on short stalks.

Alchornea cordifolia with fruit near Mbanza Nzundu

Ecology Widespread in tropical Africa in forest regrowth and riverine forest. Found particularly inmarshy areas but sometimes in drier sites. Suited to acid soils.

Propagation Most easily propagated from stem cuttings, which take in 9 weeks, but can also be grownfrom seed. Germination takes place after 3 -12 weeks when directly planted into moist soil.

Management Coppice regrowth is vigorous and better thanmany other species.

Uses In Bas-Congo the tree is reported to improve soil fertilityand is known to be effective in restoring calcium levelsparticularly in acid soils. It is one of the first trees to re-establish in Chromolaena odorata bush. It produces goodfirewood, stakes and abundant foliage. Dried leaves are usedas a tea substitute and the red fruits attract birds, which arethen trapped using latex smeared on the twigs. The tree isrecommended as a browse plant for livestock. It is widely usedmedicinally and the leaves have been shown to be effective inthe treatment of diarrhoea and skin diseases. The poundedbark is used to treat tooth decay and coughing, and a decoction of the roots to treat dysentery.Reported as a bee forage in Bas-Congo from June to August.

References Castagné 1983, Cobbina & Reynolds 1988, Kang & Reynolds 1989, Pauwels 1993, Slaats1995, Neuwinger 2000, Nsimundele 2004, Pousset 2004

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Weeding Allium fistulosum at Cochards farm

Allium fistulosum (Alliaceae)

Common name Ndembi, bola, niasibola, ciboule (Fr.), welsh onion

Description A perennial herb which grows in clumps up to 50 cm high. The welsh onion produces arelatively indistinct bulb up to 10 cm long and 2.5 cm in diameter. Leaves are hollow and 15 - 50 cmlong. White flowers are borne in an umbel on a hollow stalk 40 - 50 cm tall.

Ecology The plant is grown particularly in Kinshasa (commune de N’sele) and around Mbanza Ngungu.Widely grown in tropical Africa. Prefers well-drained soils with plenty of organic matter. Tolerates bothheavy rainfall and drought, once established, and grows well up to 2000 m, but prefers altitudes over1000 m where it gives better yields.

Propagation Grown from seed or by division. Seedlings are transplanted when 15 - 20 cm high to 24 -30 cm between rows and 15 - 20 cm in the row. The tops should be reduced by a third when dividingclumps.

Management Harvesting may be extended by detaching the outer leafy shoots from the main clusterwithout disturbing the parent plant. Alternatively the whole plant can be lifted and divided. Plants areusually ready to harvest 60 - 120 days from planting depending on the particular variety. Yield can beup to 20 tons/ha.

Uses A very popular vegetable in Kinshasa and Bas-Congo and alsoan important commercial crop to farmers in the above areas. Leavesand bulbs are used for flavouring soups, eaten as a boiled vegetablewith cassava leaves, fried with simsim, or cooked with pumpkin, fish,meat, beans or eggs. A special delicacy is prepared using hot peppers.The flowers (right) are an important source of nectar in areas whereextensive crops of this plant grow. Flowering is induced by lowtemperatures once the plants reach a critical size. Blanched leafbases, produced by earthing up, may be used instead of leeks. Plants are reported to reduce termiteinfestation in the garden.

References Herklots 1972, Purseglove 1972, Siemonsma & Kasem Piluek 1993, Brewster 1994, Kondaku Mbuta – personal communication 2004

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Aloe congolensis (Asphodelaceae)

Common names Ba di nseki

Description A low growing succulentplant with spines along the leaf edges.

Left and above : Aloe congolensis inflower near Ipene village.

Ecology Grows in the savanna in Bas-Congo and is fairly common.

Propagation Stem cuttings, offsets or leaf cuttings maybe used. Cuttings root easily. Allow them to dry forseveral days before planting. The plant can also begrown from seed.

Right : Chopped leaves of Aloe ferox at the ANAMEDcentre in Kinshasa.

Uses The leaf sap is applied to sores,wounds and especially burns. It is alsoused to treat skin eruptions, pain in thejoints, inflammation of the breast andas a laxative.

Left : Aloe sp. growing at the Kisantubotanic garden.

References Daeleman & Pauwels1983, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Pousset2004

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Amaranthus cruentus (Amaranthaceae)

Common names Mbwembo, ngwengo, biteku teku (Lingala), amarante (Fr.), amaranth

Description An annual herb up to 2 mtall. The leaves are twice or three times aslong as wide and often have pointed leaftips. This species is known to be highlyresistant to root-knot eelworms. A varietycalled Bowa, with red and green leaves, isalso grown.

Ecology Cultivated throughout the tropicsand subtropics. Growth rate is best at hightemperatures, in bright light and withadequate water and minerals. Dailywatering is required as shortage of watercauses early flowering, reduces yield andproduces a poor quality crop. Amaranthsperform better than Celosia in open areas,the latter preferring some shade. The cropresponds well to organic manure, whichtends to encourage leaf production anddelay flowering. It grows well ondecomposed town waste.

Propagation By seed, but germination isirregular. Planting can be done at any timeand the seedlings can be either left in theplanting bed and harvested whole ortransplanted 20 x 20 cm apart once theyare 5 - 8 cm high. The side shoots arethen harvested as required. Tender plantsneed some protection from heavy rain.

Right: Amaranthus lividus(Nkuka bangulu).

Management Harvesting canbegin 3 to 4 weeks afterplanting. The crop is eitheruprooted whole or cut back ata height of 10 - 15 cm to produce side shoots. Cutting low down retards bolting but at least two leavesand buds should be left on the plant. Yields of 30 to 40 tons/ha. may be obtained. Wet rot or stem rot isa major problem, favoured by wet conditions and poor soil fertility. Avoid planting too densely.Caterpillars, in particular, but also grasshoppers and stem borer larvae, can be troublesome. Nematodesare not a serious problem.

26

Villagers outside the author’s temporary home in Kintudi village

Uses An important green leaf vegetablewith a high dry matter content (9 - 22%).Average protein content of 100 g edibleportion of Amaranthus sp. is 4.6 g. Theshoots can be picked regularly at 2 - 3 weekintervals and make a good spinach. Theplant is an important source of vitamins Aand C, calcium and iron and also of lysine,an essential amino-acid lacking in dietsbased on cassava. Protein concentration ishighest before flowering. No more than 200g of leaves should be eaten per day to avoidoxalate poisoning. Two wild species A.spinosus Bowa dia nsende and A. lividusNkuka bangulu are also eaten in Bas-Congo.

Left: Nsunda, Jean Pierre witha plant being grown for seed.

References Konda et al. 1992, Martin et al1998, Schippers 2002, Grubben 2004

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Photo : Frieda Billiet

Anacardium occidentale (Anacardiaceae)

Common names Nkasu, cajou, anacardier (Fr.), cashew nut

Description A low sprawling evergreen tree to 15 m. Trees with sparse foliage indicate poorconditions. Shoot growth occurs throughout the year where rainfall is well distributed. Both tap andlateral roots are very extensive. Flowering takes place after the growth flush at the end of the rainyseason. Flowering period may extend over 4 months, though is mainly within 4 to 6 weeks. Insectsespecially ants and bees are known to be important for pollination.

Ecology Originally from South America but nowfound in many tropical areas. Occurs occasionallyin Bas-Congo. The tree is drought resistant andrequires deep, friable, sandy loam soils. Fairly dryweather is needed during flowering and maturingfruit needs completely dry conditions. Humidclimates tend to favour fungal growth and insectpests.

Propagation Normally grown from seed. It isimportant to select nuts from a high yielding tree.They should not float when put in water, andhave a high kernel to shell ratio. Dry seed in thesun for 2 days and do not keep longer than 7months. Soak seeds in water before planting.Seedlings grow up to 1 m per year. Seed shouldbe planted direct into the field. However if grown

in bags first, seedlings should be planted out no later than 7 days after germination. Plant at 5 cm deep.Air or ground layering and budding or grafting can also be used for propagating good varieties.

Uses Both nut and fleshy fruit areedible. The kernel contains 21%protein, 44% fat and 29%carbohydrate. Though average yieldsmay be only 9.5 kg, up to 60 kg nutscan be harvested from a single tree.The apple is rich in vitamin C andriboflavin. It is eaten fresh or used tomake jam, syrup, juice or candiedfruit. The tender young leaves can beused to flavour rice. The leaves areused medicinally to treat diabetesand toothache and the bark for highblood pressure and toothache. Thewood is termite resistant and suitablefor house building. It also produces agood firewood and charcoal. Thegum obtained from the trunkresembles gum arabic, is a goodadhesive, insect repellent and is usedfor bookbinding. Cashew nut oil is an important industrial product used in the production ofpreservatives and for waterproofing. The fleshy fruit is rubbed on the gum to treat toothache in Bas-Congo. Bees frequently visit the flowers for both pollen and nectar. The honey produced is light whenfirst collected but becomes darker when stored. It granulates slowly.

References Ohler 1979, Pauwels 1993, Verheij & Coronel 1991, Lakshmi et al. 2000, Nsimundele 2004,Pousset 2004

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Some edible insects in Bas-Congo

Insects are an important part of the diet inBas-Congo. Here a cricket, ‘Nzenze’(Brachytrupes sp.), is dug out of its burrowunderground. A tell-tale pile of soil on thesurface is the only sign to guide the hunter.

Right : Kungu nsudi grasshoppers feed ingroups, so can be caught in greater numbers

Left :- Bunaea alcinoe collected fromCananga odorata on the school compoundat Kavwaya

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Ananas comosus (Bromeliaceae)

Common names Kikakasi, nanasi, kifubu, ananas (Fr.), pineapple

Description A perennial, semi-succulent herb, 50 – 150 cm tall. Leaves are sword-shaped, up to 1 mlong and 5 – 8 cm wide. The flower head is compact with reddish-purple flowers. Fruit 20 cm long witha diameter of 14 cm, weighing 1 – 2.5 kg.

Ecology Low altitudes produce very sweet fruit while altitudes above 2000 m produce acid fruit. Theplant is frequently found growing in the forest but is also often planted. Good drainage is important andthe soil should be deeply cultivated. Cloudy days reduce growth and result in small fruits but intensesun during fruit ripening can cause sun-scald.

Propagation can be grown from crowns, slips or suckers. Crowns are commonly used. They should bestored upside down in the shade until the butt is dried. Plant out at 50 x 40 cm.

Management Weeding is important. Remove unwanted suckers and slips.

Uses An excellent fruit which is rich in vitamin C. Fresh fruits contain a protein digesting enzyme that isnot produced commercially. Eating ripe fruit can help relieve stomach pains. Leaves contain 3% fibre(called pina silk - used to make a fine fabric) and are used for tying in Bas-Congo. Slightly unripe fruit iseaten to treat tooth decay and to expel intestinal worms but very unripe fruit is toxic and should not beeaten. The water from boiling the roots can be taken to encourage urination.

Remarks Ripe fruit does not travel well, but though unripe fruit may be easier to transport, the tastemay be poorer.

References Nair 1980, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Verheij & Coronel 1991,Nakasone & Paull 1998, Pousset 2004

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Anchomanes difformis (Araceae)

Common names Mpansa makunsi, nzete ki simbi, dioko di kisimbi, kikwa ki bankita, forestanchomanes

Description A large herbaceous plant arisingfrom a horizontal tuber up to 80 cm long by 20 cmwide, with distinct annual leaf base scars. Thestem or leaf stalk is stout, dark to purplish green,speckled white and prickly, growing to 3 m high.This bears a huge much-divided leaf, up to 1.5 min width. The flower is a spadix 10 – 20 cm longwhich produces red to purplish single seededberries 1.5 – 2 cm long.

Left : Anchomanes difformis inforest near Kinsinga village

Ecology Occurs in forested areas up to 1200 m,from Sierra Leone to Cameroon and south to theCongo. Also present in Uganda, Tanzania andZambia.

Uses In Bas-Congo both the leaves andthe underground tuber are usedmedicinally to treat increased heartbeat,hernias and rheumatism. The tuber isboiled with palm oil and used to treatinfertility in women. It is also used to treathernias in men, being mixed with the fruitof Oncoba welwitschii and Rhipsalisbaccifera and boiled up in palm oil. Therhizome is eaten in times of scarcity. Somepeople say it requires repeated washing in

water treated with ashes and prolonged cooking, othersreport that it can be prepared just as for cassava. It canalso be sun-dried and stored. The rhizome is usedmedicinally elsewhere in Africa.

References Burkill 1985, FTEA 1985, Peters et al 1992,White & Abernethy 1997, Neuwinger 2000, KibunguKembelo 2003

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Anisophyllea quangensis (Rhizophoraceae)

Common names Mfungu mfungu, mfungu, mbila esobe (Lingala)

Description A shrub 20 – 60 cm high growing from a fibrous rhizome more than 1 cm in diameter.Leaves have petioles 1 - 3 mm long and are 2.5 - 8 long and 1 - 3 cm wide. The red fruits, 25 - 35 x 13- 20 mm, are produced in both wet and dry seasons.

Ecology A common plant in the dry savanna where it is often found in patches up to 10 m in diameter.It is also present in Gabon, Angola and Zambia.

Propagation A second species, A. poggei is planted using seed.

Uses The fruits are edible and produced throughout the year. They are rich in vitamin C and have apleasant, refreshing taste.

References Adriaens 1951, FAC 1987, Nsimundele 2004

Erosion is often a seriousproblem on the hard, savannasoils. To protect them, buildridges for crops that runacross, rather than down theslope.

Photo : Emmanuel Miaglia

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Annona muricata (Annonaceae)

Common names Mbundu ngombe, corossol, corossol épineux (Fr.), soursop

Description A shrub or small tree growing from 5 to 8 m high.

Ecology The tree is grown in much of tropical Africa and requires an annual rainfall of 1000 mm ormore. It grows well in sunlight or partial shade and prefers fairly rich, deep, well drained soils.

Propagation Usually grown from seed whichcan be stored for several months. Sow seed ina moderately shaded nursery bed, in loosemoist soil, rich in organic matter. Germinationoccurs after 15 - 20 days, but sometimes cantake up to 3 months. Transplant in a ball ofsoil when 15 cm high. Seedlings or graftedplants grow rapidly and usually bear fruit afterthree years. Trees can also be easilyestablished from cuttings. Young trees shouldbe mulched and watered in the first year.They are ready for grafting after 5 - 6 months.Budding is carried out using a dormant budtaken from 1 year old, well matured wood.

Management Generally planted out after 4months at a spacing of 5 - 7 m. Apply somemanure in the early stages and add mulch tokeep the soil moist and control weeds.Encourage the tree to branch once it reaches1 m tall. Hand pollination improves fruiting.Fruits must not be picked until ripe. Trees aresometimes attacked by mealy bugs and scaleinsects. The latter can be controlled with aspray made from hot chillies and sugar-canealcohol, but preventing the ants, which carrythe scale insects, from climbing the trees, is a

better remedy. This can be done by wrapping plastic sheet, covered with a layer of grease, around themain stem, just below the first branch.

Uses Fruit is eaten fresh or sieved to obtain the juice.The fruit pulp is rich in vitamins B and C.

Remarks The seeds are poisonous and should not beeaten. An insecticide can be prepared from the leaves orseeds of all Annona species. The spray prepared from theseeds is more effective than from the leaves. Crush 40 gseeds and soak them in 1 litre of water for 1 - 2 days.Filter and spray plants affected by ants, aphids etc. Cropscan be eaten two days later. Crushed seeds and leavescan also be used to treat head lice but great care shouldbe taken during preparation and use to see that thecrushed seeds and powder do not get into the eyes.

References NAS 1975, Burkill 1985, Morton 1987,Garner & Chaudhri 1988, Veheij & Coronel 1991, Katendeet al 2000, Stoll 2000

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Minsendi edible caterpillars feeding onAnnona senegalensis

Annona senegalensis subsp. oulotricha (Annonaceae)

Common names Kilolo, wild custard apple

Description A spreading, slow growing shrub or small tree from 2 to 6 m high. Established trees arefire resisting and sprout readily from the stumps.

Annona senegalensis bearing fruit in January near Kinsadi

Ecology A common savanna species in Bas-Congo. Found all over Africa in semi-arid to sub-humidregions. Grows mostly as an under-storey shrub on light, infertile and shallow soils. Grows best wherewater is readily available.

Propagation Use seed, root suckers or wild seedlings. Seeds may be sown without treatment, thoughscarification may improve germination. Seeds germinate well on recently cultivated or burnt land. Theyare susceptible to insect damage and lose viability after 6 months. Root suckers are produced after fireor by mechanical damage.

Uses The fruit is edible but the seeds should be spatout as they are poisonous if crushed. Stems are used inhut building and for tool handles. The timber makesgood firewood. Rope is made from young suckershoots. The soluble wood ash can be used for makingsoap. The young leaves and roots are used in Bas-Congo to treat diabetes, painful joints, anaemia andepilepsy and the gum is applied to cuts and wounds toseal them. Elsewhere the bark, leaves, roots and seedsare said to have medicinal and insecticidal properties.Eating the fruit is useful for the treatment of guinea worm. The leaves are eaten by Lobobunaeaphaedusa and Minsendi edible caterpillars in Bas-Congo. Reported as a good bee plant flowering fromSeptember to November.

References Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Williamson 1975, Kokwaro 1976, Arkinstall 1979, Mbuya etal. 1994, ICRAF 1998, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Nsimundele 2004

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Annona squamosa (Annonaceae)

Common names Pomme cannelle, attier (Fr.), sweetsop, sugarapple

Description Woody, semi-deciduous shrub or small tree growing 3 - 6 m high. Fruits are sweet andslightly acid.

Ecology Occurs at low and medium altitudesthroughout the tropics. Generally, it does bestin dry areas and it has high drought tolerance.The tree is shallow-rooted and needs a well-drained sandy soil.

Propagation Normally grown from seed,which can be kept for up to 3 years, butgrafting is used to improve production. Theseeds germinate better if left for a week afterremoval from the fruit. Germination may take30 days or more but can be hastened bysoaking for 3 days, though the numbergerminating is said to be better usingunsoaked seeds.

Management Pruning to improve shape andstrength of the tree must be done only at the startof the rains, when the sap is rising, otherwisepruning may kill the tree. Hand pollinating theflowers can increase yields. Seedlings, 5 years old,can produce 50 fruits per tree. With age, the fruitsbecome smaller and it is considered best to replacethe trees after 10 to 20 years. If picked before thewhite, yellowish or red tint appears between therind segments the fruits will not ripen but just turnblack and dry. However if fruits are allowed to ripenfor too long on the tree, they fall apart.

Uses The fruit is edible. A highly purgative tea ismade from the roots, and a mildly laxative and tonictea from the leaves. Crushed leaves and seeds canbe used to control aphids and other crop pests as described for A. muricata. The leaves may be put inpoultry nests to repel lice.

References Morton 1987, Garner & Chaudhri 1988, Veheij & Coronel 1991

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Anonidium mannii (Annonaceae)

Common names Mobe, mundenge

Description A tree 15 - 30 m high with a girth of up to 2 m. Trunk is short, dark grey to dark green,the outer bark is thick and spongy, the inner bark dark brown, fibrous and aromatic. The tree has adense crown with branches arching down. Leaves have petioles 0.3 – 1 cm long and are 20 – 40 cmlong by 7 – 17 cm broad. The tree is easily recognized by its large leaves and the flowers and fruitsborne on leafless branches below the foliage. Fruits are 20 – 30 cm long, green at first then turningyellow and finally black. Fruit is produced in January at the botanic garden in Kisantu.

Anonidium mannii tree at Kisantu botanic garden

Ecology Found in Nigeria, Cameroon, Central AfricanRepublic, Gabon, Congo and Ghana in dense lowlandrain forest.

Propagation Can be grown from seed.

Uses Fruit pulp is edible with a sweet/sour taste. In theCongo pieces of bark are put in water and the liquiddrunk for gastro-intestinal problems. The bark, fruitsap, seeds and roots are used elsewhere in Africa totreat a wide range of illnesses including dysentery,coughs, rheumatism, oedema, feverish stiffness in thelimbs, wounds, snake-bite, epilepsy, dizziness, caries,angina, to ease childbirth, haemorrhoids, constipation,female sterility, diarrhoea, asthma and rectal prolapse.

References Irvine 1961, Burkill 1985, Keay 1989,Pauwels 1993, Neuwinger 2000

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Mimpemba edible caterpillar

Photo : L. Lemaire

Anthocleista schweinfurthii (Loganiaceae)

Common names Mpukumpuku

Description A bush or tree from 3 to 30 m highwith a trunk 8 – 70 cm in diameter. The largeleaves may be up to 45 cm long and 3.5 – 18 cmwide. Flowers are white or cream 55 – 60 cmlong.

Left : Mpukumpuku in regenerated forestsurrounding beehives near Kavwaya.

Ecology Found both in the bush and savanna,generally in dry sites up to 1800 m. It is presentfrom south-western Nigeria to Sudan and south toZambia and Angola and is common in Bas-Congo.

Uses A root decoction is taken to prevent malaria, toexpel worms and to treat hard abscesses in Bas-Congo. Elsewhere in Africa a decoction of leaves isused to treat pain in the side. The leaves are eaten byMimpemba edible caterpillars. Bees are reported tovisit the flowers for nectar.

Left : A. liebrechtsianaflowering duringthe rain season

References FAC 1979,Keay 1989, Ambougou1991, Pauwels 1993,Burkill 1995, Neuwinger2000, Nsimundele 2004

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Antidesma membranaceum (Euphorbiaceae)

Synonym A. meiocarpum

Common names Zaladinkanka, kifitidi, pink tassle-berry

Left : Branch bearingfruit

Description A shrub orsmall tree to 18 m high.Bark pale grey, slightlyfissured, pink when cut.Twigs and young foliagehave a dense mat ofshort hairs. Leaves are3.5 – 15 cm long and 2– 6 cm wide and ratherdensely hairy on thenerves and on the undersurface of the veins. Theleaf stalk is slender,

about 6 mm long and hairy. Flowers yellowish-green, produced on the main trunk and older branchesfrom just above ground level to 7 m. The male flowers have an unpleasant smell. Fruit is blackish, veryshortly stalked, oval, 2 – 5 mm long; in racemes up to 25 cm long.

Ecology Widespread in tropical Africa from Senegal to Ivory Coast, and from Angola to Mozambiquewhere it is mainly found infringing forest in savannaregions.

Right : Imbrasia petiveri(Bisu) edible caterpillarsfeeding.

Uses The leaves and aninfusion of the roots isused to calm coughing.Scrapings from the rootsare used to cure mouthulcers in children in Bas-Congo. Elsewhere theroots are used as a curefor pneumonia and as aremedy for kwashiorkor.Powdered bark is used as adusting on wounds inTanzania. Bisu (Imbrasia petiveri) edible caterpillars eat the leaves of this tree.

References Kokwaro 1976, Burkill 1985, Keay 1989, Pauwels 1993, Palgrave 1996, Nsimundele 2004

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Imbrasia anthina

Antidesma venosum (Euphorbiaceae)

Common names Fitidi di nseke

Description A small tree with a straight, grey trunk growing to 2 - 8 m high. Bark is fibrous, grey orgrey-brown, and pinkish-brown when cut. Leaves are alternate with short petioles, oval to elliptic andoften rounded at both ends, 3 - 20 cm long by 2 - 9 cm wide, sometimes densely hairy on the undersurface. Flowers pale yellow. The male and female flowers hang down in spikes and are on differenttrees. Fruit is white when young but turns red and then black in long pendulous spikes.

Ecology Found in woodland, forest margins and wooded savanna from Senegal to Namibia and fromSudan to Natal.

Propagation Can be grown from seed and by dividing the roots. Collect the fruits, dry in the shade andsow in a mixture of half river sand and half loam soil. Cover the seeds with a thin layer of sand andkeep moist and warm. Seeds usually germinate after 10 - 20 days. Germination rate is normally 70 -80%.

Uses Poles are used for hut building and thebranches make good firewood. Fruits areedible with a slightly acid to sweet mulberry-like taste. A black-purple dye can be madefrom them. Flowers are reported to be visitedby bees. An infusion made from the leaves androots is taken for coughs. Food plant forMinsongo (Imbrasia anthina), an ediblecaterpillar in Bas-Congo.

References Wild et al. 1972, Pauwels 1993,Venter & Venter 1996, Ruffo et al. 2002

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photo : Luc Pauwels

Arachis hypogaea (Fabaceae)

Common names Nguba, arachide (Fr.), groundnut

Description A low growing annual plant, 30 - 60 cm high. Bush types, as opposed to runner types, aregrown in Bas-Congo.

The ADEP farmers group, near Mbanza Nzundu with a harvested crop.

Ecology Grows in tropical and subtropical regions. Soil should be a well-drained sandy loam. Calciumdeficiency may lead to ‘blind’ nuts. Groundnuts should not be sown more frequently than 3 or 4 yearsafter the previous crop. Harvesting should be done during dry weather.

Propagation Seed should be shelled just before planting. Plant 2 seeds per hole, 5 - 7 cm deep. Space15 - 25 cm apart. Close spacing and early planting helps to reduce ‘rosette’ disease.

Management Groundnuts mature after 3 - 4 months. 1000 - 1350 kg per ha is a good yield but 500 kgper ha is more usual.

Uses The roasted nuts are an importantfood in Bas-Congo. A favourite dish is madefrom peanut butter sauce eaten withmfumbwa (Gnetum africanum) or withcaterpillars. A vegetable oil can be obtainedfrom the seed.

Remarks Bacterial wilt may be serious inwet areas. Resistant varieties are available.In damp conditions groundnuts can becomeinfected with a mould, Aspergillus flavus,which produces dangerous Aflotoxin.

References Purseglove 1968, Godin andSpensley 1971, FAO 1986

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Artemisia annua (Asteraceae)

Common names Armoise Chinoise (Fr.), sweet Annie, sweet wormwood

Description An annual, aromatic herbwhich can grow to 2 m high. Animproved variety, suited to the tropics,is being promoted by Anamed usinghybrid seed. The plant grows to 3 mhigh and contains from 1 - 1.4 %artemisinin.

Ecology Originally from China. Theplant grows best in full sunlight and insandy soils.

Propagation Most easily grown from2 cm cuttings after removing theleaves. Do not try to collect the seedfrom existing plants as these will notgrow well. Hybrid seed should be sownin seed boxes. Soil should be heated tokill weed seeds before planting. Mix 10parts old compost or black soil with 10parts sand. Add 20 parts water andboil for at least 5 minutes. Whenplanting the seeds in a seed box do notcover with soil. Cover the box withclear plastic and make a few smallholes in it. Place in a bright place but

not in direct sunlight. Do not allow the soil to dry out. Transplant seedlings that are too close.Transplant into pots or bags when 5 cm high and then plant out when 15 cm high to 60 cm apart in thefield. Soil should be kept moist after transplanting.

Uses The leaves, either fresh or dried, are made into a tea which is used to treat malaria. This shouldhowever not be given to women in the first 3 months of pregnancy. Leaves should be harvested whenthe first flower buds appear and cut up and dried within 3 days. They are then crushed and passedthrough a mosquito net sieve. Remove all pieces of stem. Keep in the dark in an air-tight container.They may also be used to treat haemorrhoids, colitis and to increase the immunity of AIDS patients.The plant is also used in the treatment of jaundice and skin diseases.

References Uphof 1968, Simon et al. 1990, Hirt & M’Pia 2001

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Artocarpus altilis (Moraceae)

Synonym. A. communis, A. incisa

Common names Kikwa ki santu Petelo, arbre à pain (Fr.), breadfruit

Description Tree from 15 to 20 m tall. All parts of the tree produce a white, bitter latex. Fruits arenearly spherical 15 - 20 cm diameter, and either contain large seeds (breadnut) or are rough, but notspiny, and seedless (breadfruit). The fruiting season extends for up to 5 months.

Ecology The tree is sometimes found in villages in Bas-Congo. It thrives in a humid climate at lowaltitudes. The young plants require some shade, but for fruiting full sun is needed. It dislikes shallow orwaterlogged soils. Best growth is obtained in deep moist soils with high humus content and highfertility. Good drainage is essential.

Right: A young plant grown froma root cutting

Propagation The tree can be grown mosteasily from root suckers. Air layering mayalso be used or even cuttings, but this isnot easy. Root cuttings are taken frommature healthy trees, (indicated by thepresence of plenty of latex). These shouldbe taken from roots that lie just below thesoil surface, at the end of the dry season.They should be about 2.5 cm in diameterand are cut into 20 – 25 cm lengths. Thecuttings should be planted at an angle inshaded beds and watered frequently.Shoots and new roots may not beproduced for several months. Once shootsappear the roots can be divided up and planted in tubes. The cuttings must not be injured. Tar may beused to seal the thickest end. Provide shade over the cuttings. Transplant when shoots are 25 - 30 cmlong. This is normally after 14 months. Growth is rapid.

Management Fruits are harvested when they turn yellowish and drops of latex appear on the surface.The cut stalk must be immediately covered to stop bleeding.

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Uses The fruit is occasionally eaten in Bas-Congo. It is a very important food plant in much of thetropics. Fruit may be sliced and baked or it may be boiled when it becomes like Irish potato. The fruit,after being cut up and dried, can be powdered and made into flour which, for many recipes, can replacewheat flour. Some people recommend that the fruit should only be picked once it is completely ripe,others just before this. Fruit is normally ready 2 - 3 months from the emergence of the flowers. Thelight, soft wood is yellow and said to be resistant to white ants. It can be used for making boxes. Latexcan be used for trapping birds and for sealing boats. Leaves can be used as fodder in periods ofdrought. The fruit of some varieties needs to be boiled in two lots of water. Starch can be obtainedfrom the fruit which contains up to 60%. The tree is reported to have a number of medicinal uses. Theimmature seeds of the breadnut are edible after roasting or boiling in water to which salt has beenadded.

References Swaby 1979, FAO 1982, Burkill 1985, Garner & Chaudhri 1988, Aumeeruddy & Pinglo1988, Verheij & Coronel 1991, Ragone 1997

A young charcoal maker learns his father’s trade

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Artocarpus heterophyllus (Moraceae)

Common names Jacquier (Fr.), jackfruitDescription An evergreen tree whichnormally grows up to 20 m high. The fruitsmay weigh more than 50 kg, though theaverage is 18 kg. Seedlings have a longdelicate tap-root which makes them hard totransplant. No root suckers are produced.

Ecology Thrives in a moist tropical climate,though less exacting than breadfruit. Youngplants require protection from the sun.Needs adequate soil moisture and prefers adeep, fertile, well drained soil.

Propagation Grown from seed. These losetheir viability quickly so should be plantedwithin one month of harvest. Heavier seedsremain viable for longer and grow faster.Seeds should be rubbed with sand toremove the coat and then can be kept inmoist sand until planted. Germination takes35 – 40 days and soaking the seeds for 24hours improves and hastens germination.Seeds should be planted flat or with embryodownwards in a container which can rotdown afterwards.

Management Cut back fruiting twigs afterharvest. Pruning low branches encouragesthe production of large fruit on the trunk

rather than small fruit along the branches. Cuts orgashes can also be made in the trunk to encouragefruiting. Trees may fruit after 3 years, once theyhave reached 10 m high.

Uses A good shade tree, producing edible fruit.This is usually eaten fresh but may be cut into chipsand sun dried or boiled with salt. The starchy seedsare also edible after boiling. The water shouldhowever be changed once or twice to get rid of theobjectionable smell. The tree produces a goodtimber, which is used for house building, furnitureand tool handles. A dye is obtained from boiling theyellow heartwood. Bark contains resin, which isused as a bird-lime and for repairing pots. Theleaves are eaten by livestock, especially goats.Imbrasia petiveri edible caterpillars also feed on theleaves.

References Garner & Chaudhri 1988, Verheij &Coronel 1991, Burkill 1997

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Averrhoa carambola growing at the botanic garden, Kisantu

Averrhoa carambola (Oxalidaceae)

Common names Paka paka, carambolier (Fr.), carambola, star fruit

Description A much branched tree from 5 to 10 m tall. It comes into bearing in the fourth or fifth yearafter planting out. The flowers are cross-pollinated by bees, flies and other insects. Though fruit set isfairly high, much of the fruit drops late in the growth period. Yields of 45 kg per tree can be obtainedeven without applying fertilizers.

Ecology Grows best in the hot humid tropics. The tree will thrive on poor sandy soils in shelteredsituations up to 1200 m. Soil drainage must be good. Requires a fairly even distribution of rainfall andtolerates light shade.

Propagation isusually by seed. Cleanand dry the seedbefore sowing andthen plant in pots orboxes in light shadeand keep regularlywatered. Sow the seedas soon as possible.After germination theseedlings should betransplanted to anursery and graduallyhardened off. Buddingor grafting is preferredas this will ensure thatthe trees produce more quickly and evenly. The tree can also be grown from root suckers. A mix ofcultivars should be planted for effective cross-pollination.

Management Recommended spacing 6 x 6 m. Trees should be pruned and the fruit crop thinned outin the early years. The tree is fast growing.

45

Uses Fruits have a pleasant acid like flavour and,though usually eaten raw, are best cooked withsome sugar. Peel off the winged edges first. Thefruits contain vitamins A, B and some C withvaluable minerals, particularly potassium. The fruitjuice can be used as a detergent and removesstains from clothing. It can also be used forcleaning brass. The flowers are very attractive tobees.

References FAO 1982, Garner & Chaudhri 1988,Dupriez & De Leener 1989, Macmillan 1991,Verheij & Coronel 1991, Nakasone & Paull 1998,Katende et al. 2000.

A rat trap maker on his way toBuba market to sell a trap. Thesmall basket at the end is madefrom Mbamba = Eremospatha sp.

Many older people have a greatknowledge of the resources of thecountry as well as skills in usinglocal materials. It is vital that thisknowledge is passed on to thenext generation.

46

Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae)

Common names Nîm (Fr.), neemDescription A small to medium sized,deep rooted, evergreen tree up to 15m tall. The red heart-wood is hard anddurable. Leaves are alternate andcrowded towards the end of thebranches. Fruits 1 – 2 cm long ripeningfrom yellow to purple.

Ecology Native to India but grownwidely in the tropics. The tree isdrought tolerant and grows well onmost soils, including dry, stony, clayand shallow soils. However it will notgrow in waterlogged soils. Roots canextract moisture and nutrients frompoor sandy soils.

Propagation Normally grown fromfresh seed (no more than 2 - 3 weeksafter harvesting) in a nursery or can beplanted direct with crops. Germinationtakes place after about one week witha germination rate of 75 – 90%. Noseed treatment is necessary. The treecan also be grown from root and shootcuttings. It requires careful weedinguntil established. Light shade assistsearly growth.

Management The tree coppicesfreely and young shoots growfast.

Right : Seedlings growing atKisantu botanical garden

Uses The tree is a fast growingsource of good firewood whichcan be cut in an 8 year cycle. Thewood resists decay and termitedamage and is used for houseconstruction and furniture making.Neem poles are straight andstrong. The seeds contain up to40% oil which can be used as afuel for lamps. The fruits can be crushed, mixed with water and sprayed on plants to keep insects away.The leaves may be used to treat fever, stomach ulcers and malaria. In India the flowers are animportant source of a light golden honey.

References NAS 1980, Crane et al. 1984, ICRAF 1998, Pousset 2004

47

Bambusa vulgaris (Poaceae)

Common names Tutu, bambou (Fr.), bamboo

Description A bamboo of medium sizewith quick growing stems to 10 m high.The stems are very strong. Another varietywith yellow stems, striped with green, isalso present in Bas-Congo.

Ecology Originally from Java but nowwidely cultivated throughout tropicalAfrica.

Propagation By division of the clumps orby cuttings from rhizomes or stems.

Management Bamboo can be cut in a 3year cycle.

Uses Widely used for constructionpurposes - houses, huts, bridges,reinforcement for cement water tanks etc.Split poles can be used for roofing tiles,top bars for hives (though they should bewell dried out first) and planting tubes for

tree seedlings. Stem sheaths can be usedas covers for beehives. Goats browse theleaves. The plant is especially useful forerosion control e.g. around watersources. It can also be used for makingpaper, plywood, charcoal etc. The youngshoots are edible.

Split bamboo used as acover for a bee hive

Remarks Bamboo is very susceptible toborer attack. Soaking the stems in waterfor 2 - 3 months helps to preserve them.

References Purseglove 1972, Pauwels1993, Burkill 1994

Basella alba (Basellaceae)

Common names Taka ngola, épinard Indien, baselle (Fr.)

Description A short-lived creeper with fleshy, green or purplish, twining stems. It usually grows up toapproximately 4 m long.

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48

y Native to tropical Asia but now grown in many tropical regions. The plant tolerates a wideof soil conditions and grows best in fertile soils well supplied with organic material. Additionaln assists early growth. It is also well adapted to high temperatures and high rainfall though somes can withstand drought better than others. Lack of adequate water causes early flowering. Light will encourage the plant to produce larger leaves.

gation Can be grown from seed or 20 cm long cuttings. For seed the whole fruit is planted ines and then transplanted when 10 - 12 cm high.

ement Cuttings or seedlings are usuallyanted into raised beds at a spacing of 40 – 50 cmarvested after 2 – 4 months in Bas-Congo.er they can also be grown on a fence or trellisng shoots over a longer period. Frequent pruningral shoots is done when harvesting in order to the vegetative stage and prevent early fruiting.e shoots when they are from 15 - 25 cm long.p is very susceptible to nematodes but applying manure is helpful. The plant is otherwisely free from pests and diseases.

Right : Fruiting vines growingover a trellis at Sona Bata

he young shoots and leaves are relatively high inalue providing a useful source of minerals ands. There are two types - red and greened. The red one is preferred because it isd to produce more leaves.

nce Tindall 1983, Abukutsa-Onyango 2004

49

Bellucia pentamera (Melastomataceae)

Synonym Bellucia axinanthera

Common names Ekoti ya monseigneur (Lingala), Neflier de Costa Rica, chapeau de Monseigneur (Fr.)

Description Tree to 10 m high. Bark on thetrunk is fissured but scaly on the twigs.Leaves 20 – 30 cm long x 10.5 – 19 cm widewith clearly marked nerves inside the edges.Flowers are borne on the trunk or below theleaves on the branches. The tree growsquickly and produces abundant fruit.

Left : Young trees growing at Kasangulu

Ecology An introduced tree from CentralAmerica where it is found up to 1650 m. Itnow grows alongside streams and rivers inseveral places in Bas-Congo where it hasbecome an invasive weed.

Propagation The tree can be grown from seed.

Uses Sometimes cultivated for its fruit inIndonesia. The fruits are pleasant but notparticularly tasty.

Flowers and fruit appearing together in January

References Renner 1989, Verheij & Coronel 1991, Pauwels1993

50

Bidens pilosa (Asteraceae)

Common names Nsolokoto, kimana-ngansi, Spanish needles

Description An erect, aromatic, annual herb up to 1.5 m high, reproducing by seeds. Seed is about 1cm long, tipped with 2 - 4 barbed bristles which catch on animal fur and clothing.

Ecology Commonlyfound in disturbed andcultivated land. Theplant is native to SouthAmerica but nowspread through muchof Africa. A seriousweed of fields andgardens. It oftengrows along roadsides,and in waste places.

Uses The leaves,together withCapsicum peppers, areused to treathaemorrhoids. Theyare also used for chestinfections and the leafjuice is used for eyeproblems in Bas-Congo. In Uganda they

are boiled in water and used as a tea substitute to relieve wind. Plant extracts have shown anti-bacterialactivity. Elsewhere the leaves are used to treat high blood pressure, stomach ulcers, intestinal worms,wounds and recurrent fevers in children. The roots are used to treat constipation and malaria. Thoughthe leaves are not eaten in Bas-Congo they are an important green vegetable elsewhere. They keepwell and have good texture both before and after cooking. Some people like the resinous flavour. Theyoung shoots 2.5 - 5.0 cm long are a favourite dish throughout southern Africa eaten fresh, or dried andstored for later use. The plant is readily browsed by all domestic stock including poultry and has a highnutritive value. Bees collect small amounts of nectar and the abundant pollen, producing a goodflavoured honey which granulates slowly.

References Morton 1962, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Goode 1974, Martin & Ruberté 1975, Craneet al. 1984, Burkill 1985, Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Ruffo et al 2002, Nsimundele2004, Mvere 2004, Pousset 2004

51

Bixa orellana (Bixaceae)

Common names Nteke, rocouyer (Fr.), anatto tree

Description A shrubor small tree to 5 mhigh. Leaves 8 - 24 x 5- 15 cm stalked, some-times with reddishveins. Flowers about 6cm in diameter interminal panicles,petals white or palepink. Fruit a capsuleabout 5 cm long,covered with softspines, 2 valvedusually red butsometimes greendrying brown. Seedsare numerous withthin pulpy bright redskin.

Ecology Native totropical America and

the West Indies, but now widely introduced in the tropics, becoming naturalized in some areas. Itprefers a deep loamy soil. The tree is fairly drought resistant and is sometimes grown in villagecompounds.

Propagation Usually planted fromseed. Seedlings are spaced at 6 x 5m. Sow in a nursery bed andtransplant when 40 cm. high. Thetree can also be layered or grownfrom cuttings.

Management The tree startsbearing seed after 3 years. Shapethe tree by pruning and thinning tomaintain production.

Uses In Bas-Congo the seeds areused for colouring the body. Thedye is obtained by soaking them inwater. The pigment sinks to thebottom and is dried into cakes.Yield is 5 - 6% of the weight of seeds. The main commercial use is for colouring foodstuffs - butter,margarine, cheese and chocolate. The dye varies from red to orange and bright yellow. In addition tofood colouring, it is used in Brazil in pottery and as an insect repellent and, in the Philippines, in floor,furniture and shoe polishes, nail varnish, brass lacquer and hair oil. The tree can be grown as a hedge.

In Malaya it has been reported as being ableto grow up through Imperata cylindrica andtherefore has possibilities for regeneratingdegraded land. Bark produces a fairly goodfibre. The wood is very light. Annato dye isnot durable and it is no longer used onfabrics. The crushed seeds, mixed invegetable oil, can be applied to burns.

References Purseglove 1968, Burkill 1985,Dupriez & De Leener 1989, Macmillan 1991, Pauwels 1993, Pousset 2004

52

Boerhavia diffusa (Nyctaginaceae)

Common names Dibata bata, hogweed

Description A semi-prostrate annual herb with ascending or erect stems up to 60 cm tall, arising froma fleshy tuberous root. It reproduces from seed. Flowers are deep purple or crimson. The fruit is a oneseeded capsule about 3 mm long.

Ecology A tropical weed of cultivated fields, waste ground and roadsides.

Uses The whole plant and particularlythe root is used medicinally in Bas-Congo as a snake-bite antidote and tocounter inflammation. The roots arealso used as an aphrodisiac. The planthas numerous medicinal useselsewhere in Africa. A decoction ofthe root is taken to promote urinationand the root is chewed or an extractfrom the root drunk for gastro-intestinal problems. Root tea is drunkfor prolapse of the uterus. Freshplants are attractive to lice and usedto trap them. The whole plant is thenput in the fire. Leaves are eaten as avegetable in Kwango-Kwilu, though,as they contain various amounts ofalkaloids, can be toxic. The plant isunder observation at the nationalHorticultural Research Station at Ibadan, Nigeria as a new leafy vegetable. Seed and root are also eatenin some countries. Stock, especially sheep will eat the plant. In Bas-Congo goats often return home withcaterpillars, also called Bata bata, which have been feeding on the plant, around their mouths. Theseare edible. The flowers are reported to be visited by bees.

References Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987, Mbemba & Remacle 1992, Peters et al. 1992, Burkill 1997,Neuwinger 2000, Schippers 2002, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Nsimundele 2004, Pousset 2004

53

Borassus aethiopum (Arecaceae)

Common names Ba di madibu, ba di ndingi, rônier (Fr.), African fan palm

Description A tall, straight unbranched palm,with a crown up to 8 m wide, forming 15 - 30fan-shaped leaves up to 3.5 m long. Old trees(over 25 years) have a swelling of the trunk at12-15 m above ground. Flowers are yellowish.Male flowers are clustered in a branched spikeup to 1.5 m long. Female flowers have anunbranched and shorter spike. The fruit islarge with a diameter about 15 cm, orange tobrown when ripe. The fibrous pulp contains 3woody kernels with a coat which becomeshard when ripe.

Ecology Grows in the savanna and is alsoplanted in avenues in Bas-Congo. The tree iswidespread throughout the dry areas oftropical Africa usually on heavy soils orseasonally wet depressions. Its rainfall rangeis 500 – 1000 mm, and it has an altituderange up to 1350 m.

Propagation The tree can be grown by directsowing and by using seedlings. Seeds shouldbe dried in the shade. They can be sownwithout removing the pulp. Germination takesone month and seeds remain viable for 6months. In Togo the tree is planted at a 5 x 5m spacing.

Management A slow growing plant, the truestem does not appear above ground for 6 - 8 years. It then grows from 30 to 40 cm a year reaching itsfinal size after 25 years.

Uses The nuts are used to make rattles for dogswhen hunting in Bas-Congo. In Katanga thefibrous material around the seed is chewed andin Benin the young germinating shoots are friedand eaten. The tree is used for poles and forfirewood and charcoal, and the strong trunksare hard and resistant to termites and decay.They are used as posts and for the constructionof bridges. The timber is also used for door-frames, beehives and drums.

Right : Ripening fruit

The fruits and young leaves can be used forfodder and older leaves for thatching. A fibre isextracted from the leaves which is used asstring, and baskets and mats are made fromyoung leaves before they unfold. Oil can beobtained from the fruit and pulp. Root buds aresometimes eaten as a vegetable.

References Leloup 1956, Pauwels 1993,Katende et al. 2000

54

Brassica carinata (Brassicaceae)

Synonym B. integrifolia var. carinata

Common names Nkofi, épinard (Fr.), Ethiopian mustard

Description A hairless herb usually growing to 50 cm tall but may reach 120 cm. The main featuresdifferentiating this plant from B. juncea are blue-green coloured leaves which have no hairs, pale yellowflowers and seed pods which are flat when the pods are quite dry. In warm climates seed is producedreadily.

Ecology The plant is of African origin. Cultivated in the Ethiopian highlands between 1500 and 2600 m.Also present in Tanzania and central and West Africa but nowhere common. Occasionally found as aweed in cultivated ground. Prefers a fertile soil.

Propagation The crop is grown from seed in lines or broadcast. Mix the seeds with ash to discouragepest attack.

Management Cutting the plant at a height of about 15 cm encourages it to produce larger leaves.

Uses Leaves and young shoots are used as a vegetable or fodder. Leaves are soft textured and have aspecial mustard-like taste which can be quite sharp. The seeds are crushed and the oil is used forcooking or oiling earthenware baking plates in Ethiopia. The seeds are also eaten with meat in Ethiopia.Bees collect both pollen and nectar from this plant.

References Oomen & Grubben 1978, Maundu et al. 1999, Schippers 2002

55

Brassica juncea (Brassicaceae)

Common names Nkofi, moutard indigene, moutard de Chine, chou vert (Fr.), Indian or brownmustard.

Description An erect, much branched, strong smelling, annual herb which grows up to 1 m high.Leaves are light green and have small hairs. Some varieties bear bright yellow flowers. The seed-podsare rounded (when compared with B. carinata). The plant flowers in its first year but early floweringplants should be discarded for seed production. The vegetative stage is shorter than for B. carinata andB. oleracea.

Ecology Originally from Asia.This plant performs better duringthe cooler dry season as hightemperatures encourage diseaseand early flowering. Soils shouldbe high in organic matter but welldrained. Farmers in Zimbabweoften grow the crop on oldanthills where the soil is morefertile.

Propagation Seed is sown innursery beds and transplantedwhen 7 - 8 cm tall. The seeds arebest mixed with sand andbroadcast to avoid having toremove too many seedlings lateron. The first harvest can be inthe form of thinned-outseedlings, collected after about35 days from sowing. Leaves orshoots can be harvested weekly,extending over a 6-week period,after which the plant is uprooted.

Management Plants can beharvested 50 - 70 days aftersowing. The plant is more proneto disease than B. carinata.

Uses The leaves are used as acooked vegetable but should notbe eaten too often, and only after

boiling twice, to reduce the risk of goitre. However as they contain anti-carcinogenic properties they areof medicinal value. It is an important oil crop in India, as the seed contains 35% oil. This is used incooking and as a substitute for olive oil.

Remarks Bees collect both pollen and nectar and are important for pollination. Increased yields of seedare known to result from honeybee pollination.

References Terra 1966, Purseglove 1968, Tindall 1983, Crane & Walker 1984, Mnzava 1997, Schippers2002

56

Brassica oleracea (Brassicaceae)

Common names Kofi ntolula (Manianga), sukuma wiki (Swahili), chou vert (Fr.), kale

Description A perennial, stalk-forming cabbage growing up to 1 m high. Stems, up to 3 cm diameter,are sturdy and bear blue-green leaves on long stalks. Usually seed is not produced in the tropicsbecause flowering requires a cool resting period.

Ecology The plant requires a well drained and manured soil, preferably a sandy loam. It grows best athigher altitudes.

Propagation Normally grown from side shoots which should be planted in moist soil, preferably withadded compost. In Bas-Congo the crop is grown in the valley bottoms during the dry season. Plant outat 50 x 60 cm spacing. Young plants may be attacked by click beetles which eat small holes in theleaves.

Management Harvest tender side shoots before they become too large.

Uses An important green leaf vegetable in some places (e.g. Manianga), and often sold in markets. Theprotein content of the fresh leaf is approximately 2.5%. Leaves also contain A, B complex and Cvitamins. Avoid overcooking which reduces the vitamin C content particularly.

Remarks Club root can be a major problem. If possible grow on ground which has not had cabbagerelated plants before. Pests can also be a problem and control can sometimes be achieved by grindingthem up, mixing in water and spraying the liquid on the plants.

References Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Terra 1966, Purseglove 1968, Williamson 1975, Tindall1983, Burkill 1985, Macmillan 1991, Martin et al 1998

57

Brassica rapa (Brassicaceae)

Synonym Brassica chinensis

Common names Chou de Chine (Fr.), Chinese cabbage

Description Annual or biennial herb with a stout taproot. Basal leaves are broad, shining, bright green,20 - 50 cm long, with thickened white petioles. It does not form a compact head. Flowers are paleyellow 1 cm long. The fruits are slender 3 - 6 cm long. Stem erect, branched, up to 1.5 m high.

Ecology Widely grown in Bas-Congo, often on raised beds. Tolerant to a wide variety of soils, thoughfertile soils, which retain moisture, are best. Add compost if possible and mulch the soil. Requires fullsun and withstands heavy rainfall.

Propagation Seeds are sown in a nursery bed and planted out in rows 40 - 45 cm apart allowing 30 -40 cm between plants. Alternatively seed can be sown direct and plants thinned out to 30 - 40 cm.

Management Can be harvested 50 - 80 days from planting.

Uses Leaves can be cooked or eaten fresh. They have twice the nutritive value of headed cabbage.

Remarks Bees have been shown to increase the seed yields of all Brassica crops.

References Purseglove 1968, Tindall 1983, Jones 1999

58

A crop of “Pointe noire” being grown for seed near Kasangulu

Brassica rapa (Brassicaceae)

Common names Pointe noire (Fr.) The common name used in Bas-Congo. Pakchoi

Description The petiole is much thicker and longer than for Chinese cabbage and the leaves arefleshy, more rounded and dark-green.

Ecology The plant is tolerantof a wide range of soilconditions, althoughexcessively well drained soilsare unsuitable. Soil must bewell manured and the plantrequires plenty of moistureand full sunlight. Hightemperature reduces thetendency to early floweringbut results in bitter tastingleaves.

Propagation Seeds are sownin nursery beds andtransplanted to rows 40 - 50cm apart and 30 - 40 cmspacing within the row. It canalso be sown direct andthinned to 30 - 40 cm apart.For the non-heading variety1.5 - 2 kg seed are neededfor 1 ha. Mulching is usefulfor conserving moisture andcontrol of weeds.

ManagementHarvesting can takeplace, for the non-headed variety, from40 - 60 days aftersowing. Yields canreach 15 tons per ha.

Uses Normally eatenas a cooked vegetable.It is much morenutritious than whitecabbage and is a goodsource of calcium andvitamin A and C. Theleaves can be dried forlater use. Popularityfor this vegetable isincreasing in thehumid tropics ofAfrica. Bees forage forpollen and nectar in Bas-Congo during August.

References Tindall 1983, Martin et al 1998

59

t

Bridelia micrantha (Euphorbiaceae)

Common names Kimwindu, kimzindu, fibweza, muindu, kimuindu ki mfinda

Description A shrub or tree growing to 16 m but of rather crooked growth. It has a dense, widelyspreading crown. The trunk and branches, occasionally spiny when young, become fibrous and hairlesslater. Bark is light grey - brown. The tree branches low down. It sometimes has stilt roots.

Ecology The tree is common in the savanna, at the forest edge and in secondary forest in tropicalAfrica. It is often found in wet places but also in open woodland.

Propagation The tree is easily propagated by seed or can be grown from cuttings. Pick the ripe fruitswhen they turn purple or collect them from the ground. Squash and remove the seed. Rinse clean inwater and dry for 2 days in the shade. Germination is even and good, reaching 90 -100% after 30 days.Seed must be fresh. The fruit pulp contains a growth inhibitor and must therefore be removed from theseed. Sow the seeds in a river sand compost mix (2:1). Keep moist. Transplant at the two leaf stage.Seedlings and young plants transplant easily.

Management The tree grows fast and can be coppiced on a 30 year rotation or pollarded. It is grownin coffee and banana plantations to provide shadein Uganda.

Uses Host plant for several species of African silkworms including Anaphe infracta, A. panda and A.reticulata. Planting this tree has been encouragedfor the production of silk worms, particularly inUganda, but since the larvae are often eaten first,there are too few remaining to use for silkproduction (McCrae - personal communication).Food plant for N'kumbi edible caterpillar in Bas-Congo.

Left : Nkankiti edible caterpillars (Anaphe sp.)form a sack in which they remain during thedaytime emerging at night to feed.

60

Nkankiti caterpillars inside the sack

In Bas-Congo the liquid from the root bark andthe trunk is used to treat dental caries, anaemiaand haemorrhoids. After boiling down the leavesthe liquid is used for coughs and diarrhoea. Thebark and roots have other medicinal uses. Thewood is greyish with a dark brown heart, hard,naturally lustrous, very durable, heavy andtermite proof. When worked it takes a goodpolish and large timbers are good for indoorcarpentry and furniture. The wood is verydurable in contact with the ground and in water.It makes a good firewood and charcoal, givingout an intense heat.

The roots are extensive and are useful forbinding soil along drainage ditches etc. The fruitis edible and the leaves can be used as a fodder.The tree makes a good shade for coffee andcocoa. In the inner bark and outer sapwoodthere is a sticky substance which is adhesive.The inner bark with that of the Baobab is used to produce a glue for repairing boots and shoes in theGambia. Bark can also be pounded to a paste for filling in door cracks and caulking boats. The flowersare reported to be visited by bees in Bas-Congo. The twigs and young leaves give a black dye used tocolour pottery. The pounded bark yields a red dye.

Remarks Bridelia ferruginea (Kimuinduki nseke) is also present in Bas-Congo.The liquid resulting from soaking the rootand stem bark is used to treat diarrhoea,stomach-ache and coughing. A pastemade from scraping the inside of thebark is used as a wound dressing (seephoto on right). Elsewhere the bark isused to treat dysentery and rheumatism.The small sweet fruits are edible. Theliquid, after boiling the bark in water andmixing it with clay, forms a kind ofcement and can be used to protect flatroofs from rain and is of sufficientstrength to build terraces and houses.The timber makes good firewood, longlasting and picking up quickly from theembers, with a hot flame and littlesmoke.

References Irvine 1961, Busson 1965, Kokwaro 1976, Palgrave 1977, Keay 1989, Ambougou 1991,Mukoko Matondo 1991, Burkill 1994, Katende et al. 2000, Kibungu Kembelo 1995, Venter & Venter1996, Msanga 1998, SEPASAL 1999, Nsimundele 2004, Pousset 2004

61

Photo : Simon Bonnell

Brillantaisia owariensis (Acanthaceae) Synonym B. patula Common names Lemba lemba = "calm the nerves"

Description A robust shrub growing up to 2 m high. Leaves are pointed, toothed, 25 - 30 cm long and 11 - 13 cm wide with a winged petiole, included in the length. Flowers are terminal, violet or pink. Fruit is a capsule 25 mm long, bearing about 20 seeds. Ecology Gallery forest or commonly cultivated in villages. Often planted at the entrance to a village or in home gardens in Bas-Congo. Found from Togo to Congo and in Angola and Uganda. Propagation Can be grown from seed or by division. Uses The roots, stem and leaves of this plant are commonly used medicinally in Bas-Congo. The leaves, after being pounded and steeped in water, are used to treat dementia, coughs, worms, heart problems and stomach-ache. They are also used in the treatment of drug dependency with Tapinanthus poggei, Amaranthus cruentus and Nymphaea lotus. The plant is held, in Congo, to have magical power to exorcise evil spirits, and when treatment for epilepsy or insanity is being carried out, the patient is submitted to lotions and hot vapour baths made from the roots. Other Brillantaisia spp. are good bee forage plants. References FG 1966, Burkill 1985, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Pauwels 1993, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Latham 2002, Nsimundele 2004

62

Bryophyllum pinnatum (Crassulaceae)

Synonym Kalanchoe pinnata

Common names Luyuki, resurrection plant, Canterbury bells, air plant

Description An erect succulent perennial shrub about 1.5 m high. The flowers are borne in a loosedrooping panicle arising from the top of the plant and have corolla tubes which are reddish-purple atthe top.

Ecology Originally from Madagascar but now spread throughout West Africa and Congo. A commonweed around fields and villages.

Propagation The leaf buds root easily. The plant is also spread by seed.

Uses An important medicinal plant. The leaf juice is used to treat earache in Bas-Congo. Leaf sap isgiven to children with convulsions and epilepsy in Congo and two drops of leaf sap up the nose beforegoing to sleep is recommended to silence snorers! A cough medicine is made from the roots in SierraLeone

References Bouquet 1969, Burkill 1985, Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987

63

Kernel

Immature fruit

Buchholzia tholloniana (Capparidaceae)

Synonym B. macrophylla

Common names

Description A tree growing to17 m with a diameter of up to 50cm. The black bark produces asmell of mustard when rubbedand the wood smells of onions.The leaves are alternate,grouped at the end of branches,15 - 35 cm long and 3 - 10 cmwide, on a petiole 2 - 8 cm long.Flowers have no petals and arecomposed of a group of about 40stamens, 2 cm long, surroundingthe ovary. Fruits are round, 6 -10 cm in diameter, containing abrown pulp and from 1 to 4seeds with yellow cotyledons.

Ecology Grows in secondary forest usually on firm (clay) soils. Found inCameroon, Gabon and the Central African Republic and in Lukaya,Cataractes and Mayombe districts of Bas-Congo. The tree is sometimesplanted.

Propagation The seeds germinateeasily.

Uses The fruit tastes like hot pepper(Capsicum frutescens) and the seedsare used as a substitute for pepper.The bark is soaked in water and used to treat stomach-ache andinflammation of the ear. In the Republic of Central Africa the seedkernel is held for some time in the mouth, without being chewed,to treat migraine. The seed pulp is rubbed around the areaaffected by snakebite and the seed is eaten to ease coughing. Thetree is used in construction work in Gabon. In Cameroon the seedis mixed with green lemons, peppers and ants and used as anaphrodisiac.

References FAC 1951, Burkill 1985, Vivien & Faure 1996,Nsimundele 2004

64

Cajanus cajan (Fabaceae)

Common names Wandu, pois-cajan (Fr.), pigeon pea

Description A short livedwoody perennial shrub,normally growing up to 2 mhigh. There are two speciesboth widely cultivated in thetropics and sub-tropics.Plants grown for foodshould be cut down afterone year as productivitydeclines thereafter.

Ecology Native to Africa.The plant is adapted to avariety of climates and soilsand is moderately droughtresistant. However it doesnot like waterlogged soilsnor is it particularly suited tothe humid conditions. Theplant grows best where

there is adequate calcium and so does well around villages, where ash is present in the soil.

Propagation Seed is sown direct after being soaked in water for 24 hours. It can be stored if kept dryand cool, but is very susceptible toinsect attack, so is often mixed withwood ash as a precaution.Germination is usually 85 - 95%.

Uses Young green pods are eaten asa vegetable, ripe seeds are a goodsource of protein (22%) and ofvitamin B. Juice from the leaves isused to treat eye problems inManianga district. Field plants providegood fodder and browse for livestock.Plants can be grown as hedges andwindbreaks and as a temporary shadefor cacao. It makes a useful nurse

crop for tree seedlings. Leaves are the food plants for silk worminsects in India. A decoction of the leaves is used medicinally totreat dysentery and an extract from the root is used to treatstomach-ache elsewhere in Africa. The stems make goodfirewood. Bees visit the flowers producing a honey with a

distinctive greenish colour in the comb. It is a major nectar source in India and Mozambique.

References Arkinstall 1979, Allen & Allen 1981, Crane et al. 1984, Van den Belt 1988, Katende et al.2000, Pousset 2004

65

Ripe fruits fall to the ground

Canarium schweinfurthii (Burseraceae)

Common name Mbidi, elémier d'Afrique, African elemi

Description A tree which grows to 50m tall, usually rather slender, with aspreading crown. It makes a goodshade tree.

Ecology Widespread in tropical Africa.Grows in secondary forest and issometimes planted. It requires anannual rainfall of 900 - 1400 mm.

Propagation Can be grown fromseed. The fruits fall to the groundwhen ripe. Collect them together, allowthe outer coat to decompose, thenseparate from the seed. Seeds storewell and before planting immerse themin hot water, allow to cool and soak for24 hours. Wild seedlings can also betransplanted.

Management The tree grows slowlyand does not compete with crops.

Uses The black fruits are edible, particularly after being boiled.Even softening the fruits in hot water makes them morepalatable. In Bas-Congo an edible caterpillar (Mbidi) issometimes found in large numbers on this tree. The wood isused for construction. The resin, derived from cuts in the bark,is used for preparing ointments, incense, ink and varnishes.Powdered resin is used to treat haemorrhoids. The bark, after soaking in water, is used to easecoughing. In Angola it is used for the treatment of ulcers and also as an insecticide. Flowers arereported to be visited by bees in Gabon.

References Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Uphof 1968, Burkill1985, Ambougou 1991, Iwu 1993, Keay 1989, Katende et al.2000, Nsimundele 2004

Left : Mbidi edible caterpillars appear in the rain season.

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Canavalia ensiformis and C. gladiata (Fabaceae)

Common names C. ensiformis = Nkasa zi madeso, pois sabre (Fr.), Jack bean.C. gladiata = Sword bean

Canavalia gladiata growing on the edge of a plot of Capsicum peppers

Description The Jack bean is usually an erect shrubby annual up to 1 m tall while the sword bean is ahigh climbing, twining perennial with runners up to 10 m long. Jack beans produce pods up to 30 cmlong and 3.5 cm wide while sword beans can be up to 40 cm long and 5 cm wide. Jack bean seeds arewhite, sword bean seeds red. Roots are deep penetrating and help to aerate the soil.

Ecology C. ensiformis is a native of Central America but isnow dispersed throughout the tropics and common incultivation throughout West Africa. It tolerates shade. C.gladiata is widely cultivated in India and Asia and is morecommonly found in Bas-Congo than C. ensiformis. It growswell on acid, leached soils and can be grown over fences.

Propagation Seed germinates quickly. Plant 2.5 - 5 cmdeep.

Management The plant is fast growing producing seedafter 3 - 4 months. If cut back it produces a bushy form.Normal yield of seed is 800 - 1000 kg per ha.

Uses The young pods and very young seeds of both species can be eaten as a vegetable. However theseeds have a strong flavour and a tough seed coat. The plant is sometimes grown as a cover crop. InBas-Congo seeds are occasionally planted at the edge of a food farm in the belief that it will preventpeople stealing the crop (see also Burkill 1995). Leaves and young pods of Jack bean are used as atasty green vegetable in South Africa. The seeds are also used there as a coffee substitute.

References Kay 1979, NAS 1979, Siemonsma & Kasem Piluek 1993, Burkill 1995, van Wyk et al. 2000

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Capsicum annuum (Solanaceae)

Common names Ndungu zi mafofolo, Piment (Fr.), capsicum, bell pepper, sweet pepper

Description An annual orshort lived perennial herb0.5 to 1.5 m high usuallygrown as an annual. This isthe most variable species ofthe genus. Fruits are bornesingly. The followingvarieties exist : Longpeppers - Fruits 20 -30 cmin length, cream, yellow orred, tapering; Sweet, Belland Paprika peppers - large,inflated, thick fleshed; Chillipeppers - more than 9 cmlong, narrow, pointed;Wrinkled peppers - less than5 cm in length, andwrinkled; Cherry peppers -rounded, with firm flesh,yellow, red or purple;Tabasco peppers - small,conical erect; Clusterpeppers - fruits in clusters.Many intermediate formsoccur between this and C.frutescens even though theyare generally considered tobe separate species.

Ecology Originally fromMexico. Can be grown fromsea level to 2000 m ormore. Fertile loam soils withhigh organic content arepreferred. Normally grownduring the rain season, butheavy rain causes poor fruitset and rotting of the fruit.Poor drainage results in leaf

fall. Mulching is beneficial in both dry and wet seasons.

Propagation Grown from seed which is normally planted in a nursery. Seeds retain their viability for 2- 3 years. Extract and dry seed from ripe fruit. Seeds are sown in containers or seedbeds andtransplanted when 8 - 10 cm high. Germination occurs after 6 - 10 days. Transplant when 15 cm high.They may be topped 10 days beforehand to encourage branching.

Management Transplant to rows 60 - 80 cm apart and 35 - 45 cm between plants or 50 - 60 cmsquare. Plant on ridges during the rain season timing this so that fruit will ripen in the dry season.Harvesting can start 50 - 80 days after transplanting and continue for 60 days or more. Pick fruits every1 or 2 weeks.

Uses The fruit is used in soups, stews and also eaten raw in salads. Sweet peppers have the mildestflavour with little of the pungent principle and are rich in vitamin C. Young tops and leaves can also beeaten and have a protein content of about 8%.

References Terra 1966, Purseglove 1968, Tindall 1983, Grubben & el Tahir 2004

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Capsicum frutescens (Solanaceae)

Common name Ndungu, ndungu zi ntendi, ntendi, ndungu za fioti (with elongated fruits), ndungu zimakutulu or matubulu (with round fruits), pili-pili (Sw.), piment capsique (Fr.), hot pepper

Description A perennial sub-shrub, usually living for 2 - 3 years, 1.25 m tall. Fruits are small, 1 - 2 cmlong, green to start with but turning red on maturity.

Ecology, propagation and management as for C. annuum

Uses Ripe fruits are highly pungent and widely used as a condiment with most meals. In reasonablequantities they stimulate the appetite and aid digestion. They may be eaten fresh or dried andpowdered. The leaves are sometimes eaten as a seasoning or even as a vegetable. The fruits andleaves are used medicinally to treat rheumatoid arthritis, sprains, muscle pain, lumbago and sciatica.They are also used for flatulence and haemorrhoids, skin diseases and shingles and to relieve labourpains.

Right : The variety called Matabuluwith round fruits.

“Lundungu lu n’tendi lu yedila mukati” (Ndia Nsoki 1994) = Thevariety of Capsicum frutescenscalled “n’tendi” may be small but itssize is no indication of its hotness.

(Ndia Nsoki 1994)

Remarks The fruits must be handled carefully to avoid contact with the eyes, nose, anus oropen wounds. Wash your hands well after touching the fruit.

References Purseglove 1968, Burkill 2000, Hirt & M'Pia 2001, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Pousset 2004

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Carica papaya (Caricaceae)

Common names Payi payi, dipapayi, papayer (Fr.), pawpaw

Description A short-lived, fast growing treewith a soft-wooded stem.Male and female flowersare normally borne ondifferent plants. The maleflowers are carried in longhanging racemes and areoften fragrant. The femaleflowers are borne on themain stem without stalks.

Ecology Grown through-out the tropics. The treedoes best below 1,500 min well drained soils with apH between 5.5 and 6.5.

Propagation The treegrows easily from seedwhich should be washed

to remove the flesh and air-dried in the shade. Seeds may be sown direct or in a nursery bed andgerminate after 12 - 20 days. Seedlings can then be transplanted into pots at the two-leaf stage. As it isnot possible to tell male and female plants at this stage, 3 - 5 seedlings are planted together in the fieldwith the groups spaced at 3 x 2 m. These are then allowed to grow on until they flower. Once floweringcommences thin out the plants to leave one male to 15 to 20 females.

Management Mulching the plantsgreatly assists growth and production.

Uses An important tropical fruit beingrich in vitamin A. The latex, Papain,obtained from scratching the surfaceof unripe fruit is applied to ulcers andburns to assist healing, and in waterto clean dirty wounds. It hasimportant medicinal uses for thetreatment of back pain, tuberculosis,digestive problems, intestinal andurinary problems and guinea worm.The latex is also used to make meattender. All residues, including theleaves, can be used as a livestock feed. Bees obtain pollen from male flowers, in some cases insufficient amounts to stimulate brood rearing, and also nectar from female and bisexual flowers. Thepresence of bees is reported to increase fruit production. They sometimes collect juice from damagedfruit.

References Morton 1964, Crane et al. 1984, Ambougou 1991, Clauss 1992, Iwu 1993, Fichtl & Adi1994, Nakasone & Paull 1998, Hirt & M’Pia 2001, Pousset 2004

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Cassia alata at Mbanza Ntadi village in Manianga

Cassia alata (Caesalpiniaceae)

Synonym Senna alata

Common names Bwalu, bawubawu, dartrier (Fr.), ring-worm bush

Description A bold and striking shrub, 2 to 5 m high, with large compound leaves, having 7 - 14 pairsof leaflets each 7 - 14 cm long and 3 - 13.5 cm wide. The yellow flowers are borne in dense erect spikesup to 60 cm long and 3 cm across.

Ecology Native of tropical America where it grows on rocky hillsides, but also found throughout tropicalAfrica and South East Asia. Found in villages and forest clearings of the forest zone, nearly always as anescape from cultivation.

Propagation Sow seeds direct into final planting site.

Uses Pounded leaves are used as a fish poison. The root is boiled with sugar cane juice and used totreat stomach pain. The plant is also used to treat fever. Leaves are pounded and applied to fungal skininfections, to relieve constipation and as a wound disinfectant. The plant is grown around hut sites torepel ants in Tanzania. Sometimes planted as an ornamental in Bas-Congo.

References Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1995, Phillips & Rix 1997, Hirt & M'Pia 2001, Pousset2004

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Catharanthus roseus (Apocynaceae)

Common names Pervenche de Madagascar (Fr.), Madagascar periwinkle

Description A perennial shrub with bright pink flowers which are produced throughout the year. Stemsgrow to 60 cm. Leaves are 2.5 - 5 cm, oblong and shiny green. Flowers are 3 cm across, generally pinkbut sometimes white with a red eye.

Ecology The plants is originally from Madagascar but is now naturalised throughout the tropics.

Propagation Can be grown from seed or cuttings.

Uses The plant is effective in reducing certain nematodes in the soil, even when populations are high.Trials show a reduction of 95% of reniform, root-knot and stunt nematodes. The roots are used to treatamoebic dysentery in Bas-Congo. The plant contains alkaloids which are used in the treatment ofleukaemia. In Africa the whole plant, fresh or dried leaves, roots and flowers are used to treat coughsand asthma, diabetes, fatigue, blood in urine, bacterial dysentery, gastric ulcers, rheumatism, highblood pressure, hypertension, abscesses, warts, insect stings, skin rashes and venereal disease.

References Phillips & Rix 1997, Neuwinger 2000, Stoll 2000, Pousset 2004

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Ceiba pentandra (Bombacaceae)

Common names Mfuma, fromager (Fr.), kapok, silkcotton tree.

Description A large deciduous tree growing to 40 mhigh with horizontal branches. When young the trunk iscovered with large spines. The fruit pods are from 10 -26 cm long and contain black seeds surrounded withfine, silky (kapok) fibres.

Ecology Cultivated or found in secondary forest in Bas-Congo. It prefers deep, permeable, volcanic soils, freefrom water-logging.

Propagation Can be grown from seed or cuttings.Seeds, which retain their viability for up to one year atroom temperature, should first be soaked in cold waterfor 24 hours before planting.

Management The tree can be coppiced or pollarded.

Uses The floss has the advantage of being resistant tovermin. Hospital mattresses, using the floss, can besterilized without losing their original quality. Because ofits buoyancy and resistance to wetting it is used in life

jackets, rafts and naval equipment. Itcan also be used as a substitute forcotton wool. Wood is of poor quality buteasy to work and used for chairs, dishes,boxes and drums when seasoned. Woodash is used as a salt substitute and formaking soap. Young leaves can becooked and eaten as a vegetable or usedas a stock feed. The flowers are alsoedible and are sold in Kinshasa. Seedsyield an edible oil which can also be usedin the manufacture of soap. The bark isused as a purgative and to causevomiting in the event of poisoning. InBas-Congo the dried leaves, togetherwith plantain, are used to treat haemorrhoids. Flowers provide a valuable source of nectar and pollen tohoneybees. Though opening at night they remain open for a short time early in the morning when beesvisit.

Remarks The tree roots are shallow and thetree is liable to be blown over in high winds.The roots may damage buildings if plantednearby.

Left : Floss and dried flowers

A Kikongo proverb states that:- “Mbemba wodiengeni diengeni kundulu mfuma” (NdiaNsoki 1994) = After having wandered in thesky the vulture returns to his perch in the

mfuma tree, meaning that a person may wander wherever he wants but one day he will die and returnto God.

References Burkill 1985, Pauwels 1993, Mbuya et al. 1994, ICRAF 1998, Nsimundele 2004

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Celosia argentea (Amaranthaceae)

Common names Lundalandala, célosie (Fr.), Lagos spinach

Description An erect annual herb growing up to 2 m with leaves 15 x 7 cm.

Ecology Originally from West Africa. It grows well in marshy soils in Bas-Congo. A high level of organicmatter and adequate water is required for good yields. Long dry periods result in early flowering. It willalso grow well in partial shade.

Propagation If grown for continuedharvesting over a long period the seedshould be first sown in a nursery and thentransplanted. More even sowing can beobtained if the seed is mixed with somefine, dry sand.

Management Seedlings are transplantedwhen about 10 - 15 cm high being spacedat 15 - 30 cm each way. The crop willgrow on poor soils but yields are greatlyincreased if grown in fertile conditions.Harvesting of whole plants takes placewhen they reach 20 - 40 cm high. If cut at15 - 20 cm they develop side shoots whichare then harvested when they reach 15 cmfrom the node. A total of four cuttings canbe made at three week intervals.

Uses Grown as a vegetable. Young leaveshave the best nutritional value with aprotein content of 4.7%. A second wildspecies C. trygna = Teta bowa is alsoeaten in Bas-Congo. The boiled leaves andyoung shoots are softer and more slimythan those of amaranth and are used insoups and stews, especially with fish. Theyoung flowers are also eaten. The leavesare sometimes dried for later use. Theplant has a high oxalate content, whichcan give rise to kidney stones, so should

only be eaten in moderate amounts. The leaves are used to treat coughs and the roots promoteurination. The seeds are used to treat diarrhoea. Bees collect nectar from the flowers.

Remarks The plant is very susceptible to nematodes, Cercospora leaf spot and spider mite but it growsfaster than amaranth and has a higher dry matter content. Improved varieties from Nigeria maturelater, can be harvested over a longer period and are more productive.

References De Wildeman 1934, Terra 1966, Oomen & Grubben 1978, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983,Konda et al 1992, Schippers 2002, Denton 2004

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Imbrasia eblis feeding on Chaetocarpus africanus

Chaetocarpus africanus (Euphorbiaceae)

Common names Nkungu nteke, nkungulu teke, sesa (= brush)

Description A shrub or small tree 2 - 7 m high. Leaves 2.5 - 19 cm long and 1.5 - 7 cm wide. Flowersare white and small and are followed by almost round red fruits 7 – 10 mm in diameter. Flowers andfruit may be present on the plant together.

Ecology This bush is commonly found in secondary forest in Gabon, both Congo (Kinshasa) and Congo(Brazzaville), Angola and Zambia.

Uses The thin branches are widely used formaking brushes in Bas Congo, hence the nameSesa. Poles are used for house building,firewood and charcoal making and the leavesare used as fodder for livestock. Bees forageactively for pollen and nectar over long periodsduring the rainy season. It is a food plant forKwesu = Imbrasia eblis edible caterpillar.

References Gillet & Paque 1910, Renier 1948,Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Pauwels 1993,Kibungu Kembelo 1995, Latham 2002

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Chenopodium ambrosioides (Chenopodiaceae)

Common name Nkasa kindongo, kula nioka (= intestinal worm or snake), chénopode vermifuge (Fr.),Indian wormseed

Description An annual herb of varying form, occasionally a perennial herb, growing to over 1 m high,covered with aromatic glandular hairs and with a strong rank smell when bruised.

Ecology Originally from Mexico. Now spread widely by man and sometimes cultivated around villages.Often found on roadsides in both savanna and forest areas in Bas-Congo.

Propagation Can be sown from seed.

Uses An importantmedicinal plant. In Bas-Congo the leaves aresoaked in water and usedagainst flatulence, forcoughs and to treatintestinal worms. Theleaves are also poundedand applied to the bodywhen feverish or to sores.An essential oil is found inthe glandular hairscovering the plant andespecially in the fruit skin.This is effective againsthookworm, ascaris,amoebic dysentery etc. inhumans and animals. Theoil is obtained by steam distillation and the composition varies with geographical locality. Sometimesplanted to keep snakes away or burnt for the same reason. The leaves have a pungent taste and aresometimes added to soup.

References Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Wild 1972, Williamson 1975, Burkill 1985, Mukoko Matondo1991, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Pousset 2004

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Cinnamomum verum (Lauraceae)

Common names Cannellier de Ceylon, arbre de bonheur (Fr.), Ceylon cinnamon

Ecology Cultivated throughout the tropics. Best grown under light shade at low altitudes on poor whitesands. Pollination is by insects, especially flies. Birds are fond of the fruits so the trees may need to benetted if seeds are wanted for planting.

Propagation Fruits are piled up to allow the flesh to rot. The seed is then washed and dried in theshade and should be sown as soon as possible. It can either be sown in a nursery or planted direct.Germination takes 2 - 3 weeks. Plants can also be grown from cuttings of young 3 leafed shoots, bylayering shoots or by division of the rootstock.

Management Provide shade in the early stages. Normally kept as a lowshrub producing many stems. Plant at 1.75 x 2.5 m spacing. Cut the treeback, at 2 years old, to 5 - 10 cm above ground and cover the stumpswith soil. Allow 4 - 6 shoots to grow for a further 2 years beforeharvesting. Keep shoots straight by pruning. Stems are cut into segments30 cm long when 2 - 3 m high and 1.3 to 5 cm in diameter. Stems shouldbe cut during rains to facilitate peeling. Leaves and twigs are trimmed offand the bark removed by making two longitudinal cuts on either side sothat the two sides can be removed whole. Ferment the bark for 24 hoursin covered heaps and then scrape the outer bark off. After drying, thetubes of bark (called pipes or quills), are packed one inside the other toform a compound bundle 1 m long. These are further dried in the shade. Best quality cinnamon isobtained from stems in the centre of the bush and from the middle portion of the stem. Bark should beno more than 0.5 cm thick.

Uses Cinnamon bark is tart, and acts as a stimulant and reduces wind. It also checks nausea andvomiting. The oil from the bark is used in teas for its antibacterial and fungicidal properties and to treatloss of appetite and digestive problems. The dried bark is an important spice for flavouring cakes andsweets, in curry powder and in incense, toothpaste and perfumes. Several essential oils are found in theleaves, bark, stems and roots. The wood burns well and can also be put among clothes to repel insects.

References Purseglove 1968, Borget 1993, Katende et al. 2000, de Guzman & Siemonsma 1999

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Cissus aralioides (Vitaceae)

Common names Kibwa mpimpidi, kindamina

Description A strong forestcreeper which grows to the top ofthe forest canopy. Stems are greenand succulent with swollensegments, woody at the base. Thewhole plant is covered withirritating hairs. Leaves are 5 lobed,dull green. The greenish-whiteflowers are borne in many-floweredheads. The fruits are round, 2 cmin diameter.

Ecology Common in foreststhroughout central Africa.

Propagation By seed or cuttings.

Uses An important medicinal plantused to treat laryngitis, painfulperiods, stomach-ache and difficulturination. The sticky sap is used totreat sores or itch. The stem iscrushed and rubbed on the skin totreat snakebite. The stem, after theleaves have been removed is usedto cure leather. 750 g stem in smallpieces are pounded in a mortar andthen steeped in 14 litres water for2 hours. 10 goat skins, from whichthe hair has been removed, arethen soaked in this for a day priorto tanning by the Hausa. Otherspecies, e.g. Cissus rubignosa, arevisited by bees in Bas-Congo.

References Renier 1948,Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 2000, Latham 2002, Kibungu Kembelo 2003

Planting cassava after clearing the forest.Planting new trees at this time and leaving thetree stumps to regenerate will speed up thereturn of the forest after the crop has beenharvested.

Photo : Emmanuel Miaglia

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Citrullus lanatus (Cucurbitaceae)

Common names Mbika ntetu. Mbika is the name given to pumpkins with edible seed in Bas-Congo.Pastèque (Fr), watermelon

Description An annual climbing or trailing herb to 3 m long. Large round to oblong or cylindrical fruitsare normally from 7 - 20 cm in diameter. Flesh, which is bland tasting, is usually red but may be green,

orange, yellow or white

Bees were very active onthe flowers of this cropplanted near Inkisi

Ecology Widely grownthroughout the tropics.Growth and fruit productionare most rapid during dry,sunny periods. Excessiverainfall and high humidityreduce productivity byaffecting flowering andencouraging leaf diseases.Dry areas are best forproducing the sweetestfruit. The plant requires along, warm growing season.

It is fairly drought resistant and flourishes on fertile, sandy soils, preferably with a high organic mattercontent.

Propagation Watermelons are usually planted on mounds 2 m apart, 6 - 8 seeds per mound arethinned to 1 - 3. The crop matures in 75 - 95 days. Freshly harvested seed may be dormant but can bepre-soaked to speed germination. Raised beds improve drainage, modify temperature and increasedepth of rooting.

Uses Grown mainly for their edible seeds in Bas-Congo. The fruits are stacked in heaps or buried duringthe rains and the seed is sun-dried after the flesh has rotted away. They are roasted or ground intoflour and added to soup or made into a sauce or porridge. Seeds are rich in Methionine, have an oilcontent of 15 - 45% and a proteincontent of 25 - 32%. Oil extractedfrom the seed is used for cooking andthe high protein residue can be madeinto fried seed balls. Young leaves(called laba) are also eaten in Bas-Congo after removing the prickly skinfrom the midrib. The leaves arecrushed and boiled with salt. They areoften eaten with salt fish.Watermelons can be eaten fresh, butin Africa they are also cooked,depending on the degree ofsweetness or bitterness present. Beesforage for pollen and nectar fromflowers and are important forpollination.

References Terra 1966, Tindall 1983, Burkill 1985, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Robinson & Decker-Walters 1997

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Citrus limon (Rutaceae)

Common names Lala di ngani, lala ma nsa, citronnier (Fr.), lemon

Description A small tree 3 – 6 m high. Rough lemon rootstocks produce large, vigorous, and veryproductive lemon trees, particularly in deep sandy soils. The root system is extensive making treesdrought tolerant.

Ecology In the humid tropics the tree tends to produce excessive vegetative growth and is susceptibleto fungal and algal diseases. However yields are generally high. Excessive temperatures reduce yields.Poorly drained and nutrient deficient soils should be avoided.

Propagation In Bas-Congo most citrus fruits are grown using budded stock. Rough lemon seedlingsare grown for rootstocks and then selected lemon varieties, Eureka, Lisbon or Villafranca, are grafted in.Nursery site should be open, free drained and on land not planted to citrus before. Seed should bewashed to remove the stickiness and placed in water at 51° C for 10 minutes to control Phytoptheradisease. Seed can be stored in ground charcoal for a few weeks. Plant seeds after soaking in water. Afertile soil is vital for adequate growth of young trees and for later fruit production. If commercialfertilizers are not available, only a few trees should be grown, preferably near the home, where they willreceive as much household waste, ash and compost or manure as possible.

Management Weed control is most important. Remove all suckers which arise below the graft and thinout branches to allow light to penetrate. Remove dead or weak, spindly branches. Heading back mayalso be necessary to promote lateral bud growth. Insects should be removed by hand during regularinspection of the plants.

Uses Fruits, which are rich in vitamin C, have traditionally been eaten to prevent scurvy. The juice isusually added to water and drunk. Also used to produce lemon oil, citric acid and pectin. Citrus peel oilsare also used for perfumes. The juice or the leaves, either alone or mixed with other citrus species, aresoaked in water and the liquid rubbed on the body to promote sweating to cure fever. A decoction ofthe leaves and roots is used for coughs, colds, angina, rheumatism and gout in the Congo. Bees are theprimary pollinators for Citrus spp. In Gabon the plants are grown as a hedge.

References Purseglove 1968, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Davies & Albrigo 1994, Katende et al. 2000,Burkill 1997, Hirt & M’Pia 2001

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Citrus sinensis (Rutaceae)

Common names Lala, lala dinzenzo, oranger doux (Fr.), sweet orange

Description Rough lemon rootstocks produce large, vigorous, and very productive sweet orange,grapefruit, mandarin and lemon trees, particularly in deep sandy soils. The root system is extensive,

reaching depths of up to 4.6 m,making trees drought tolerant withgood adaptation to a wide pH range.However, fruit quality is often poor.

Ecology Originally from China orVietnam. This is the most commonlycultivated citrus in Bas-Congo. Prefersa deep, light loam or sandy soil that isfree draining. A distinct dry season isneeded to induce flowering, which thentakes place at the commencement ofthe rains. The peel colour is affectedby climate as is the vigour of the trees.Fruits remain green wheretemperatures are high and there is fastgrowth. Fruit quality is also affected,the quality of the orange juice beingpoor in hot, humid tropical conditions.

Propagation In Bas-Congo mostcitrus fruits are grown using buddedstock. Rough lemon seedlings aregrown for rootstocks and then Navel orValencia scion material is grafted in.Nursery site should be open, freedrained and on land not planted tocitrus before. Seed should be washedto remove slime and placed in water at51° C for 10 minutes to controlPhytopthera disease. Seed can be

stored for up to 2 years. Plant seeds after pre-soaking in water at 0.5 cm deep, 1 cm apart in the rowand 15 – 30 cm between rows. Germination takes place after 2 - 3 weeks. Transplant seedlings, when 4- 8 mm in diameter, to a second nursery allowing 50 – 60 cm between plants and 1 – 2 m betweenrows. Bud using T or inverted T method. (Inverted T is used in high rainfall areas to provide a rainshield). Bud-wood for the scion is collected when buds are not growing. Make a vertical cut 1 – 2 cmlong and then the horizontal cut once bark slipping has taken place to allow insertion of the bud. Thebud is cut from the bud-wood and inserted and then bound tightly with tape. Buds take usually within 2- 3 weeks. Bud at 30 cm above soil level to avoidsoil-borne diseases, if done higher growth of treewill be affected. Generally buds taken from the topsection of the bud stick take more readily.Afterwards the new shoots are forced by cutting offthe rootstock plant above the graft. Transplant tofinal site at 6 - 7 x 6 – 7 m spacing. Do not allowbare rooted trees to dry out and plant at the samedepth to avoid collar and root rot. Nitrogen (and P,K, Mg, Ca and S) are vital for adequate growth ofyoung trees and for later fruit production. Ifcommercial fertilizers are not available, only a fewtrees should be grown, preferably near the homewhere they will receive as much household waste,ash and compost or manure as possible.

Uses The fruit is eaten fresh and is widely marketed in Bas-Congo. A decoction of the leaves is takenfor diabetes. The roots, crushed and soaked in water, are used to treat venereal disease. Bees are theprimary pollinators for citrus. The flowers attract bees, often yielding good quantities of nectar and

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pollen from October onwards, but pesticide application can make it dangerous for bees. Honey is lightcoloured and slow to granulate with characteristic flavour.

Management Weed control is most important. Remove all suckers that arise below the graft and thinout branches to allow light to penetrate. Remove dead or weak, spindly branches. Heading back mayalso be necessary to promote lateral bud growth. Insects should be removed by hand during regularinspection of the plants.

References Crane et al 1984, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Davies & Albrigo 1994

Sign at the entrance to the botanic garden at Kisantucommemorating Justin Gillet, the founder

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Cleome gynandra (Capparaceae)

Synonym Gynandropsis gynandra, G. pentaphylla

Common names Mumpala, gynandro (Fr.), cat’s whiskers

Description Annual herb up to 1 m tall. Vegetative growth declines rapidly as soon as flowering starts.Farmers often remove flowers to prevent this.

Photo : Rudy Schippers

Ecology A common weed, especially around villages, found throughout the tropics, though lesscommon at high altitudes. Requires full sun and prefers a fertile soil, high in organic matter. Tolerant todrought. Cultivation of this vegetable is on the increase.

Propagation Seeds are broadcast on well cultivated land in pure stands or mixed with othervegetables. Seedlings must be thinned out and cannot be transplanted easily because of the long tap-root. Topping, cutting back to the ground and removing the flowers as soon as they appear arepractices that increase leaf production for harvesting. The leaves are picked individually or leafybranches are harvested. Whole plants may also be uprooted.

Uses Leaves, often with the flowers too, are widely used as a vegetable, eaten cooked and in soups. Bythemselves the leaves are bitter. To remove the bitterness the leaves are allowed to wither and thensoaked in several changes of water before being cooked. The leaves may also be dried for later use.They are rich in calcium and iron. Young pods may also be eaten. The plant is used widely to relievelocal pain, being rubbed on the part affected or applied as a poultice. In some countries the seed oil isused as a hair-dressing to kill lice and against ticks on livestock. Bees collect pollen and nectar andflowering occurs all year round, but especially after rains.

Remarks A second species C. rutidosperma (Munsemfi) is gathered from the wild and eaten as avegetable in R.D. Congo.

References Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Burkill 1985, Dupriez & De Leener 1989, Konda et al 1992,Fichtl & Adi 1994, Chweya & Mnzava 1997, Maundu et al. 1999, Schippers 2002

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Clerodendrum formicarum (Verbenaceae)

Common names Makuku matatu

Description A climbing shrub withslender hollow branches which areoften occupied by ants as the plantgets older. The numerous small whiteflowers, up to 0.8 cm long, are bornein a terminal flower head.

Ecology Found in secondary forestand fallows in tropical Africa.

Propagation The plant can be grownfrom seed.

Uses In Bas-Congo the whole plant,and particularly the leaves, are usedmedicinally to treat rheumatism,marasma and epilepsy. In Ghana thestems are used for smoking pipes.

References Burkill 2000, KibunguKembelo 2003

Good friends

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Clitandra cymulosa (Apocynaceae)

Synonym C. arnoldiana

Common names Dinkalanga,

Description A strong creeper sometimes reaching a length of 100 m and a girth of 1.25 m. White latexis present in all parts. Leaves are opposite, 4.3 – 20 cm long and 1.8 – 8 cm wide. The small, creamy-white, scented flowers are produced in the leaf axils. Fruits are round, 6 – 8 cm in diameter.

Ecology Found in the forest and on forest edges on sandy soils in the Congo basin. Also present fromGuinea to northern Nigeria, and in Angola, Uganda and Tanzania.

Propagation Can be grown from seed which germinates easily.

Uses The pink to blood-red fruitsare edible, acid tasting and verypopular. They are sometimes soldin markets in Bas-Congo. Theplant contains abundant watery,latex, which is sticky. Some plantsyield a black rubber of goodquality which has been exploitedin Guinea and Ivory Coast.Children use it to make footballs.The sap of Costus lucanusianus isused to coagulate the latex.

References Daeleman &Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985,Katende et al 1999, FTEA 2002

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Cocos nucifera (Arecaceae)

Common names Ba di nkandi, nkandi mputu, cocotier (Fr.), coconut

Ecology Widely cultivated in Bas-Congo.It prefers a warm, humid climate withadequate sunshine and good drainage. Adeep, open soil is best.

Propagation Select nuts from treesbearing the greatest number of heavynuts. Allow these to ripen for a monthbefore planting. Trim the fibre from thegerm end to assist the shoot to comethrough. Dig out a trench slightly widerthan the length of the coconut and placethem in this, lying across the furrow.Cover two thirds of the nuts with soil.Plant in full sunlight in a light, rich soil.Select the seedlings again in the seedbed.Those germinating first and with a largenumber of short leaves are best. The nuthas considerable food reserves and can betransplanted with ease. When planting intothe field dig out a hole 1.2 m x 1.2 m x0.90 m for each germinating nut and fill inwith equal amounts of husks and manure.Plant at the same depth as in the nursery.

Uses The flesh from the nut is eaten andthe liquid inside the kernel makes a

pleasant drink. Coconut milk is used tocounter dehydration and to treatcholera. The dried flesh, copra, is soldcommercially. Coconut oil is used formaking margarine and soap. Thecoconut husk provides fibre for mats,floor coverings and sacks. The shellsmake good charcoal, especially liked byblacksmiths. The trunk can be used forconstruction or bridge building. Theleaves are used for thatching, matting,screens and baskets. Smoke fromburning the husk is a good mosquitorepellent. The flowers are an importantbee forage throughout the year. Duringflowering palm wine can be collected which may be used as a source of yeast for bread making.

References Frémond et al. 1966, Castagné 1983, Pauwels 1993, Katende et al. 2000, Pousset 2004

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Coffea canephora (Rubiaceae)

Common names Kafi, Robusta coffee

Description A very variable tree growing to 10 m high. The trees are hardy and vigorous. There aretwo main forms but the ‘robusta’ form is the more important. Coffea liberica is also grown in Bas-Congo.

Ecology Widely cultivated inBas-Congo. The plant requiresan annual rainfall ofapproximately 1750 mm but adry period is required forflowering. It is more tolerant ofpoorer soils than C. arabica.Most varieties are resistant toHemileia disease.

Propagation Planted fromseed which germinates after 5- 6 weeks.

Management Plant out seedlings after 6 - 10 months at 3 m spacing for erect varieties and 4.5 m forspreading varieties. Shade should be provided, particularly in the early years. Grow erect varieties on amultiple stem system, allowing a succession of stems to be produced. For the shrubby, spreading,Nganda types, seedlings 1 - 2 m high are bent over and the shoots which grow from these are in turnbent over to produce more shoots.Stems are then released to grownaturally, no further pruning beingdone. Subsequently the branches arepulled out by the weight of fruit andmore upright branches grow up fromthe centre. As the ripe cherriesremain on the tree only one harvestneed be taken. Normal yields are 400- 500 kg.

Uses Coffee is an important drink inBas-Congo. Robusta coffee containshigher amounts of caffeine thanArabica. Caffeine stimulates the mindand improves physical performance.It is known to relieve pain, reducethe severity of migraine headaches and reduce asthma symptoms. However its use can result in higherrates of some forms of cancer. Caffeine is being tested as a pesticide against slugs and snails. Theflowers are a good bee forage and bees have been found to increase yields of coffee beans.

References Purseglove 1968, Ambougou 1991, Macmillan 1991, Jones 1999

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Cogniauxia podolaena (Cucurbitaceae)

Common names Kisakamba

Description A climbing herb growing to 6 m long or it may form clumps on the ground. The plant istender when young but becomesrobust with age. The leaves aretypical of the Cucurbit family with 5distinct lobes. Large yellow flowersare produced, which last only 1 or 2days. Fruits are up to 15 cm long,pale green with darker longitudinallines. When dry the numerous black,flattened seeds fall from an openingat its tip.

Kisakamba flowering at Selu inDecember.

Ecology Found from easternCameroon to Congo and into Angola.Grows in secondary bush or inclearings in the forest. Also found indisturbed areas around villages andin open areas along streams andrivers.

Uses Both rhizomes and leaves areused medicinally for the treatment ofepilepsy, constipation in young

children, interruption of periods without pregnancy andskin problems. In Bas-Congo the rhizome is also usedas a purgative and to ease delivery. The plant is usedmedicinally elsewhere in Africa. The leaves are reportedto be edible. In Gabon the dried fruit is used as asponge and the dried leaves are used to treat burns.Bees are reported to visit the flowers. Nsanzungu ediblecaterpillars are reported to feed on the leaves.

Propagation The plant can be grown from seed orrhizomes.

References De Wildeman 1934, Burkhill 1985,Ambougou 1991, White & Abernethy 1997, Neuwinger2000, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Nsimundele 2004

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Cola acuminata (Sterculiaceae)

Common names Nkasu, kolatier (Fr.), commercial cola or kola

Description A shade loving tree, 10 – 20 m high, branching low down. Branches are ascending,forming a spreading crown and the foliage is often one sided almost reaching the ground. Bark is darkgreen and rough and old bark splits into squares. Leaves are borne mostly at the end of branches andare curved and twisted, with a long pointed apex. The fruits are russet coloured, rough to touch, up to20 cm long by 6 cm wide, containing up to 14 seeds covered with white skin. The seeds are generallyred or pink but sometimes may be white and have more than 2 cotyledons. The kola nut of commerce isthe seed after removal of the thin white covering, which is done by soaking or fermentation betweenbroad leaves. The nuts can be stored by being buried, often in ant-hills. For transport the nuts arepacked in baskets with fresh leaves of Anthocleista spp. or Alchornea cordifolia and occasionallysprinkled with water.

Ecology Often planted in the villages inBas-Congo. Found from Sierra Leone toCongo.

Propagation The pods should beheaped together in the shade anddampened regularly for 16 days fromharvesting. The seed coat should beremoved and the seed planted 10 cmdeep, direct into the field to avoiddamaging the roots. Some people plant atree to commemorate a social occasion,others don't, believing that the personwho does so will die when the treeflowers. It is normal to transplantnaturally produced seedlings.

Management Growth is slow in the early stages and the trees reach about 2 m after 4 years. Thetrees are often grown with other field crops and fruiting commences after 7 years. Full production isreached after 20 years and can continue for 70 - 100 years.

89

En route to Kinshasa

Uses Seeds are commonly chewed as a nerve stimulant and a tonic but can be dangerous in excess.They contain about 2% caffeine and traces ofTheobromine and Kolanin, the latter being a heartstimulant. Seed also contains 9% protein, 2% fat,2% fibre and 74% carbohydrate. Sap-wood iswhite to slightly pink, heart-wood is yellow-brownto red and suitable for general carpentry, carvingand construction work It is attacked by borers butnot termites. Small roots can be used astoothbrushes. The bark, fruit and seeds are alsoused elsewhere in Africa to treat venereal disease,colic, diarrhoea, abscesses, skin rashes andstomach problems.

References Purseglove 1968, Uphof 1968, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 2000, Neuwinger 2000, Nsimundele2004, Pousset 2004

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Colletoecema dewevrei (Rubiaceae)

Common names Mbendi mbendi, mbuma makaku (Lingala)

Colletoecema dewevrei in secondary forest near Loa in February

Description A small tree or bush growing up to 12 m high.

Ecology Common in secondary forest in some areas of Bas-Congo. Also found in forest regrowth inCameroon and Gabon.

Uses The small dark fruits are edible and sweet.

Reference Pauwels 1993

Sachets for tree planting can be madeup from bamboo stems split in half andtied together or banana sheaths asillustrated here. These are just as goodas plastic sachets and much cheaper.

Photo : Emmanuel Miaglia

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Colocasia esculenta (Araceae)

Common names Langa, taro

Description A perennial herb growing from 1 - 2 m high from a large corm. The latter may be up to 30cm long and 15 cm. in diameter. Leaf stalks are not attached at the leaf margin but inside, in contrastto Xanthosoma saggitifolia.

Ecology Mainly grown in hot, humid conditions. Best results are from deep, friable loam soils with ahigh water table.

Propagation This can be done by planting the upper tip of the corm with the lower 15 - 25 cm of thestalk attached.

Management Weeding is most important. Growth time to harvest is 6 - 18 months. The corms areready for harvest when the leaves turn yellow and begin to wither.

Uses The corms are used as a staple or subsistence crop throughout the tropics. They are rich in starchand can be eaten after removing the sharp crystals. To do this the corms are boiled, baked, roasted orfried in oil. The starch is easily digested, but if large quantities of the corm are eaten, goitre can result.Excessive consumption is also reported to increase the possibility of contracting leprosy. However eatingthe corm lowers the incidence of dental caries. The leaves of this species are not eaten. Tubers can beused for the production of alcohol and the manufacture of paper.

Remarks Yields of between 4 and 10 tons/ha. are normal but, by selecting high yielding plantingmaterial and thorough weeding, better yields can be obtained.

References Kay 1973, Leakey & Wills 1977, Burkill 1985

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Conyza sumatrensis (Asteraceae)

Synonym Erigeron floribundus, Conyza floribunda

Common names Fumu di kiula, fumu di matebo, fumu di bakuyu, fleabane

Description An erect, softly-hairy,annual herb growing up to 120 cm tall.The stem is semi-woody at the base,ribbed, hairy and often not branchedbelow the flower head. The leaves arevariable with the upper ones alternateon the stem, while the lower ones are ina rosette at the base. The leaves are 4 -8 cm long and 1 - 5 cm wide, sawedged, gradually becoming winged atthe base. Clusters of numerous small,dull-yellow to brown florets, about 6 mmlong, are borne in a long leafy flowerhead. The plant reproduces by seed.

Ecology A common weed of cultivatedfields, open waste places and roadsidesand widely found in the tropics.

Uses The leaves are used medicinally in Bas-Congo to treatsnake bites, leprosy and breast pain. Elsewhere in the Congothe plant is used to treat opthalmia, fever and stiffness. It isalso used to treat fever in young children in the Ivory Coast.

References Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985,Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987, Neuwinger 2000, KibunguKembelo 2003

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Corchorus olitorius (Tiliaceae)

Common names Mulembo, dongo dongo (Lingala), Jew's mallow

Description An erect herb, usually 0.5to 1.2 m high. Cultivated varieties arevery variable and there is good scope fordeveloping improved varieties. Large,deep green, glossy leaves, lateflowering, rapid early growth andprofuse branching are charactersnormally selected by vegetable growers.In some areas certain leaf types areassociated with the desirable slimyproperty.

Ecology Grows in a wide range ofenvironmental conditions but issusceptible to drought, especially duringflowering. Soil should be well drainedand fertile A sandy loam is preferableand the plants respond well to additionsof organic (e.g. poultry) manure. In itsnatural environment it is often foundnear swamps or wet areas beside rivers.

Propagation Seed should be harvestedwhen pods are still yellow. This improvesgermination and early growth ofseedlings. Large seeds harvested fromthe top and middle of seed heads arebest. Seed can be stored for long periodswhen dry and should be put in nearlyboiling water for 5 seconds to give good,even germination. It is normally

broadcast but this is wasteful and makes weeding difficult. Corchorus olitorius can be planted togetherwith staple food crops. Seed may be first grown in a nursery and then transplanted to 30 cm betweenrows and 10 cm between plants. The plants are later thinned to 20 cm. Transplants, when successful,produce more and stronger side shoots.

Uses Leaves and fruits are eaten in Bas-Congo. Widely cultivated asa vegetable in sub-Saharan Africa, as well as in Egypt and theMiddle East. It is normally cooked with other coarse vegetables.Soup made from the leaves makes foods like yam and cassava morepalatable.

Management The plant is easy to grow and matures in 5 - 6 weeksafter transplanting. Harvesting is done by uprooting the entire plantor cutting off the small side shoots. The latter practice encouragesnew growth.

Pests and diseases Susceptible to nematode attack and leaf eating grasshoppers. Nematodes cancause total crop failure.

References Denton 1997, Mbemba & Remacle 1992, Maundu et al. 1999, Schippers 2002, Nsimundele2004

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Costus lucanusianus (Costaceae)

Common names Boso boso, musanga vulu, ngo n’keni

Description A semi-woody herb with stems up to 3 m high bearing a terminal inflorescence.

Ecology Found in forests from Guinea to western Cameroon and in Fernando Po and Gabon.

Uses Leaves are cooked after being lightly wilted andfinely chopped. Young shoots are also eaten in Gabon.Stems are crushed to produce a liquid which, whenmixed with sugar-cane wine and a little fufu (cassavaporridge), is used as an asprin substitute in Bas-Congo.An essential oil is present. The plant is used to treatdiabetes. Sap is used to coagulate the latex of Clitandracymulosa and of Landolphia and Funtumia spp. Thereare other medicinal uses for the plant in Africa.

References Renier 1948, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983,Burkill 1985, Konda et al. 1992, Mbemba & Remacle1992, Neuwinger 2000

Village in Manianga district

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Costus phyllocephalus (Costaceae)

Common names Munkeni, munkuiza

Description A fleshy,smooth-stemmed perennialherb growing to 2.5 m longwith leaves producedspirally from the stem. C.lucanusianus has tallstraight, robust stems to 3m and is found away fromwater.

Costus phyllocephalus inflower at Kingabwa,Kinshasa

Ecology Commonly foundgrowing in shade in forestre-growth and woodedvalleys in Bas-Congo,sometimes in associationwith Aframomumangustifolium.

Uses Both the young leavesand the centre of the stem

are eaten raw as a salad in Bas-Congo. They have apleasant, refreshing and slightly acid taste, similar tosorrel. The leaves of C. afer, also called Munkeni,are eaten. C. phyllocephalus is used to coagulatewild rubber. It also has medicinal use in thetreatment of insomnia, migraine, joint pain, nervousdisorders, bed-wetting and loss of voice. Host plantof Nkoombo nseke and Minsongo (Imbrasia alopia)edible caterpillars.

Left : Costus afer in flower

Photo : Frieda Billiet

References Daeleman & Pauwels 1993,Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Nsimundele 2004

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Craterispermum schweinfurthii (Rubiaceae)

Common names Muntoma ntoma, ntata nkedinga, muntomina

Description A shrub or small tree growing to 15 m high. Bark greyish white with swollen nodes.Leaves 7 – 17 cm long and 2 – 7.3 cm wide. Flower buds are sometimes tinged with pink and are sweetsmelling. Fruits green or black, round, 5 – 6 mm in diameter.

Craterispermum schweinfurthii flowering in August near Kavwaya

Ecology Found in forests in both Congos. Grows in fringing forest, beside water and in woodland and indrier evergreen forest and thickets in the savanna from northern Nigeria across east and central tropicalAfrica to Mozambique.

Propagation Can be growneasily from cuttings.

Uses The bark is sweet tastingand frequently chewed,especially to relieve coughing. Itis reported to be an aphrodisiac.In Bas-Congo the dead wood,kept in moist conditions,becomes red and is used in thepreparation of Nkula, a redointment used to colour the facein traditional ceremonies. Thebark and leaves are used as asource of yellow or brown dye.In Angola the plant is used as alive fence as it resists fire. It hasnumerous medicinal uses. Thesticks are used as chew-sticks ortooth-brushes. The wood is usedfor making boxes. Reported as abee forage plant in Bas-Congo.

References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Irvine 1961, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, FTEA 1976, Keay 1989,Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1997

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Crescentia cujete (Bignoniaceae)

Synonyms C. acuminata, C. arborea

Common names Arbre à calebasses (Fr.), calabash tree.

Description A handsome tree growingup to 8 m high. It has rough bark.Leaves are up to 18 cm long and 5 cmwide. The flowers appear directly fromnodes on the trunk and branches, andbloom at night. The fruits develop afterpollination by bats. They are round andup to 25 cm in diameter with a hardgreen woody shell. The flat seeds aresmall and embedded in the pulp.

Ecology Originally from Mexico,Colombia and the Caribbean region butnow widely dispersed in the tropics,though uncommon in Bas-Congo.

Left : Tree growing near Mayenga

Propagation Can be grown from seedor cuttings.

Uses The fruit shell is widely usedelsewhere as a container or cup andmay also be carved and made intoornaments. Seed and fruit are edible.The pulp can be made into a juice and

a cough medicine. The young fruits can also be pickled. InCentral America bees often collect nectar from the fallenflowers. Blocks of wood made from Crescentia cujete are usedfor growing orchids in the West Indies. The plant has variousmedicinal uses in West Africa.

Fallen flowers

References Irvine 1961, Uphof 1968, Espina & Ordetx 1983, Burkill 1985, Macmillan 1991

Crossopteryx febrifuga (Rubiaceae)

Synonym C. kotschyana

Common names Kigala, kighala, ordeal tree

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Ngala edible caterpillar

scription A small twisted tree or bush to 5 m with conspicuous flowers and persistent fruits.

logy Common savanna shrub in Bas-Congo. Widely spread from Senegal to Sudan and from Eastca to Zimbabwe.

pagation It is best grown from seed but cuttings grow well if taken during the dry season.mination rate is reported to be up to 80% after 20 days (Kibungu Kembelo personalmunication).

s The wood is light brown, pinkish, fine textured, hard and heavy and takes a good polish. It isely used as firewood and for making charcoal. Ngala (Cirina forda) and N'kwati edible caterpillars eat leaves. The plant is used to treat fever, hernias, and swelling in the legs in Bas-Congo. The leaves a decoction of the root bark is used as an enema to treat diarrhoea in children as well as for worms colic. A weak decoction of the roots is used to treat coughing, constipation and poisoning. Similarlyeak decoction of leaves is used to treatumatism. However great careuld be taken when using this plantdicinally as it can be highlysonous. Bees forage for nectar inember in Bas-Congo.

arks In some areas of Bas-Congos have become scarce because thed is frequently used for carving.

erences Gillet & Paque 1910, Dalziel 1937, Renier 1948, Irvine 1961, Watt & Beyer-Brandwijk2, Arkinstall 1979, Villieres 1987, Keay 1989, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Pauwels 1993, Kibungubelo 1995, Nsimundele 2004, Pousset 2004

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Croton mubango (Euphorbiaceae)

Common names Mubango mbango, nbangu nbangu, saku

Description A bush or small tree from 3 to 15 m high.

An unusual tree growing in a village near Manni

Ecology Found in secondary forest, but sometimes planted in villages. Occurs in R.D. Congo andAngola.

Propagation Can be grown from seed.

Uses The bark is used as a condiment in Bas-Congo. It is also widely used medicinally to treathaemorrhoids, hernias, skin eruptions, pain in the joints, painful periods, tooth decay and gastritis. Theleaves are eaten to ease pain. Elsewhere thebark is eaten with seeds of Monodora myristicafor abdominal pain or intestinal worm control.For toothache the bark is pulped and thenrubbed on the affected tooth. The bark, afterbeing soaked in water, is also rubbed on thebody as a tonic. It is a good bee forage,flowering from July to September. Bees wereseen very active in the early morning, probablycollecting pollen. Ndienga and Kaba(Lobobunaea phaedusa) edible caterpillars feedon the leaves. The resin from the trunk is usedto trap birds.

References Renier 1948, Sillans 1953,Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Pauwels 1993,Kibungu Kembelo 2003

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Croton sylvaticus (Euphorbiaceae)

Common names Kidianga, forest fever - berry, woodland croton

Description A fast growing semi-deciduous bush or tree to 20 m. Barksmells of black pepper and is smooth andgrey in colour. The fruits are orange andpointed.

Ecology Occurs in secondary forest inBas-Congo. Found from Guinea to Sudanand Ethiopia and south to Natal andAngola (in savanna and secondary forestregrowth in West Africa). Common fromlow to high altitude forests in Zimbabwe.Sometimes planted as a gardenornamental.

Propagation Collect the fruits and laythem on a plastic sheet. Put in the sunand collect the seed after the capsuleshave split open. Sow them in containersfilled with a mixture of river sand andcompost (1:2). Cover the seeds lightlywith compost and keep moist. Evengermination occurs after 2 - 3 weeks.

Transplant when two leaves appear, either direct to the site or into plastic bags filled with a riversand/compost mix (1:1). Prefers to be planted in light to deep shade but will survive in full sun.

Uses The timber, whichis soft and light, is usedfor making furniture(kitchen and sidetables), shelves and fruitboxes. It is also a verygood firewood whichburns even when green.The tree is used as ashade tree, particularlyfor coffee. Woodscrapings are rubbed onthe foot to treatelephantiasis in Bas-Congo. The powderedbark is used as aremedy for gall sicknessin cattle. The bark isalso used as a fishpoison and medicinallyto relieve severe abdominal pain and chest pain. A decoction of the root or bark is used to treat fever,digestive problems and pleurisy. A decoction of root bark is drunk to treat tuberculosis. A leaf tea isdrunk as a purgative. N'dienga edible caterpillars feed on the leaves. Many insects were seen collectingnectar from a tree near Madimba in January and the flowers are probably a useful bee forage.

References Watt & Breyer Brandwijk 1962, Wild et al 1972, Kokwaro 1976, Keay 1989, Pauwels 1993,Beentje 1994, Burkill 1994, Kibungu Kembelo 1995, Venter 1996, ICRAF 1998, Katende et al. 2000,Neuwinger 2000, Nsimundele 2004

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Photo : Rudy Schippers

Cucumeropsis mannii (Cucurbitaceae)

Synonym Includes Cucumeropsis edulis

Common names Mbika nsudi, concombre amer (Fr.).

Description A herbaceous climber up to 4 m long.

Ecology Grows or is planted in the forest zone from Guinea-Bissau to Cameroon, south to Angola andeast into Uganda. The plant thrives on soils rich in barely decomposed organic waste. This is why it iscultivated as a first crop plant after clearing the forest.

Propagation Grown from seed.

Management The vine can be grown over fences etc.

Uses The flesh of the fruit is edible but the plant is mainly grown for its oily edible seeds. These areremoved from the flesh by stacking the fruit and allowing decomposition to take place. This should bedone some distance from the home because of the smell. The seeds are washed out after 10 - 15 days,then dried and stored. They are prepared for eating by dry heating and then pounding to free the seedcoat from the kernel. They are eaten raw or cooked, butmore usually are ground to a powder, which is added tosoups and stews. In flavour they resemble groundnuts butare richer in oil and contain more protein. Amino acids arewell represented in the kernel. The oil is a good substitutefor cotton seed oil and is used for soap-making andillumination.

Remarks Bees are the principle pollinators.

References Drachoussoff 1947, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983,Burkill 1985, Dupriez & De Leener 1989, Ambougou 1991

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Cucurbita maxima (Cucurbitaceae)

Common names Mbika malenge, courge (Fr.), squash

Description A trailing herbaceous annual, which can sometimes form a bush. 3 - 6 fruits are producedper plant with fruits weighing from 2 - 5 kg.

Cucurbita maxima growing near Mbanza Nzundu

Ecology Originally from South America but now grown throughout Africa. The plant grows well in soilsenriched with organic matter and ashes or where burning has taken place. Some varieties tolerateslightly acid soils. Dry periods favour growth and squashes grow best in full sunlight.

Propagation Normally 3 - 10 seedsare sown per site and then thinned outto 1 - 3 plants. Plant the seed 2 - 4 cmdeep.

Left : Bees collecting nectar from flowers

Management Harvest when the skinstarts to harden.

Uses The young leaves, fruit flesh andseeds are eaten in Bas-Congo. Driedfruit shells can be used for makingbowls etc. Fruits with hard skin can bestored for out of season use. Thepounded seeds, mixed with honey, areused to expel tapeworms.

References Tindall 1983, Dupriez & De Leener 1989, Pousset 2004

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Curcuma longa (Zingiberaceae)

Synonym C. domestica

Common names Kingondi, bola dimputu, safran des Indes (Fr.), turmeric

Description A perennial herb withleafy shoots surrounding the stem. Itgrows 1 - 1.5 m tall from a rhizome.These have a characteristic smell.Inflorescence is a spike arising fromthe base of the stem, 10 - 15 cmlong. Flowers appear in the leaf axils.Fruits and seeds are rarely produced.

Ecology Requires warm, moistconditions, and well drained, loose,friable and fertile soil. It is oftencultivated in Bas-Congo.

Propagation By division of therhizomes.

Management Normally only one ortwo plants are grown, but the cropbenefits from mulching, and wheresoils are either wet or excessively dryit is best to grow the plants onridges. The rhizomes are harvested 7- 10 months after planting and careshould be taken that tubers are notdamaged.

Uses The rhizome is pounded and added to pumpkin and squash or beans to improve the taste andappearance of the food. To develop the yellow colour andaroma, the rhizomes are cleaned and then boiled for anhour before being dried in the sun for 6 - 8 days. Theyare then ground, since this spice is usually marketed as apowder. Turmeric is mainly used in curry powders and asa colouring agent and condiment in mixed spice powders,mustard etc. In Bas-Congo the rhizome is usedmedicinally to treat mental illness, hernias and anaemia.Mixed with warm milk the rhizomes can be used to curecolds. Juice from fresh rhizomes is applied to skininfections and a decoction of rhizomes is effective againsteye disorders. Research has shown the plant to be usefulin the treatment of cancer, dermatitis, AIDS,inflammation, high cholesterol and digestive problems. Itis used for liver complaints, bilious disorders, jaundiceand to treat intestinal worms and parasites. It is also usedfor dyeing cotton, silk and wool. It has potential for use as an insecticide, fungicide and againstnematodes.

References Uphof 1968, Daeleman & Pauwels 1993, Borget 1993, de Guzman & Siemonsma 1999,Burkill 2000, Kibungu Kembelo 2003

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Cymbopogon citratus (Poaceae)

Common names Sinda, sinda dimputu, citronelle (Fr.), lemon grass

Description A tufted, perennialgrass growing to 2 m high.

Ecology Originally from India butnow cultivated throughout thetropics.

Propagation Divide the clumps andplant in fertile soil in partial shade.Water well until established.

Management Cut the plant down to8 - 10 cm., once it has grown toabout 1 m, to obtain fresh growth.

Uses The plant is grown in gardens,borders and to check erosion. It isoften burnt, either green or dry, inhouses to get rid of mosquitoes. Theleaves are frequently used to make atea which is sedative and is also usedmedicinally to relieve colds, flu,pneumonia etc. The plant helps torelieve cramp and stimulatesdigestion. Drinking the tea increasesthe rate at which the body sweatsand the frequency of urination,

helping to wash out harmful infections. It is used with other plants in Bas-Congo to relieve pain in thejoints and for coughs. In Asia the leaves are used to flavour food.

References Macmillan 1991, Burkill 1994, Hirt & M’Pia 2001, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Pousset 2004

Dry season vegetable garden near Kasangulu

105

Photo : Luc Pauwels

Cymbopogon densiflorus (Poaceae)

Common names Lusangusangu, kyangu

Description A tufted perennial grass up to 1.8 m high. Leaves are rounded at the base, up to 30 cmlong and 2.5 cm wide. The flowering panicle is dense, 15 - 20 cm long and 10 cm wide.

Ecology Grows in open spaces along roadsides andwooded grassland. The plant is cultivated in villagesin Bas-Congo and elsewhere. It is native to centraltropical Africa, from Gabon, Angola and south toZimbabwe.

Propagation Grown from seed or basal cuttings.

Left : Lusangusangu growing in Kintudi village

Uses The flower heads are used to flavour tea orcoffee and also as a condiment with meat. It iscommonly grown for its aromatic oil and as amedicinal and ornamental plant. Various parts ofthe plant are used to treat diabetes, dementia andrepeated miscarriages. The flower head or leavestogether with the leaves of Hyptis nepetifolia(Nkama nsongo) and Ocimum gratissimum (Dinsusunsusu di nene) are mixed together and rubbed onareas affected by rheumatism. The flower head isalso boiled in water and the decoction taken to easecoughing in Bas-Congo. In Gabon the crushedleaves are used for rheumatism. In Malawi theflower head is smoked to relieve bronchial problemsand the plant sap is used for the same purpose inCongo (Brazzaville).

References Adriaens 1951, FG 1962, Daeleman &Pauwels 1983, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Burkill 1994,Kibungu Kembelo 2003

Right : Dried flowering head

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Flower head

Cyperus articulatus (Cyperaceae) Common names Lusaku-saku, nsaku-nsaku, jonc vulgaire (Fr.)

Description A tough grass growing up to 1.5 m with fragrant, sweet-scented tuberous roots Ecology Grows in low lying, damp areas and is sometimes cultivated in the villages in Bas-Congo. It is found throughout tropical Africa, and in Egypt, and Madagascar. Uses The bark from the root, seeds and shoots is used medicinally to treat sciatica, painful joints, fatigue, wounds, asthma, bed wetting, fear of noise and haemorrhoids. Roots are used for perfuming clothes. The stems are made into mats.

Propagation The plant can be grown from seed or by dividing the rootstock. References FM & C 1937, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Neuwinger 2000

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Dacryodes edulis (Burseraceae)

Common names Nsafu, safoutier (Fr.), African pear

Description A fruit bearing tree growing up to 18 m.

Ecology Commonly planted in villages in Bas-Congo. It can be grown in a wider variety of conditionsthan oil palms.

Propagation Usually grown from fresh seed,sown direct or in long polythene bags, butresulting trees vary greatly in total fruit productionand composition of fruit. Air layering, which takesfrom 4 - 6 months, can be up to 80% successful.Large diameter, horizontal branches with thickbark should be used and the layers should not beseparated when the mother tree is about toproduce new growth. Propagation of goodvarieties using large cuttings is sometimes carriedout in Bas-Congo but this is not always successful.The top of the cutting must be covered with soil,or a pad of leaves, and kept humid until it hasrooted.

Management Avoid breaking branches duringharvest, as this can delay the next flowering for awhole year. Gashes are sometimes cut in the tree trunk to improve fruiting.

Uses The tree is planted for shade and for its edible fruit, which is either boiled in water for 2 - 3minutes, roasted in hot ashes or fried. Fruit pulp is rich in oil (30 - 60% dry matter basis). Production offruit from 20-year-old trees can reach 110 kg per tree. Yields decline after that. The wood is heavy andused for tool handles and furniture. The flowers are an important forage for bees. A decoction of thebark is used to treat dysentery in Bas-Congo. The resin and leaf juices are used medicinally in Gabon.Food plant for Minsongo (Imbrasia alopia), Makedi kedi (Bunaeae alcinoe) and Kaba (Lobobunaeaphaedusa) edible caterpillars.

References Burkill 1985, Aumeeruddy & Pinglo 1988, Ngatchou & Kengu 1989, Pauwels 1993, KibunguKembelo 1995, Mialoundama et al 2002, Verheij 2002, Nsimundele 2004

108

Ox ploughing in Manianga

Desmodium velutinum (Fabaceae)

Synonym D. lasiocarpum

Common names Dintata

Description Semi-woody, erect, hairy under-shrubgrowing from 1 to 2 m high; branches are coveredwith dense brown hairs. Leaves are ovate, up to 15cm long and 8 cm wide. Flowers pink or purplish.Pod about 1.8 cm long, densely hairy and deeplyindented on one side.

Ecology Commonly found in the savanna, alongroadsides and in clearings from Senegal to Nigeriaand from Cameroon to Angola and also in southernSudan. Adapted to high rainfall areas.

Propagation Can be grown from seed.

Uses A medicinal plant in Bas-Congo. The leavesare used to treat female sterility, uterine sores anddiarrhoea. Elsewhere a root decoction is used as anenema, to treat blood in the urine and is drunk forcardiac problems and toothache. A decoction ofleaves is drunk for coughs, diarrhoea anddysentery. A leaf tea is drunk for threatenedabortion. For eye injuries the leaf sap is dropped inand leaves are bound on to wounds to heal them.Livestock are reported to browse the plant.

References Skerman 1977, Burkill 1995,Neuwinger 2000, Kibungu Kembelo 2003

109

Dichrostachys cinerea subsp. platycarpa (Mimosaceae) Common names Nsendi-mwanga, nsendi-mpanga, sickle bush

Description A small tree or shrub growing to 8 m high, branching low down and often formingthickets. The single thorns are short. Fruits are formed in a cluster of twisted, flattened pods.

Ecology Grows in savanna in tropical and sub-tropical Africa, tropical Asia and Australia.

Propagation By seed, best by direct sowing so as to avoid damaging the long tap-root. It can also begrown from 10 cm long root suckers and cuttings. The tree produces large amounts of seed whengrowing in open sites. Seed can be stored but only in a cold room. When planting immerse in hot waterand allow to cool overnight. Take care not to damage the tap-root once the seedlings emerge.

Management The tree can be coppiced orpollarded.

Uses Timber is hard and heavy but normallyproduced in small dimensions. The woodproduces a very hot, long lasting fire, and agood quality charcoal. It is excellent for toolhandles due to its strength and hardness. Theinner bark is tough and can be used as rope.The tree is nitrogen fixing. Bees collect nectarand pollen from the flowers. The roots, leaves,spines and bark are used to treat spasms,stomach problems and as an antidote forsnake-bite poisoning. In Bas-Congo the plantis used to treat female sterility, pain betweenthe ribs, gastritis, heart palpitations,poisoning, male impotence and rheumatism.

References Bein et al. 1996, Venter & Venter 1996, Kihwele 2001, Kibungu Kembelo 2003

110

Mbala ya nguvu variety.

Yams and “chikwangue” being cooked together.

Dioscorea alata (Dioscoreaceae)

Common names Mansungu, greater yam, wingedyam, water yam

Description This is the highest yielding of all yamsusually producing single watery tubers, of variablesize weighing between 5 and 10 kg. Stems aresquare, winged and twine to the right.

Ecology Originally from South-east Asia. Requires at least 1,500 mm of rain and fertile deep soils formaximum production.

Propagation Yams are grown vegetatively from pieces of tuber weighing from 0.1 to 2 kg. These settsare best taken from the top of the yam tuber and usually sprout more quickly and give higher yields

than those taken from other parts.

Management The tubers are normallyharvested after 9 to 10 months. Farmerssometimes grow the vines through hollowedout bamboo poles to protect them frombeing eaten by livestock.

Uses Yams are widely but not extensivelygrown in Bas-Congo. The tubers are eatenafter being peeled and boiled or baked.They contain nearly 90% carbohydrate and7% protein. Eating the tubers helps preventscurvy.

Remarks Other species grown include D. baya =Mpundi and D. bulbifera = Soko, but there arenumerous other named species and varietiespresent in Bas-Congo.

Right : D. dumetorum = Nsemi nsemi, growing at Kasangulu

References Purseglove 1972, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985

111

Dioscorea bulbifera (Dioscoreaceae)

Common names Soko, to, mpenga or ngembo, potato yam, aerial yam

Description A climbing plant which twines tothe left growing to about 6 m high from asmall woody tuber. It produces aerial bulbils.Stems are cylindrical. Leaves are large, simpleand ovate. Flowers are also large. Improvedvarieties have angular, grey bulbils whereaswild varieties have dark brown to livercoloured rounded bulbils. The flesh of theimproved varieties is pale yellow to almostwhite.

Left : An improved variety growing in agarden at Kisantu.

Ecology Found throughout Africa and Asiaand also in South and Central America and inOceania. It is a hardy plant and can be foundup to 1800 m.

Propagation Can be grown from bulbils ortubers either whole or in small pieces. Tubersproduced from bulbils are very small in thefirst year so are then used as setts for thefollowing season

Management Bulbils are ready for harvestafter 2 years when the plant dries up and thebulbils fall off when touched.

Uses The aerial bulbils are edible,particularly those of improved varietieswhich are less bitter and also less poisonous.Some of these can even be eaten raw. Theaerial tubers of improved varieties normallyweigh about 0.5kg but can weigh up to 2 kg.The flesh is slimy, containing up to 80%carbohydrate. Bulbils from wild varieties areused as a famine food. Long soaking andboiling is required to make them safe to eat.Protein content is 10.5% (dry matter basis).The bulbils, leaves and roots are usedmedicinally elsewhere in Africa to treatabscesses, skin parasites, rheumatism andeye infections.

References Kay 1973, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985, Malaisse 1997, Katende et al. 1999,Neuwinger 2000.

112

Dioscorea praehensilis (Dioscoreaceae)

Synonym D. cayenensis var. praehensilis

Common names Kisadi, sadi,bisadi, igname de brousse (Fr.),bush yam, forest yam

Left : Young shootsgrowing from a stem node

Description A sturdy climbingplant to 20 m high twining tothe right and growing from avery large tuber protrudingfrom the ground. The tuber is

armed with curving protective spiny roots. Stems are hairless, purplish-green and lightly ribbedlongitudinally. Tangled spines form a protective crown at the top of the tuber. The tuber has white fleshtinged yellow and may be either oblong or round.

Ecology Grows wild in forests andgallery forests from Sierra Leone toNigeria and in Gabon and the Congo.

Right : Globular form of tuber

Uses The young shoots growing fromthe vine are eaten like asparagus inBas-Congo. The older stems are cutup and an infusion is used forstomach complaints, urethraldischarge and oedemas in the Congo.Tuber flesh is bitter and only eatenafter careful preparation and usuallyas a famine food.

Left : Young shootsharvested for eatingnear Kintudi

References Dalziel 1937,Burkill 1985

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Diospyros heterotricha (Ebenaceae)

Common names Lufwalundomba

Description Shrub to 3 m high.Leaves 5 – 10 x 2 – 4.5 cm. Themale inflorescence is composedof 2 or 3 flowers, the terminalone being the first to open. Thefemale flower is solitary. Fruits 1– 1.6 cm long.

Ecology Grows in the forest.

Uses The twigs are chewed toclean the teeth. The wood, whichbecomes brown in contact withthe air, is sometimes used tocolour the lips. The fruits areedible and the tree has beenintroduced into West Africa forthis reason.

References Daeleman &Pauwels 1983, FAC 1987, Burkill1994

Preparing “chikwangue” from cassava flour

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Diplorhynchus condylocarpon (Apocynaceae)

Common names Nvondongolo, Rhodesian rubber tree

Description A shrub from 3 - 12 m high with a trunk from 1 – 20 cm in diameter. The bark is fissured.Leaves are 2.6 – 12 cm long and 1.1 – 6.7 cm wide. Flower head 1.4 – 14 cm long, composed of whiteto cream coloured flowers. Fruits are oblong 2.2 – 6.6 cm long.

Ecology Found in rocky places, wooded grassland and on forest margins. Also present in Angola,Malawi, Mozambique, Zimbabwe and in southern Africa.

Diplorhynchus condylocarpon with flowers and fruit at Kikonda

Uses A latex is obtained from cuts in the bark which is used to repair bicycle tyres and for trappingbirds in Bas-Congo and in Zimbabwe. The latex is smeared over cuts in the body to heal them inMalawi. The plant is also used as a snake-bite remedy. The heart-wood produces a long-lasting timber.A food plant for Makedi kedi (Bunaea alcinoe) edible caterpillar.

Right : Bunaea alcinoe is an importantspecies of edible caterpillar in Bas-Congo. It feeds on a variety of treesand is found in January or February.

References Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk1962, Williamson 1975, Kokwaro 1976, FTEA 2002,

115

Dorstenia psilurus (Moraceae)

Common names Kintamba, kinkama

Description A semi-woody, erect,herbaceous plantgrowing from ahorizontal rootstock orrhizome. Leaves arealternate, 7 – 18 cmlong and 3 – 7 cmwide, having petioles1.5 to 5 cm long.Flowers, which areproduced throughoutthe year, are borne inthe leaf axils; maleflowers have onestamen, female flowershave a protrudingstyle.

Ecology An under-storey shrub of old

forests and in damp sites but also present in the savanna and often associated with termite hills. Growsup to 1760 m. Sometimes planted in villages in Bas-Congo.

Propagation by seed or cutting.

Uses Roots are used to treat coughs,haemorrhoids, elephantiasis, maleimpotence and heart palpitations in Bas-Congo. The roots are sometimes mixedwith tobacco to give it a pleasant flavour.Elsewhere in the Congo the roots areused as a deodorant and to give cookingpots a pleasant smell. Both roots andleaves are reported to be eaten. Amaceration of the root is drunk and thebody washed in the liquid as a treatmentfor malaria. The pounded leaves areapplied in the treatment of rheumatism.

References FAC 1948, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Neuwinger 2000, Kibungu Kembelo 2003

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Bukutukutu mushrooms growingon a dead stump

Dracaena mannii (Dracaenaceae)

Common names Kidiadi, ndiadi mbuluDescription A tree growingup to 10 m high.

Ecology Common on sandysoils in secondary forest inBas-Congo.

Propagation Grows easilyfrom large cuttings. Can alsobe grown from seedlings.Seeds cannot be stored soshould be plantedimmediately.

Management The treegrows back fast after felling.

Uses The young shoots aresometimes eaten. In Bas-

Congo the decomposing tree provides a base fortwo varieties of edible mushroom - Bunkanga andBukutukutu = Auricularia polytricha or A. auricula-judae. The tree is occasionally used to markboundaries. Foliage can be used as a livestock feed.It is the source of a light-coloured dye. The rottingleaves form a good mulch and improve soil fertility.

Right : The core of young leaves is taken from thegrowing tip of a branch and used as a vegetable.

Lye is made from the burnt leaves in Liberia which is used in making soap. The male flowers are animportant source of pollen for honey bees and other species of Dracaena are reported to yield nectarand pollen.

References Irvine 1961, Uphof 1968, Aumeeruddy & Pinglo 1988, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Mbuya et al.1994, Burkill 1995

117

Duranta erecta (Verbenaceae)

Synonym D. repens

Common names Golden dewdrop, pigeon berry

Description A shrub or small tree, sometimes thorny, growing to 5 - 6 m high. Flowers are blue orwhite followed by bright orange-yellow berries about 1 cm long, containing many white seeds.

Ecology Originally from Central andSouth America and the West Indies.

Propagation By seed or cutting.

Uses The fruits are edible. The shrubcan be grown as a hedge plant. Thejuice from both leaves and fruitpromotes urination. The fruit has beenused as an anti-malarial medicine. Thefruit juice has been found to be lethalto anopheline and culicine mosquitos at1:100 concentration. Bees collectnectar in January in Bas-Congo, butfrequent clipping of the bush isreported to reduce flowering.

References Macmillan 1991, Pauwels1993, Katende et al. 1999, Burkill 2000

118

Papa Nsimba constructing a house in Bas-Congo. It required a variety of products – poles, lathsmade from the mid-rib of palm-leaves, tying material and palm leaves for roofing – all extracted

from the forest.

Ectadiopsis oblongifolia (Asclepiadaceae)

Synonym Cryptolepis oblongifolia

Common names Ndulunsi,mvulumuna

Description A slender creeperwith small white flowers producedin January.

Ecology The plant grows in thesavanna and secondary forest.

Uses The vine makes good tying material for fasteninghorizontal laths and roof beams when house building. It is alsoused for making fish traps etc.

References Daeleman & Pauwels 1983

119

Elaeis guineensis (Arecaceae)

Common names Ba di nsamba, ba di ngasi, palmier à huile (Fr.), oil palm

Ecology Scattered trees are left in the bush fallow throughout the humid tropics in Africa.

Oil palms near Mbanza Nzundu

Propagation Seed requires heat treatment before it will germinate and even then is slow and variable.

Management Cultivated palmscommence bearing after 4 years andreach their peak after 12 - 15 years. Theymay continue producing for 40 to 50years. Wild plants may take 10 years tostart fruiting.

Uses Principally a source of cooking oiland cash income in Bas-Congo. Oil isused for the production of margarine andsoap. Red palm oil is important as a localfood and for cooking, supplying fat inareas where cattle cannot be kept due totsetse fly. It is a good source of vitaminA. Sap is also collected for toddy making.The male flowers are an important pollensource for honeybees. The trunk, which isneither strong nor lasting and is readilyattacked by termites, is often used forbuilding poles, rafters, bridges, fencesand even for fuel wood.

Right : Extracting oil in the village

120

Papa Alphonse with a fish trap madefrom oil palm leaf stalks

Left : Palm worms (Oryctesspp.) are collected from thedecaying trunk and fed oncassava meal for a few daysbefore being cooked and eaten.

The leaves are used forthatching, matting, and makingwalls and fences, but theirremoval reduces fruit yield.Cracking the seed shells is alaborious task but the shells arehighly valued for fuel as theygive out a considerable heat,and are therefore muchfavoured by blacksmiths. Themidrib is used for makingbaskets, traps etc.

Edible mushrooms (Lumiengi = Psathyrella cf. tuberculata) are grownon the dead flowers which are heaped together and covered with palmleaves. Palm wine is then poured over the heap and the mushroomsare produced after 2 - 3 days. Ash obtained from both male andfemale flowers is used as salt.

Right: Lumiengimushrooms growing on

discarded oil palm seeds.

Inter-cropping withcassava, soyabeans orsesame for the first 29months makes good useof the land. If leguminous crops are grown, the palms willbenefit from the improved fertility and subsequent yields ofoil are likely to be increased.

Right : Ditoko, Helen making string from oilpalm leaf stems for tying chikwangue packets.

References Godin & Spensely 1971, Castagné1983, Crane et al. 1984, Ambougou 1991, Burkill1994

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Young regowth in a plot of maize

Entada abyssinica (Mimosaceae)

Common names Nsiesa, nsiensie, nsiesi mfinda

Description A shrub or small tree from 3 to 8 m high. It flowers during the rain season.

Ecology Widespread in central and eastern tropical Africa. Found in wooded grassland savanna. Preferssandy loam soils and will grow on shallow soils.

Propagation Grow from seed. Pre-treatment is sometimes necessary because of the hardness of theseed coat. Put the seed in boiling water and allow this to cool immediately. Germination rate is veryhigh, between 70 and 100%. The seed can be stored.

Management The treeregenerates naturally afterbeing cut down.

Uses Used for firewood andcharcoal in Bas-Congo. It isthe food plant for Nsofi andMinsangula edible caterpillarsand is reported as a beeforage. The tree makes a goodshade tree. It is nitrogen fixingand can be grown with cropsas it does not deplete yields.The heartwood is moderatelylight and easy to work. Adecoction of the bark is usedto relieve abdominal pains inCongo. The wood ash is usedas a lye in soap making.

References Mbuya et al. 1994, Burkill 1995, Katende et al. 2000

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Entada pursaetha (Mimosaceae)

Synonym E. rheedei

Common names Futi

Description A stout creeper growing to 50m. The compound leaves comprise 4 – 5 pairsof leaflets which are borne on stalks 4 – 12cm long with petioles 1 – 3 mm long. Leafletsare 6 – 9 cm long and 2.5 – 3.7 cm wide.

Left : Entada pursaetha growing insecondary forest near Kavwaya

Ecology Widely dispersed across centraltropical Africa and in tropical America,Australia and Asia, in forests, often alongwater courses.

Uses The plant yields a good fibre fortying. In some areas it has becomeuncommon due to over collection.Seeds were traditionally scattered withthose of Pentaclethra macrophylla andP. eetveldeana to enrich the forestfallow after cultivation in Bas-Congo.The inner bark yields a fibre with longstrands which makes a good fishingline. The plant has a number ofmedicinal uses and is also used tomake a fish poison in Katanga.

The fibre being used to tie up a sackof charcoal near Mbanza Nzundu

References FAC 1952, Daeleman &Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1995, Malaisse1997

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Rattan from the stem

Eremospatha haullevilleana (Arecaceae)

Common names Muka, mbamba, lubamba, rattanDescription Aclustering palm climbingto 25 m or more. Stem 1cm in diameter withinter-nodes of more orless 15 cm. The leaves,which end in a longtendril, are fiercelyspiked at the end, andmay reach 1 m long.Fruit oval in shape, 2.5 -3 cm long, 1.1 - 1.5 cmwide.

Ecology Grows in riverine and swamp forest fromGabon to Uganda.

Management Remove foliage and cut stems fromthe stump immediately after harvesting. This willenable the stump to start growing again. The plantscan then be harvested every 3 - 5 years.

Uses Stems are used for basket-work (see front coverphoto and page 45), house-building, furniture and tomake belts for climbing oil palm trees. The leaves areused for roofing. Other species are used to makebridges, furniture and fencing. The bark is used fortying hut frames and posts.

“Lubamba wo lu monekesi n'tu kuna nseki, zayo vokuna mfiinda lu sala nkata”. = If the lubamba rears itshead above the forest it is a sign that the forest hasbeen there for many years. Meaning : When anormally peaceful person is annoyed and decides toact, there must have been sufficient reason whichpushed him to do it.

(Kikongo proverb)

Left : a stool made from the split stems

References Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, FTEA1986, Burkill 1997, Sunderland et al. 1999

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Nsindi edible caterpillar

Photo : L . Lemaire

Eriosema psoraleoides (Fabaceae)

Synonym E. cajanoides

Common names Kiwandu ki nseke, gwandu yanseke, mwandu-mwandu

Description An erect herb or shrub, 1 – 2 m high,growing from a perennial woody rootstock. Theplant fixes nitrogen, improving soil fertility.

Ecology A common shrub in wooded savanna,particularly in moist areas. Found throughouttropical Africa and in South Africa.

Uses The leaves, mixed with other leaves and pulped, are used as a fish poison in the Congo. The leafhas insecticidal properties being rubbed on to dogs to keep lice away. The whole plant is used, togetherwith Dichrostachys cinerea to trap cane rats. The plant, finely powdered is taken with water in Tanzaniato treat tuberculosis. The pounded roots, leaf sap, juice from the fruits are used in various ways to treat

abdominal pain, blood in the urine,stomach pain, asthma, conjunctivitis,haemorrhoids, jaundice and injuries tothe foot. The plant is only eaten bystock at the end of the dry season.Host plant for N'sindi and Minsendiedible caterpillars. The yellow seedsare cooked and eaten in South Africa.The tubers of some species ofEriosema are eaten in Katanga.

References Irvine 1961, Watt &Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Wild 1972,Skerman 1977, Allen & Allen 1981,Burkill 1995, Kibungu Kembelo1995,Sutherland 1996, Malaisse 1997,Neuwinger 2000, Nsimundele 2004

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Erythrina abyssinica (Fabaceae)

Synonym E. tomentosa

Common names Kikumbu, kikumbu ki nzambi, arbre corail (Fr.), red-hot poker tree

Description A shrub or small deciduous tree with deeply grooved bark from 6 to 12 m high. Flowersappear before the leaves during the dry season. Seeds are shiny red.

Ecology The tree isoccasionally found in Bas-Congo and sometimes plantedin villages. Normally found inwarm temperate and tropicalareas of Africa andparticularly in the Zambezianregion. It grows best in well-drained soils. Trees can beplanted near the home andaround field boundaries.

Propagation Grows easilyfrom cuttings. Plant 50 cmcuttings at the start of therain season or just beforeflowering. Germination rate ofseed is low.

Management Trees areslow-growing.

Uses Wood is used for carved items (kitchen utensils and mortars) and sometimes for firewood. Thebark and leaves are used medicinally in Bas-Congo to treat skin disorders, diabetes, madness, nervousdisorders, still births or frequentabortions, rheumatism, heartpalpitations, eating without feelingsatisfied, asthma, anaemia andgastritis. In South Africa the mainuse for a related species containingErythraline and Erysovine, (which ispresent in E. .abyssinica), is to treatsores, wounds and abscesses.Powdered, burnt bark is applied tothe area. The leaves provide fodderfor sheep and goats, and also makegood mulching. The tree is nitrogenfixing and therefore useful for soilimprovement. Bees forage fornectar and pollen at the end of thedry season. Cut branches are usedfor making live fences. A brown dyeis extracted from the bark.

Remarks Tree tolerates fire and isfairly termite resistant.

References Egli & Kalinganire 1988, Pauwels 1993, Mbuya et al. 1994, Van Wyk et al. 1997, ICRAF1998, Kibungu Kembelo 2003

Erythrococca oleracea (Euphorbiaceae)

Common names Nsusa, nzekenzeke

Description A weak shrub or small

tree growing from 4 to 6 m high. Barksmooth and light grey. Leaves havepetioles up to 1.5 cm long, sometimeswith small conical orange-brownglands near the top. Leaves are ovateor elliptic-oblong 8-13 x 3-7 cm,pointed at the end, mature leavesbeing hairless below.

Ecology Found in secondary forest inBas-Congo and also in the Cameroonand Uganda.

Uses Collected from the wild and usedas a vegetable in Bas-Congo. Otherspecies are used as vegetableselsewhere in Africa.

Left : Nsusa collected in the botanicgarden at Kisantu

References FTEA 1987, Peters et al.1992, Pauwels 1993, Martin et al. 1998

Lower photo : Emmanuel Miaglia

Photo : Emmanuel Miaglia

Planting cassava after burning the forest fallow

126

127

Eucalyptus spp. (Myrtaceae)

Common names Eucalyptus

Description Large trees. The most common species in Bas-Congo are E. citriodora, E. deglupta, E.robusta and E. saligna.

Ecology The tree will grow on a wide range of soils, including waterlogged places and on saline andpoor, gravel soils. E. saligna, E. deglupta and E. citriodora prefer a well drained soil and a welldistributed rainfall. E. robusta can withstand waterlogging. Altitude range 0 – 1100 m.

Propagation Normally grown from seed planted in a nursery. E. deglupta can be grown from branchcuttings less than 2 years old using a hormone rooting compound. Cuttings should have a stem nodeand a segment of leaf.

Management The tree is fast-growing but weed growth must be kept down for the first two years.After being cut down the trees will sprout again.

Uses Firewood, charcoal, timber, posts, bee forage, windbreak. E. robusta and E. citriodora are reliablehoney producers. E. saligna flowers every two years giving high honey yields but other species mayflower annually or every 2, 3 or 4 years. E. deglupta produces valuable timber. An essential oil isobtained from the leaves of E. citriodora and the leaves are put in boiling water to produce an inhalantto relieve colds. E. robusta is reported to have significant antimalarial properties.

Remarks Eucalypts should not be planted near crops as yields of the latter are reduced.

References Morton 1964, Crane et al 1984, Pauwels 1993, Mbuya et al. 1994, ICRAF 1998

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Euphorbia hirta (Euphorbiaceae)

Synonym Chamaesyce hirta

Common names Kikula ntedi, kula ntedi, kula ntese, malnommée (Fr.), asthma weed

Description An annual creeping herb up to 50 cm high with opposite leaves on short stalks. The planthas tiny, stiff, yellow hairs. When cut or broken the plant yields a white sap. Flowers are pink and verysmall. The fruit contains 3 three-edged seeds 0.8 mm long.

Ecology A common weed, often present around villages, growing in fertile sandy soil in full sun.

Uses The whole plant is cut just above ground and is used especially in the treatment of amoebic andbacillary dysentery and asthma. It is also used for interrupted milk supply, mastitis, rheumatism, urinarytract infections, kidney infections, intestinal cramp and worms, diarrhoea, (particularly for babies),haemorrhoids and for treating warts.

References Akobundu &Agyakwa 1987, Burkill 1994,Neuwinger 2000, Hirt & M'Pia2001, Kibungu Kembelo 2003,Pousset 2004

ADERUKI farmers group nearKikola in their cassava field.

129

A beekeeper with a hive made from unburnt bricks

Ficus bubu (Moraceae)

Common names Bubu (this name is also used for Ficus lutea)

Description The plant may befound growing on another treeor be free growing. Trees arefrom 10 to 20 m high withtough leaves, 30 cm long and20 cm wide. Bark is pale greenor white. The figs are producedon short spurs on older wood.

Ecology Occurs across centralAfrica to Uganda and intoSouth Africa in forest or riverineforests.

Propagation The tree is easilyplanted using large cuttings.

Uses Planted as a hedge orboundary marker in villages andas an avenue tree. Bubu ediblecaterpillars feed on the leaves.The bark yields a white latex.

References Daeleman &Pauwels 1983, Beentje 1994,Burkill 1997

130

Livestock fence made from Ficus thonningii at Kinseki

Ficus thonningii (Moraceae)

Synonyms F. hochstetteri, F. persicifolia

Common nameNsanda

Description Tree to 21m high with a densecrown. Bark is smooth,pale brown or grey.When cut it exudes acopious white latex,which often turnspinkish.

Ecology Widespread intropical Africa and SouthAfrica. Grows on avariety of soils butfavours rich, deep loamysoils. Relatively droughtresistant.

Propagation Stemcuttings, 20 cm long, take easily, sprouting after 7 - 9 days. Remove most of the leaves, leaving only afew at the top. Larger cuttings, 2 m long, can also be planted for hedges, but should be left in theshade for a few days before planting. Root cuttings can also be used.

Management Protect from browsing when young. The tree should not be planted near buildings as theroots may damage thefoundations.

Uses Livestockenclosures, boundarymarkers and as a goatfodder in Bas-Congo.Livestock eat the dryleaves in particular. Adecoction of the leaves isused to treat mentaldisorders, stomach-ache,coughs and abscesses. Awash is made from thepounded leaves to treathaemorrhoids. The barkis pounded, soaked inwater and used to treatrheumatism. A good jamcan be made from thefruit. Latex can be usedas a glue and bird-lime.

References Cobbina & Reynolds 1988, Keay 1989, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Mbuya et al. 1994, Venter& Venter 1996, Maundu 1999, Neuwinger 2000, Kibungu Kembelo 2003

131

Flacourtia jangomas (Flacourtiaceae)

Common names Confiture, prunier d'Inde (Fr,), Indian plum

Description A shrub or small deciduous tree, up to 14 m high, spiny when young. Leaves 5 - 11 cmlong by 2 - 5 cm wide. The fruits are about 2 cm in diameter and turn red or blackish as they ripen.

Flacourtia jangomas growing in a garden in Kinshasa

Ecology Cultivated in tropical Africa, and Asia. The shrub can be grown up to an altitude of 600 m. Itprefers sandy soil and a high water table. It will also grow on red clay, sand and poor rocky soils.

Propagation Grown from seed.

Uses The fruit is eaten raw but has anastringent taste. It is more usually made intojam and jelly. The bush makes a good hedgeor windbreak and the branches can be usedfor firewood. The leaves and roots containtannin and are used to treat diarrhoea. Thewood is hard and can be used for makingsmall utensils.

References Verheij & Coronel 1991,Katende et al. 2000

132

Top bar for a beehive

Funtumia africana (Apocynaceae)

Synonym F. latifolia

Common names Kimbaki, false rubber tree,silk rubber

Description A fast-growing tree with a straighttrunk up to 30 m high. When cut the bark yieldslarge amounts of thin, white, sticky latex, whichdoes not form into a ball of rubber whenkneaded in the hand. The leaves are 10 – 20cm long and paired fruits 9 – 15 cm long.

Ecology Found in moist forest and colonizesabandoned farmland. It is widespread intropical Africa, from Guinea to Angola, andsouth to Malawi.

Propagation Can be grown from seed or wildseedlings. Fruit is collected when mature andleft to split open in a dry place. It should besown as soon as possible. No treatment isnecessary.

Uses Poles are used for house construction inBas-Congo. The wood is white, soft and even-textured and fine-grained. Used for carving,stools, bowls, doors, paddles etc. Said to bedurable enough for sawing into planks andhouse timbers but subject to stain and attackby beetles. Cheap furniture has been madefrom it. The wood burns well. The latexcoagulates with difficulty and produces a poorrubber. It is sometimes used as a bird-lime.

Floss from around the seeds is of good quality and usedfor pillows. The leaves, stem bark and latex are usedmedicinally to treat coughs, burns, incontinence,haemorrhoids, diarrhoea, chest pain, constipation and toaid conception. Mvinsu (Imbrasia epimethea), Kaba(Lobobunaea phaedusa) and Mbambi edible caterpillarsfeed on the leaves.

References Irvine 1961, Palgrave 1977, Burkill 1985,Keay 1989, Pauwels 1993, Beentje 1994, Katende et al.2000, Kibungu Kembelo 1995, Neuwinger 2000

133

Gaertnera paniculata (Rubiaceae)

Common names Kimbodi, kimbodia

Description Usually a shrub or small tree but it can grow up to 18 m tall.

Ecology Grows in moist deciduous forest particularly forest edges and beside rivers. Found fromGuinea to Cameroon and across the Congo basin to Zambia.

Gaertnera paniculata in flower near Mbanza Nzundu in September

Propagation The seed germinates readily underneath mature trees.

Uses In Bas-Congo, the tree is believed to improve fertility in the forest fallow. Stems are used in houseconstruction and for charcoal making. Bees collect nectar often in sufficient quantities for a honey flowwhere the shrub is abundant. Timber is reddish and used in Nigeria for pestles. The plant is usedmedicinally, the leaves being eaten to cure fever and the leaf pulp is sometimes applied externally forrheumatism. A decoction of the bark is taken to relieve cough and chest pains. Young tender shoots andthe roots are sometimes eaten. The leaves are consumed by goats. Saponin is present in moderatequantity in the roots.

Remarks Three other related species present in Bas-Congo are also reported to be good nectarsources for bees.

References De Wildeman 1934, Drachoussoff 1947, Irvine 1961, Walker & Sillans 1961, Castagné1983, Burkill 1997, Neuwinger 2000, Latham 2002, Nsimundele 2004

134

Gambeya lacourtiana (Sapotaceae)

Synonyms Chrysophyllum lacourtianum

Common names Mubamfu, mamba or mukulumu

Description A tree up to30 m tall. Leaves oblong,pointed, tapering at thebase 11 - 36 x 4.5 - 12.5cm. with petioles 2 - 3 cmlong. Red or orange fruits10 x 7 cm.

Ecology Occurs mainly inmature wet forest inCameroon, Gabon andCongo (Brazzaville).Present in Bas-Fleuve andCataractes and Lukayadistricts in Bas-Congo.

Uses Edible fruit. The juicy flesh around the seeds is sweet. The root bark is used to treat ear problemsand the bark from the trunk forhaemorrhaging or inflammationof the uterus and inflammation ofthe vagina. A steam bath, using adecoction of the bark, is used fortreating rheumatism, kidney painand feverish stiffness of thejoints. Powdered bark is used asa wound dressing.

Remarks In northern Gabon thefruits are often sold in localmarkets.

References Pauwels 1993,White & Abernethy 1997,Neuwinger 2000, Nsimundele2004

135

Garcinia huillensis (Clusiaceae)

Synonyms G. buchananii

Common names Kisima

Description An evergreen shrubfrom 2 to 5 m high containing yellowsap. The bark is greyish brown. Theleaves are dark glossy green,leathery, with short, often reddishpetioles and are from 6 – 10 cm longand 1.5 – 6 cm wide. The flowers aresmall, yellow with several beingborne together. Fruit is fleshy andabout 20 mm in diameter.

Ecology Found in the savanna inCongo, Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe,Malawi and Tanzania.

Garcinia huillensis growing in woodedsavanna near Mbanza Nzundu

Uses The sweet, edible fruit is eatenraw. It contains ascorbic acid. Smallpieces of root are sold as anaphrodisiac in Bas-Congo and theroots and bark are widely used totreat painful joints, haemorrhoids,painful and frequent periods,interruption in milk production,tuberculosis, male impotence,constipation and throat infections.

Elsewhere in Africa an infusion of the bark isused as a lotion to treat sores. Sticks are usedas tooth-brushes and the flowers are reportedto be visited by bees.

References Renier 1948, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Wild 1972, Pauwels 1993,Kibungu Kembelo 2003.

136

Garcinia kola (Clusiaceae)

Common names Ngadiadi, ngadidi, ngadiadia

Description An evergreen tree 35 - 40 m high. The flowers are finely hairy and large orange-like fruitsare produced.

Ecology Found in dense forests and beside water in Bas-Congo. Occurs up to 1200 m. and is cultivatedin Nigeria.

Propagation Freshly harvested seed, soaked in coldwater and then incubated in a thick transparent poly-ethylene bag, proved most effective in improving thegermination. Alternatively 80% germination after 55days was obtained by burying seed inside a plantainbanana stem for 3 weeks.

Uses The flesh surrounding the seeds, though sour, iseaten in Bas-Congo. The pounded seeds are used tocontrol intestinal worms and to ease stomach pain. Thebark and seeds are used to treat excessive crying inbabies, heart palpitations, epilepsy, diarrhoea and as atonic. The main use throughout West Africa is as chewsticks for which young trees are felled and split into pencil sized pieces. They are reputed to whiten theteeth. The roots are also used as chew sticks. A useful timber is produced. The wood is yellowish,darkening to brown at the centre, hard and close grained.

"Ngadiadi ka yi diwuluaanga ku yaangi ko" = Onedoesn't eat the fruit of Ngadiadi unless one is serious! (because of its bitterness).

Ndia N'soki 1994

References Keay 1989, Peters et al. 1992, Iwu1993, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1994, Sunderland et al.1999, Nzegbule & Mbakwe 2001, Kibungu Kembelo2003, Nsimundele 2004

137

Garcinia mangostana (Clusiaceae)

Common names Mangoustanier (Fr.), mangosteen

Description A tree growing to 10 m high, with dense foliage and large leathery leaves 10 - 14 cm longand 7 – 9 cm wide. Fruits are round, 4 – 7 cm in diameter, and turn purple on ripening.

Ecology The tree grows where there is a short dry season in the humid tropics, up to an altitude of1000 m. It grows on a wide variety of soils, but not on sands low in humus. It can withstand somewaterlogging. Shade is essential during the first 2 - 4 years.

Propagation By seed,cuttings or layering. Seedsare only viable for 3 daysonce removed from thefruit. They remain viablefor 3 - 5 weeks if kept inthe fruit. The heavierseeds give the best resultsas early growth is slowand the seedling istherefore able to dependon food reserves withinthe seed for longer. Plantseed in well drained soil,keep moist and providesome shade. Cuttings canbe taken from ripenedbranches. They root easilyin sand in a closedcontainer. Fruit yield can

be improved by grafting or budding.

Management Transplant seedlings once they have reached 60 cm. Planting holes 1.2 x 1.3 m are dugand organic matter is added one month before planting out. Plants are spaced at 8 - 10 m apart andmust be shaded. It is important that the last pair of leaves are not allowed to wither, as this will resultin a severe growth check or death. Maintain a good mulch around the plants at all times. Pruning shouldbe carried out when there are no flowers, fruit or new leaves and should be light and limited toremoving inside shoots and suckers. The tree is slow growing and starts to bear fruit after 10 to 15years. Trees tend to bear every other year and especially after dry weather.

Uses An important fruit crop in Bas-Congo, oftenbeing grown for sale. The thick skin can be usedto tan leather and to dye fabric black. The wood isdark red, coarse and strong and can be used forcarpentry work. The fruit is used to treat biliousfevers, dysentery and as a purgative. The flowersare reported to be visited by bees.

Remarks The fruit must be picked from the treewhile the skin is still soft. It can then be stored forup to 14 days if kept in damp sawdust.

References FAO 1982, Nakasone & Paull 1998

138

Gardenia ternifolia subsp. jovis-tonantis (Rubiaceae)

Common names Lemba nzau, kilemba nzau, laurier d'Afrique, gardenia mâle (Fr.)

Description A variable speciesof shrub or small tree to 5 mhigh. Flowers white andfragrant. Tree is tough andsolidly rooted.

Ecology Found in grasslandand forested savanna acrosstropical Africa.

Propagation The tree can begrown from cuttings, whichshould preferably be dipped inrooting hormone first. Choosebranches up to 8 cm diameterand plant in coarse sand. Itmay also be possible to growthe plant from seed. Transplantat the three-leaf stage.

Uses An important medicinal plant. The ground up bark,soaked in water, is used to treat diarrhoea and dysentery,and a decoction of the bark is used to treat headaches. Adecoction, made from the roots, is used for rheumatism.The plant is also used to treat dental caries and as a tonicin Bas-Congo. Elsewhere an infusion of the roots isadministered after snake-bite. This causes the patient tovomit, counteracting the effects of the poison. Adecoction of the fruits is taken for malaria and also actsas a purgative. When branches are placed on house-roofs, or the tree grows near houses, they are believed toprevent lightning damage. Branches are used for fencingand to support beehives. The wood is pale yellow to palered, very hard, fine-grained and compact, probably insectproof and used for carving and tool-handles. The twigsare used as chew-sticks. Ash from the wood is used inmaking soap and for dyeing. Suitable as an ornamental tree, but slow growing. Dry branches burn

slowly with a bright flame and can beused as candles. Seeds yield a blackdye. There are numerous medicinaluses for this plant in Africa. The ripefruits are eaten in Uganda.

References Renier 1948, Kokwaro1976, Palgrave 1983, Burkill 1985,Beentje 1994, Venter & Venter 1996,Mukoko Matondo 1991, Katende et al.1999, Neuwinger 2000, KibunguKembelo 2003, Nsimundele 2004

139

Drying plants under the eaves of a house

Glycine max (Fabaceae)

Common names Soja, soya beanDescription An erectbushy annual, 20 - 180cm tall, with hairystems, leaves and fruitpods. The plant is deeprooted, sometimes goingdown 2 m, though mostare in the top 30 - 60cm of soil. Most cultivarsdrop their leaves as thepods mature.

Ecology Frequentlygrown in Maniangadistrict of Bas-Congo.Prefers a hot dampclimate and low humiditymay result in shatteringof pods. The croprecovers well after aperiod of drought and,because of its longflowering period,produces new flowersafter a dry spell, even if

earlier flowers were lost. Thrives on fertile sandy or clay loams and alluvial soils. If possible lime shouldbe added to acid soils.

Propagation Seeds germinate after 3 - 5 days. Plant seeds in rows 30 cm apart spaced at 10 cm in therow.

Management Inoculation with the correct rhizobium (Bradyrhizobium japonicum) is important on landwhere the crop has not been grown before. However locally selected varieties nodulate well with nativerhizobia present in the soil. Soya beans are one of the most efficient legumes for fixing nitrogen. Can begrown with maize. The seeds can be stored for 2 to 3 years.

Uses An important source of oil andprotein. Soya beans contain about 20%oil and 40% protein. Soya milk can bemade by boiling one measure of seedswith 6 measures of water for 20minutes. This is then ground to asmooth paste, another 6 measures ofwater are added and the mixture isstrained through a clean muslin cloth.The milk is a valuable proteinsupplement for feeding young children,and is used in the treatment ofkwashiorkor. Alternatively the beanscan be left whole after boiling as above,and eaten with tomato, groundnut,onion or other beans.

References Purseglove 1968, IITA1990, Burkill 1995, Raemaekers 2001

140

Gmelina arborea (Verbenaceae)

Common names Gmelina

Description A deciduous tree, which grows 18 - 21 m high, but is often smaller. Bark is smooth, lightbrown. Leaves 5 – 15 x 10 – 18 cm, have petioles 12 cm long, heart shaped, pointed at the end.Flowers are orange-yellow with dark brown streaks, 2.5 cm long, in terminal panicles. The black fruitsare oval and 4 mm long.

Ecology Originally from India and Malaysia. The tree tolerates dry conditions, though growth rate isreduced. It requires a dry season resting period. Altitude range up to 1200 m.

Propagation Can be grown from seed, sown direct, or cuttings can be used. Seed can be stored for upto one year. Soak in water for 24 hours before sowing. Young trees must be well weeded untilestablished.

Management When grown as a plantation tree thetree is fast growing with a cycle, in good conditions,of 10 years. The tree coppices well. Young treesmust be protected from livestock.

Uses A valuable general purpose timber tree whichhas potential for reafforestation in deciduous dryforest regions. Sap-wood is dark grey while heart-wood is yellowish grey. It seasons quickly butresists preservative treatment. It works easily butblunts tools. Useful for furniture and also for heavy-duty building work, being resistant to water.Suitable for production of cardboard. Wood doesnot produce much heat when burnt. The tree can be grown as an avenue tree and its shade kills offImperata cylindrica. Leaves can be used as a cattle feed. The fruit is edible and can also be used tomake a yellow dye. A good bee forage. Originally introduced to Bas-Congo for the production ofmatches.

References Keay 1989, Pauwels 1993, Katende et al. 2000, Burkill 2000

141

Mfumbwa as sold in the market

Gnetum africanum (Gnetaceae)

Common names Mfumbwa, koko (Fr.)

Description A creeper which grows to 10 m or more.Female plants, which can be distinguished by their redfruit, tend to be more vigorous and stronger than maleplants. New leaves are formed throughout the year.Leaf shape and colour tend to vary with the amount ofshade.

Right : Fruits ofGnetum africanum

Ecology The plant is found at the edges of primaryforest and in secondary forest. It is also present fromNigeria to the Central African Republic and in Angola. Itdoes well on fertile sites in areas with high rainfall.

Propagation In Bas-Congo plants are sometimesgrown from wild seedlings. They do not grow easilyfrom seed. Plants can also be grown from cuttingsrooted in decomposed sawdust or fine river sand. Theleaves, however, should be reduced by half and mustbe kept moist. Reduce evaporation by growing themunder shade. Select vines which have broad, thick, darkgreen leaves. Rooting normally takes place in threeweeks. Plant out in tubes filled with 25% sand, somecompost and forest soil and allow adequate spacebetween plants once the side shoots start to develop.

Management The plant requires a certain amount ofshade and a strong support and is therefore bestgrown at the forest edge to scramble up trees.However it appears to have certain host plantpreferences. Only the leaves should be collected,allowing the stems to sprout again. 3 to 4 harvestscan probably be taken each year, the first being taken6 – 9 months after planting out. Most collection hasbeen done from the wild during the dry season andbecause of over collection the plant has virtuallydisappeared from many forests.

Uses Valued as a tasty vegetable, the leaves areeaten finely shredded in a peanut butter sauce, addedto soup, made into condiments or even eaten raw.They contain about 10% protein. They can be stored for up to a week, for example when being takento distant markets. On arrival they are soaked in water to freshen them.

Reference Schippers 2002, Schippers and Besong 2002

142

Grevillea robusta (Proteaceae)

Common names Chêne argenté (Fr.)

Description A fast growing tree on goodsites reaching 20 m in 15 - 20 years.

Ecology Grown throughout thesubtropics. Will stand 6 - 8 dry months.Grows in sandy soils, loams of mediumfertility and acid soils. Tends to be deeprooting. It does not tolerate water logging.Cluster roots enable the tree to extractphosphorus from soil very low in availablephosphorus.

Propagation Large quantities of seed areproduced but it is difficult to collect asthere are only 2 - 3 days between seedmaturity and dispersal by wind. Wildseedlings can be transplanted. Seed isviable for up to 3 months but can be keptfor 2 years stored in a refrigerator. Onlymature seed should be used and it shouldbe put out in sunlight for a few hoursbefore planting. Germination rate is up to65%. Natural seeding is fairly common incultivated land. Transplant when 60 cm.

Management Moderate to fast growing.When grown with food crops, branches

are pruned and pollarded and lateral roots may also be pruned to reduce competition with crops. Treesshould be protectedfrom fire.

Uses A valuable timbertree used for furnituremaking. Also good forfirewood and charcoal.Leaf litter makes a goodmulch. Can be plantedaround fields withoutaffecting crop yields. Avaluable pollen andnectar source for honeybees. The nectarsecretion is abundantwith high sugarconcentration and thepollen yield is heavy.Bees forage all day and,when flowering isprofuse, a surplus of honey is produced.

Remarks The tree is being grown in some areas in Manianga district and could be planted more widelyin the province.

References Leloup 1956, NAS 1980, Crane et al. 1984, Egli & Kalinganire 1988, Fichtl & Adi 1994,Mbuya et al 1994

143

Scar where bark was removed formedicinal use from a tree in Kisantu

botanic garden

Hallea stipulosa (Rubiaceae)

Synonym, Mitragyna stipulosa,Nauclea stipulosa

Common names Longwa,nlongu, tilleul d’Afrique (Fr.),African linden

Description A tree to 30 m witha rounded crown. Leaves 20 to30 cm long and 15 – 20 cm wide.Flowers are small and white.

Ecology The tree grows inswamp and savanna forest atlow to medium elevations fromGambia to Angola. It requiressubsoil moisture throughout theyear.

Propagation The tree can be grown from stumps, wildseedlings or transplants. It also grows from large cuttingsand root suckers. Seeds germinate easily after 5 - 8 days andshould be planted in a nursery using soil from a swamp.

Uses The wood is soft and fine-grained. Though subject toborer attack and decay it is used for drums, barrels, canoes,mortars and pestles etc. but does not last long in dampplaces. It is also suitable for making paper. In Bas-Congo allparts, but especially the bark, are used as a medicine toreduce fever. A decoction of the bark is used to treatdiabetes, rheumatism, river blindness and abscesses. Awash, made from pounded bark, is used for haemorrhoids.Bees visit the flowers in Bas-Congo during March and April.The tree is a useful species for the afforestation of swamps.

References Leloup 1956, Irvine 1961, Keay 1989,Mukoko Matondo 1991, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1997,Katende et al. 2000, Nsimundele 2004

144

Harungana madagascariensis (Clusiaceae)

Common names Ntunu

Description Tree or shrub from 2 to 12 m high in Bas-Congo.

Ecology Widespread in tropical Africa. Most common in damp areas in Bas-Congo. Grows in clearings inforest regions and fringing forest in savanna regions. Common even on very poor soils.

Propagation Seed grows well if fresh. The tree can be established from basal cuttings, but with somedifficulty, and also from lateral roots. Any stress from lack of water results in death of the cuttings.

Management The tree coppices or grows back well after being cut down.

Uses Stems are used for house building and charcoal production in Bas-Congo. They make goodfirewood. Wood is light, orange-yellow, works well and is durable in contact with the soil. A yellow gumis obtained from the bark in Madagascar and East Africa which is used as a dye. The bark and leavesare used as a fumigant and to treat liver diseases. The tree has been recommended for browseestablishment in S.E. Nigeria and is reported to improve fertility in acid soils. It is a vigorous colonizerbeing the first to occupy savanna after fire. Fruits are edible though laxative and are eaten in Ugandaand Nigeria. The leaves are eaten by Biswangi and Bidiaka edible caterpillars. The tree is an importantsource of nectar in February in Bas-Congo and also known as a honey source in Congo (Brazzaville)

References Irvine 1961, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Williamson 1975, Kokwaro 1976, Castagné1983, Crane et al. 1984, Cobbina & Reynolds 1988, Kang & Reynolds 1989, Keay 1989, Burkill 1994,Kibungu Kembelo 1995, Katende et al. 2000, Nsimundele 2004

Harungana madagascariensis in flower in January

145

Heinsia crinita (Rubiaceae)

Synonyms H. pulchella

Common names Nsiamuna, kinkete, kibwa

Description A scrambling shrub with attractive white jasmine-like, fragrant flowers.

Ecology Grows in secondary forest from Guinea to Angola. Also found in East Africa and South Africa.

Propagation Can be grown from seed.

Uses The fruits are eaten in Bas-Congo. Theroots, shoots and leaves are used to treat a widevariety of illnesses including:- mental disorders,epilepsy, stomach pain, sores in the uterus,swollen and painful breasts, heart palpitations,male impotence, hernias, coughs, anaemia, earinfections, rheumatism, pneumonia andtuberculosis. The seeds are eaten for back painand the leaves are used by children as toiletpaper - the Kikongo name Kinkete means"cleanliness". Elsewhere in Africa the freshleaves are burnt and the smoke inhaled or adecoction of the roots is drunk for feverparticularly when accompanied by convulsions.Wood is hard and flexible but available only in small diameter so is mainly used for tool handles andtraps etc. The bark is used as a cosmetic by women in Sierra Leone. Leaves are eaten in a soup inLiberia and Nigeria though, as they have a high oxalic acid content, the water should be discarded onceor twice during preparation.

References Palgrave 1988, Peters et al. 1992, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1997, Kibungu Kembelo 2003,Nsimundele 2004

146

Helianthus annuus (Asteraceae)

Common names Tournesol (Fr.), sunflower

Description An annual plant with large flowers. The common large sunflower can grow to 150 - 240cm tall with flower heads up to 35 cm across. Dwarf varieties grow to 120 cm high. Sunflowers are deeprooted.

Ecology An extremely adaptable plant. It thrives in the tropics at medium and high elevations andgrows on soils of moderate fertility. Dwarf varieties are hardier than the taller types and give reasonableyields under less than 25 cm rain per annum, but rainfall should be evenly distributed during thegrowing season. A dry period is necessary during the later stages of ripening.

Sunflower growing beside a house in Kinsadi village

Propagation and management Seed is planted 2 - 3 cm deep. Birds can cause considerable damageto the maturing crop. To avoid loss of seed the flower heads can be cut before the seeds are quite ripeand exposed face up to dry.

Uses The large seeds can be roasted, salted and eaten. They are also used as poultry food. The crop isgrown mainly to produce seed for edible oil extraction. Oil content may be 40 - 52% of shelled seed.Poor grades are used for making soap. The petals yield a yellow dye. An important bee plant and worthplanting for this reason. Dried green stems and leaves make a good bee smoker fuel.

References Godin & Spensley 1971, Acland 1977, Crane et al 1984

147

Helichrysum mechowianum (Asteraceae) Common names Ludimi lu mbwa (Kikongo) Description A perennial herb, with long hairy leaves, growing up to 20 cm high. Flowers are borne in heads.

Ecology Grows in the savanna and in mountain grassland areas which are subject to burning. It is also present in Togo, Cameroon and across Africa to Tanzania, Zimbabwe and Angola. Propagation Use seed or rhizomes.

Uses In Bas-Congo, the leaves and roots are used to treat loss of nails, still births and miscarriages, rheumatism, skin infections and anaemia. The leaves are also used to treat colic. The powdered dry leaves are put on wounds and, elsewhere in the Congo, the pulped leaves are rubbed on to relieve joint pains and for lumbago. The leaf sap is drunk in palm wine for anaemia, liver malfunction and stomach upsets. The plant is added to poultry drinking water for chicken cholera. Leaves are boiled in water and the liquid is drunk for headaches. Photo : Frank Cuypers

References Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985, Van Wyk et al. 1997, Neuwinger 2000, Kibungu Kembelo 2003

148

The purple form of Hibiscus acetosella

Hibiscus acetosella (Malvaceae)

Synonym H. eetveldianus

Common names Nsa bwaki, ngai ngai(Lingala), false roselle

Description An annual or short-livedperennial. The plant has small red leavesand dark pink flowers. The leaves vary inshape. Sometimes the lower leaves arethree- or five-fingered and the middle onesthree-fingered. Some varieties have greenleaves and yellow flowers.

Ecology Origin is probably Angola and southernCongo. The plant tolerates shade, cloud cover andfrequent rain better than kenaf and roselle.

Propagation Sown by seed.

Management Can be grown as a hedge plant,because of its branching habit, and can thus producequite large amounts of leaves from a limited space.

Uses Leaves of the purple variety are sometimesused as a vegetable in Bas-Congo but more oftenas a medicine to treat anaemia and fever. The redjuice from the leaves resembles blood and isprobably rich in iron. Leaves of the green varietycan be eaten raw or cooked, have a pleasant sourtaste and are somewhat mucilaginous like roselle.The fresh leaves have a protein content of 3.4%and are often eaten with fish. In most placesroselle has taken over from false roselle because ofthe latter’s sourness. Fibre can be obtained fromthe stem. Bees are reported to visit the flowers.The plant is often grown as an ornamental.

Remarks Both H. acetosella and H. sabdariffa areresistant to root knot nematodes.

References Mbemba & Remacle 1992, Siemonsma& Kasem Piluek 1993, Martin et al. 1998, SEPASAL1999, Schippers 2002

149

Hibiscus cannabinus (Malvaceae)

Common names Oseille indigene, kenaf, Guinea hemp

Description An erect, sparsely branched annual herb. Some forms grow to 3 m tall and are practicallyunbranched. The stem contains long fibres. The alternate leaves have long petioles and are normallysimple, but can occasionally be 3 lobed. The calyx is covered with bristly spines.

Ecology Found growing wild intropical and subtropical Africa. Itfrequently appears growing incultivated land. Full sunlight isrequired for good growth. Theplants withstand drought quitewell. Soils should be well drainedand sandy and satisfactory leafand fibre production depend ongood fertility.

Propagation Grown from seedwhich may be planted 3 - 5 perhole, then thinned to a spacingof 40 cm. The dried seed can bestored for up to 6 months.

Management Kenaf grows muchfaster than roselle but is moresusceptible to nematode attack.The leaves are harvested bypicking the shoots or individuallywith or without the petiole.

Uses Chopped leaves are eatenwith the seed kernels of variouspumpkin type vegetables. Roselle(H. sabdariffa var sabdariffa) andkenaf are closely related and bothare grown for their leaves andoccasionally for their fibre inAfrica. The fruit is not edible. Theleaves, flower extract, seed pulpand roots are used medicinally totreat syphilitic sores,conjunctivitis, coughs, jaundice,stomach problems, eczema,female sterility, gonorrhoea,constipation, malaria, snake bite,tetanus and wounds. The stemscan be used for firewood.

Remarks In RDC six species ofHibiscus are collected for use asvegetables from the wild.

References De Wildeman 1934, Dupriez & De Leener 1989, Raemaekers 2001, Neuwinger 2000,Schippers 2002

150

Plant growing beside road in Manianga district

Hibiscus mechowii (Malvaceae)

Common names Ngai ngai

Description A woody,much branched annualup to 2 m high. Hibiscusmechowii is consideredto be a primitive form oran ancestor of H.sabdariffa. The calyxdiffers from the latter bybeing 25 - 40 mm longand the stem bears longhairs. Both red- andgreen-leaved varietiesare grown.

Ecology Occasionallygrown aroundhomesteads. It isparticularly common inthe Western province ofZambia and inneighbouring Angola.The plants can

sometimes be found growing wild. H. sabdariffa does not grow well in acid, or poorly aerated soilspreferring sandy loams.

Propagation Grown fromseed. Germination takes 7days and then 3 to 4 weeksto the first leaf harvest.

Uses The leaves are eatenas a vegetable. In Bas-Congo, the fruits are soakedin water and drunk tocounter effects of loss ofblood. It is an importantvegetable in the Westernprovince of Zambia. Bothleaves and flowers are eatencooked with fish or meat.The leaves and flowers canbe dried for later use.

Reference Schippers 2002

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Holarrhena floribunda (Apocynaceae)

Common names Kinzenze, holarrhene (Fr),false rubber tree

Description Tree or shrub from 2 to 25 m highwith a girth of up to 1 m. The bark is grey,smooth, with a pale brown slash and yieldingcopious latex. Leaves are ovate, 8 – 12 cm longand 4 – 6 cm wide, hairless below, with 8 - 12pairs of prominent lateral veins. The flowers arewhite scented. Fruits are slender up to 60 cmlong, containing flattened seeds with many brownsilky hairs in a tuft at the apex.

Ecology Extends from Senegal to Central AfricanRepublic and Angola. Widespread and abundantin drier forest areas and fringing savanna forests.

Right : Imbrasia epimetheacaterpillars on a tree trunk

Propagation. Can be grown from seed. Small diametercuttings also grow well.

Uses Used for house construction, timber and charcoal making in Bas-Congo. The latex is used as glue.Wood is soft and white and used for carvings, spoons, stirers, packing cases etc. A decoction of thebark from the trunk is used to treat amoebic dysentery and trichomonas. The plant is a source of

steroidal hormones. Mvinsu (Imbrasiaepimethea) and Mbambi ediblecaterpillars feed on the leaves. Seed andfloss are used to stuff pillows in Gabon.

References Butaye 1909, Daeleman &Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985, Keay 1989,Iwu 1993, Pauwels 1993, KibunguKembelo 1995, White & Abernethy1997, Latham 2003, Pousset 2004

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Male flower cone

Hura crepitans (Euphorbiaceae)

Common names Bombardier (Fr.), sand box tree, monkey's dinner bell

Description Tree to 25 m. high with a spiny trunk andbranches. Leaves are heart shaped. Male flowers are deep redand borne in terminal spikes. Female flowers are solitary. Fruitsare depressed in the centre, becoming woody and explodingwith a loud report, hence its name 'monkey's dinner bell' in theWest Indies.

Ecology Frequently planted in villages in Bas-Congo. Native oftropical America but now widely distributed in the tropics.

Uses Used as a shade tree in Bas-Congo. The seeds or seedoil is used as a strong purgative. They contain a semi-dryingoil. The caustic latex contains very poisonous substances,Hurin and Crepitin, which are reported to cause blindness. Ithas been used as a fish poison. The wood is yellowish with asilky lustre, light in weight but of good strength.

Left : Tree with fruit near Sona Bata

References Irvine 1961, Burkill 1994

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Male flower

Hymenocardia acida (Hymenocardiaceae)

Common names Kigete, mugete, mvete, ngete, mpete, pete pete, luhete

Description Shrub or small tree from 3 to 6 m highwith twisted branches. Bark is light grey, smooth orflaking to reveal patches of bright brown under-bark,which may be corky. Young branches are orange torust-coloured. The red male catkins and theimmature winged fruits are distinctive.

Ecology A common savanna shrub. Found fromSenegal to Angola and from Ethiopia to Mozambique.

Uses The close-grained wood is pale brown to pink,becoming orange. It is hard, dense and durable, andresistant to termites. The main use is for makingcharcoal. The tree is also widely used for medicine inBas-Congo. Young fruits and shoots are acid in tasteand occasionally eaten to relieve coughing, especiallyby children. A decoction of the young leaves or bark

is used to treat colds and muscular pain. The powdered root is used to treat diarrhoea. The bark androots are boiled and the liquid drunk torelieve stomach-ache and constipation.Bark is also used as an antidote forpoisoning. A decoction of the roots isexcellent for treating anaemia. The sapfrom the bark is put in the eyes to treatepilepsy. Bees forage for nectar andpollen. Host plant for Kaba (Lobobunaeaphaedusa) edible caterpillars in Bas-Congo.The bark is used for tanning leather.

References Gillet & Paque 1910, DeWildeman 1934, Watt & Breyer Brandwijk1962, Busson 1965, Arkinstall 1979,Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Villieres 1987,Mukoko Matondo 1991, Pauwels 1993,Burkill 1994, Martin & Ruberté 1998,SEPASAL 1999, Burkill 2000

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Shoots cut for goat forage

Hymenocardia ulmoides (Hymenocardiaceae)

Common names MunsangaDescription Tree or bush from10 – 15 m tall, with smooth greybark. Leaves are oval in shape1.5 - 6.5 x 1 - 3 cm. The treebears separate male and femaleflowers. Fruits have a pink or paleyellow wing surrounding themand are 2 cm in diameter.

Ecology Common in forestregrowth, on poor sandy soils upto 1500 m and found fromCameroon to Angola and fromSudan to Natal in South Africa.

Management The tree growsback well after being cut down.

Uses The red shoots and leaves are edibleand taste like sorrel. They are alsofrequently used as a stock fodder for sheepand goats. The wood is strong, straightand flexible and very resistant to insectattack. Poles are used for houseconstruction and fencing posts and smallerstems for fish traps. The wood is alsosuitable for making charcoal. In Bas-Congo, a decoction of young leaves is usedas a stimulant and to treat stomach-ache,cramp and coughs and a decoction of theroots is used for anaemia. A decoction ofthe bark is taken for headaches andcoughs. The bark from the roots is used totreat anaemia.

Left : Antheua insignata (Nsanga)edible caterpillars feeding on the leaves.

The leaves, roots and bark are used elsewhere inAfrica to treat coughs, asthma, haemorrhoids,genito-urinary infections, bronchitis, epilepsy, fever,

worms, throat problems, oral diseases, feverish stiffness of the limbs, rheumatism, abscesses, andthreatened abortion.

References Butaye 1909, De Wildeman 1934, Arkinstall 1979, Palgrave 1983, FAC 1987, MukokoMatondo 1991, Pauwels 1993, Neuwinger 2000, Nsimundele 2004

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The old ferry crossing the river Congo to Luozi

Hyptis suaveolens (Lamiaceae)

Synonym Ballota suaveolens, Marrubium indicum, Schauria graveolens

Common names Gros baume (Fr.), bush tea bush

Description A stout shrub or herb, with a muchbranched habit, strongly aromatic 0.5 - 1.5 m ormore in height, with a square stem. Leaves broadlyovate and round at the base, 4 - 5 cm long up to 4cm wide, slightly hairy above, with white hairsespecially on the veins. The leaves are shed duringthe dry season. The blue flowers are producedthroughout the year in 2 - 5 flowered heads. Fruitsare approximately 11 mm long when mature.

Ecology Native to tropical America but nowwidespread in Africa, Asia and Queensland,Australia. Occasionally cultivated in Mexico andIndia. A weed of roadside, waste places andcultivated land up to 1300 m altitude.

Propagation The plant can be grown fromcuttings.

Uses The plant is used as a spice in Maniangadistrict. The shoot tips are used as a flavouring forfood and the roots as an appetizer. The tips can beused as a tea substitute. Cattle will eat the plant. In

the West Indies it is an important forage for bees producing a light coloured honey. The plant is usedmedicinally to promote lactation, as a stimulant, an antiseptic for wounds, to cure catarrh, skininfections and rheumatism. Leaves are used to repel bed bugs and to treat river blindness. The freshplants and the smoke from burning them have been found to repel mosquitoes.

References Crane et al. 1984, Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987, de Guzman & Siemonsma 1999, Amponsahet al. 2002, Pousset 2004

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Inga edulis (Mimosaceae)

Common names Inga, pois sucré (Fr.), ice-cream bean tree

Description A tree which cangrow to 30 m high. It grows bestonce nodulated.

Ecology The tree is originally fromCentral America. It grows on poorand acid soils which may bewaterlogged for 2 - 3 months at atime. It is also resistant to drought.

Propagation Seed can only bestored for 1 - 2 weeks. Best resultsare obtained by removing the pulpand storing the seed in plasticbags. Only one seed should besown per pot or tube, at no morethan 2 cm deep. Provide lightshade. Seeds germinate readilywithin 2 - 3 days. Plant out after 2months. Remove shade one monthbefore transplanting. Some farmerssow seed direct during the seasonof high rainfall. Bare rootedseedlings can be transplanted.

Management An area of 1 mdiameter should be kept clear ofweeds around the tree during thefirst 6 months, until they becomeestablished. The tree grows backwell if a few branches are leftuncut. Cut carefully at least 3 cmabove a node.

Uses The pith in the fruit pods is sweet tasting and isespecially enjoyed by children. The tree is a goodsource of firewood. It provides shade and litter, reduceserosion and weed growth and improves associated cropyields due to nitrogen fixation. Litter is slow todecompose but provides a long-term build up of organicnitrogen. The tree is therefore suitable for agroforestry.It is also a potentially important bee plant in Bas-Congo.

References Crane et al. 1984, Lawrence 1993

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Leaves being cut up prior to cooking

Ipomoea batatas (Convolvulaceae)

Common names Mvunguta, mbala, patate douce (Fr.), sweet potato

Description A perennial creeping plant, usually grown as an annual.

Ecology Cultivated throughout the tropics. Growth is restricted by cool weather. Low humidity isneeded as the crop nears maturity. Though the plant is drought tolerant there must be sufficientmoisture 50 - 60 days after planting for tuber development. Sweet potatoes grow best in sandy loams,reasonably high in organic matter.

Propagation Cuttings taken from the tip are best as they grow faster and give a higher yield thancuttings taken from the base or middle of the vines. Cuttings should be 20 - 45 cm long and have 7nodes. They should be left to wilt for 24 - 48 hours and then 10 - 20 cm of the cutting should beplanted below the soil level at an angle. Space at 23 - 30 cm in the rows, which should be 60 - 75 cmapart.

Management Harvest thecrop when the leaves turnyellow and the tuber can becut without the sap rapidlyturning black. Tubers cannotbe stored so are best dugwhen required. Normallyproduces a crop after 3 - 4months but may take 6months.

Uses An important foodcrop. Tubers are baked,boiled or fried. Chips may bedried in the sun and thenground into flour. There arethree main types 1) Dry andmealy when cooked. 2) Softand watery. 3) Coarsefleshed. A number of varieties are cultivated in Bas-Congo - mvunguta bwaaka, mvunguta mpeembe,mbuungu meenga, kileenge and tembele (see upper photo for the latter). The young shoots and leavesof the last two are eaten as vegetables. The leaves of I. aquatica (tofa tofa), are also eaten as avegetable. Vines can also be used as a livestock feed. Bees sometimes collect nectar from the flowers.

Reference Purseglove 1968, Kay 1973, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985, Ambougou 1991

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Jatropha curcas in flower

Jatropha curcas (Euphorbiaceae)

Common names Mpuluka, purghère (Fr.), physic nut

Description A shrub or small tree to 7m.

Ecology In Bas-Congo the plant is often grown as a hedge plant. It is deep-rooted and can survive longdry periods by simply shedding its leaves. It will grow on arid and stony soils.

Propagation Usually grown fromcuttings but seed can also be used.For cuttings select 1.5 - 2.5 cmdiameter pieces from the centraltrunk which should have shortnodes. Cuttings should be 45 - 100cm long. Cut stem with a sharpknife. Dip the end in ashes. Storewith the cut end upright untilplanting. Cuttings are buried in thesoil and soon develop roots.Propagation using cuttings is morerapid than by seed. If seed is usedplant 2.5 cm deep and space at 25cm to form a hedge. Germinationnormally takes 4 weeks but isimproved if seeds are placedbetween wet sacks before planting.

Management Cut the branches back when the plantbecomes old. The prunings can be used as firewood. Plantsstart producing 3 years after planting from seed or one yearafter planting cuttings. Normally the seeds are collected fromthe ground. Yields: 2 kg/m hedge where there are 8 plantsper metre but can be up to 4 kg/m.

Uses Often grown as a hedge around compounds. The seedis the source of an oil which can be used, with ash fromplantains, for making soap, as a substitute for paraffin forlighting and as a medicinal oil. It can also be used as a dieselsubstitute. The oil can be extracted from unshelled nuts with

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a screw press. The oil is reported to be effective against snails carrying bilharzia. In Bas-Congo sap isused to treat hair loss in children and is reported to be effective against scabies. The sap can be appliedto wounds to assist healing and incorporated in soap as an antiseptic. Bees collect nectar and pollenand the plant is mainly pollinated by bees.

Processing After harvesting, the fruits are put into heaps to dry, where they open on their own. Theseeds are then separated from the shell and allowed to dry. Finally they are roasted and ground. As analternative to using a press the ground seeds can be boiled in water and, when the oil floats to thesurface, it can be ladled off.

Remarks The plants are termite resistant. The residue pulp after extraction has the same fertilizervalue as chicken manure and can be used for mushroom growing or as a fuel in stoves. It should bestored for 10 weeks before using for mushrooms.

References Renier 1948, Irvine 1961, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Iwu 1993, van Wyk 1997,Openshaw 2000, Rug & Ruppel 2000, Amponsah et al. 2002, Pousset 2004

Chief Lutangu (right) and helpers duringthe nsafu harvest at Koma village.Luvuma, Thérèse, who runs theProgramme Developpement Integré inBas-Congo is in front of the author.

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Lagenaria siceraria (Cucurbitaceae)

Common names Mbika nkalu, calebasse (Fr.), bottle gourd, calabash

Description An annual, climber or trailer to 10 m long. Flowers are large and white. Fruits vary inshape, size, colour and patterns.

Ecology Cultivated throughout thetropics and particularly suited to wetareas. Drought causes the fruits todrop. The plant can be grown overfences etc.

Uses Mainly grown for edible seedswhich, after shelling, may contain 40- 50% oil. This is suitable for cooking.The hard-shelled fruit is used as acontainer or a ladle after the pulp andseeds have been removed and the bitterness leached out by soaking. The young fruits are sometimesplaced upright to ensure they form a flat bottom. Dried gourds are often used as musical instruments.They are light and strong and suitable for carrying or storing liquids. In some forms the bitterness of thepulp has been selected out and the fruits can be eaten, though normally only when young. Youngshoots and tender leaves may be eaten as a vegetable. A dressing of crushed leaves and palm oil isused to relieve pain caused by stinging caterpillars in the Congo.

References Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962,Williamson 1975, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill1985, Robinson & Decker-Walters 1997, Maundu1999

Left : Shelling seeds prior to cooking

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Landolphia camptoloba (Apocynaceae)

Synonym L. humilis

Common names Mbungu – mbungu, dinsania ordinsonia

Description A slender vine or shrub growing from 30cm to 8 m long. Mature fruits can be found throughoutthe year. The fruit has a white pulp.

Left : Landolphia camptoloba insecondary forest near Kasangulu

Ecology Grows in Angola and adjacent parts of R.D.Congo and Zambia on sand in dry forests, woodlandsor savanna. Altitude range 100 - 1800 m.

Propagation Can be grown from seed.

Uses The fruits are eaten, particularly by children. Thelatex is extracted from the roots and used for repairingbicycle inner tubes. Unripe fruit is eaten to relievecoughing. Fruits are crushed and soaked in water andthe liquid taken to expel intestinal worms. The fruitextract is dropped into the eyes to alleviateconjunctivitis.

References De Wildeman 1934, Renier 1948,Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Mukoko Matondo 1991,Persoon et al. 1992, Neuwinger 2000

Dinzenge (above and right), a low growing speciesof Landolphia found in the savanna. The fruit is

also edible.

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Landolphia lanceolata (Apocynaceae)

Common names Dimbulu, mabulu

Description A low, erect shrub or herb, 15 - 70 cm high. Leaves oftenin whorls of 3 or 4. Flowers fragrant, white, yellow or cream. Maturefruits may also be found throughout the year.

Right : Fruits are often sold by children at the roadside

Ecology Grows in the savanna and woodland in southern and westernD.R. Congo and in adjacent parts of Angola, often on sandy soils.Altitude range 0 - 1500 m.

Uses Produces a rubber of low quality.The fruits are edible and frequentlysold at the roadside in Bas-Congo. Theleaves are boiled and the liquid drunkfor coughs.

References Daeleman & Pauwels1983, Burkill 1985, Persoon et al. 1992

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Landolphia owariensis (Apocynaceae)

Common names Goki. The name magoki is used for all Landolphia species with edible fruit. Also calledmawumuna. White rubber vine.

Description A large, vigorous, woody vine up to 100m long, which scrambles high into trees. The fruitflesh is white.

Left : Landolphia owariensis growing near Nkundi village in Manianga distict

Ecology Grows in wooded savanna and forest inBas-Congo. Altitude range 0 - 1700 m. Found intropical Africa, especially from Senegal to Angola andfrom Sudan to Zambia. It can survive bush fires andputs up new shoots after burning.

Uses The fruit is edible with an acid-tasting pulp. Theplant used to be an important source of vine rubber. Thelatex is used as a bird lime and to expel intestinal worms.

Right : Fruits of Landolphia owariensis

Below : Another Landolphia sp. growing near Kasangulu with fruit opened (below right).

References Uphof 1968, Burkill 1985, Persoon et al. 1992

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Nkulu caterpillars

Branch with immature fruit

Lannea antiscorbutica (Anacardiaceae)

Common names Kikumbi, nkumbi

Description Tree or shrub growing from 5 to15m high.

Ecology Grows at forest edges and in savannain the process of reforestation. Found in R. D.Congo, Angola and Zambia.

Propagation The tree can be grown fromlarge cuttings and from seed, thoughgermination is uneven. Approximately 30%seeds germinate after 3 weeks. The skin andpulp are removed by soaking the fruit in waterand then the seeds are squashed out by hand.Seeds are washed and any that float arerejected. No pre-treatment is required.

Uses Poles are used for fencing and construction work.The timber is white and hard and used for making twotypes of drum – Mondo, which is used to call villagers fromthe fields and Kwiti, a musical instrument with a bicyclepump action. Traditionally a short plank made from thistree was used to restrain a violent person suffering frommental illness. A hole, large enough to put the man's footthrough, was cut in the plank. It was then fastened to hislower leg - rather like a single mobile stock. The tree has a number of medicinal uses, for example thebark from the twigs is used to cure heart palpitations and to treat dental caries. The flowers arereported to be a good bee forage from June to August in Bas-Congo. Lannea spp. are known to be

nectar sources in Katanga. N'kankiti and Nkuluedible caterpillars feed on the leaves. The headand intestines of the latter are removed. Theyare then cooked in a little water until this driesup and the caterpillars are then grilled with asalt and chilli pepper.

References Renier 1948, Uphof 1968,Lobreau-Callen 1988, Pauwels 1993, KibunguKembelo 1995, Malaisse 1997, Msanga 1998,Nsimundele 2004

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Lantana camara (Verbenaceae)

Common names Landani, lantana

Description A shrub or climbing bush from 1 to 5 m high, but it can grow to a length of 12 m forminga dense impenetrable bush. Stems may be covered with curved spines. Leaves are 2 – 12 cm long and2 – 7 cm wide with petioles up to 2 cm long. Flowers may vary in colour from red, purple to pink withthe central florets being of a different colour e.g. orange, yellow and red. Fruits are fleshy, purple orblack, 3 – 5 mm in diameter.

Ecology Originally from Brazil. Found in old cultivated land and around villages throughout the tropicsand sub-tropics by roadsides, in forest clearings and old cultivations up to an altitude of 2040 m.

Uses In Bas-Congo the plant is used to treat coughs and fevers. Children sometimes eat the fruits,though the immature fruits are known to be poisonous. Powdered plant material has been foundeffective in killing and repelling maize weevil in stored maize. The stems are used to construct maize

stores in Kenya. Bees onlyvisit this plant when there isa lack of other pollen ornectar sources.

Lantana stems being usedto construct a maize store

Remarks A noxious weed,which can render largeareas useless for grazing.Although used as a fodderthis is dangerous as it isknown to be poisonous tosheep and cattle.

References Morton 1964, Busson 1965, Lobreau-Callen et al. 1989, FTEA 1992, Pauwels 1993, Fichtl &Adi 1994, Roothaert et al. 2001, Ogendo et al. 2003

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Uncontrolled firesare a majorproblem toregeneratingforest fallow(Nkunku).

They eventuallylead to loss ofthe forest onwhich soil fertilitydepends.

Tata Paul and Masikidiwith a good fire breaknear Mbanza Nzundu.

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Lasimorpha senegalensis (Araceae)

Synonym Cyrtosperma senegalense

Common name Kilodi, kityokolo, swamparum

Description An herbaceous plant withlarge arrow-shaped leaves borne on pricklypetioles 1.70 m long. The plant growsfrom a rhizome and has a large floweringstem which may grow to nearly 4 m high.

Left : Kibungu, Kembelo, director of theKisantu botanic garden with a plant fromthe garden

Ecology Found on forest margins, damp sites and in shallowwater in savanna throughout west Africa and the Congo basin.

Propagation Can be grown from seed or division of therootstock.

Uses In Bas-Congo the seeds are used with clay andpalm oil to treat painful breasts while nursing. The leavesare also used to wrap chikwangue (fermented cassavaporridge) and as a medicinal plant to treat coughs, easechildbirth, and to treat abscesses and head lice. Theleaves are eaten as a vegetable in Gabon. The plant isalso used to produce salt, being burnt, ground up inwater, filtered and left to crystallize.

References Burkill 1989, Kibungu Kembelo 2003,Neuwinger 2000

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Lippia multiflora (Verbenaceae)

Synonym L. adoensis, L. grandifolia

Common names Bulukutu, malukutu, mbulunkutu(these names are also used for Acioa lujae andMaranthes glabra), bush tea, Gambian tea bush

Description A low bush from 1 - 3 m high, withridged stems. Leaves are 10 cm long and 2.5 cmwide, toothed and hairy underneath. The whiteflowers have yellow centres and are borne onstalked heads.

Ecology Found in savanna, waste ground and oldfarm land in R.D. Congo and throughout tropicalWest Africa. It is sometimes grown for home use inBas-Congo.

Propagation Can be grown from seed.

Uses Leaves, which may be dried and stored,are used as a tea substitute. The tea isrelaxing and is reported to relieve coughing,irritability, nervousness or madness, and is alsoused to treat rheumatism and diabetes. Lippiaspp. contain the chemical Carvacrol which hasbeen shown to have antiseptic, antifungal and

larvicidal properties. The oil obtainedfrom distillation, together with paraffin,can be used to treat scabies. The plant isalso used to lower blood pressure andhas possible uses as an insecticide. Otherspecies L. nodiflora and N. triphylla areknown to be good bee forage plants inthe Americas. Beehives are sometimessmoked with this fragrant herb to attractbees in Gambia. The ashes from burningthe roots are sometimes used as asubstitute for salt.

Left : Packet of dried Lippia multiflora assold in the market.

References Irvine 1961, Crane et al.1984, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Pauwels1993, Burkill 2000, Kunle et al 2003,Nsimundele 2004, Pousset 2004

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Loeseneriella clematoides (Celastraceae)

Common names Kinsundi

Description A creeper with smooth, hairless stems, up to 20 cm in diameter, which grows to a lengthof 40 – 100 m. Leaf petioles are 7 – 15 mm long; and the leaves are oval shaped, rounded to acute atthe base, 4.5 - 13 cm long and 2.5 - 7.5 cm wide. Flowers are pale-green becoming yellowish-brownwith a white central column.

Ecology Grows in gallery forests and marshland throughout Congo and is also present in Guinea,Gabon, Angola, Uganda and Malawi.

Uses The leaves are eaten as a vegetable and are reported to be more tender than those of "mbondi"Salacia pynaertii. The sap is squeezed into the nostrils of children suffering from fever. Food plant forMinsundi edible caterpillar in Bas-Congo.

Remarks The plant is often debarked and therefore becoming scarce.

References Laman 1936, FAC 1960, FTEA 1994, Neuwinger 2000

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Luffa cylindrica (Cucurbitaceae)

Common name Nsanu, musaka saka, éponge végétale (Fr.), loofah, vegetable sponge

Description A herbaceous annual climber 6 - 10 m long. The slightly hairy stem is 5 lobed. Loofahspecies have glands that secrete nectar.

Ecology Commonly cultivated but also naturalized in the humid tropics. Loofah grows best on fertile,mildly acidic to neutral, well-drained soil. Sunny, hot, humid conditions favour growth. The plant is bestgrown in the dry season as heavy rainfall during flowering and fruiting leads to poor fruit production.

Propagation Seed from ripe fruits is used.

Management The plant is best grown over a trellis. Side branches should be pruned to encouragegrowth of the main stem and 20 - 25 fruits only should be allowed per vine. Harvest when fully mature,indicated by the yellowing of the base and apex 4 - 5 months after planting. Immerse fruits in runningwater until outer wall disintegrates. Seeds are then washed out.

Uses The fibre skeleton of the fruit, obtainedafter it has been allowed to rot and been washed,is used when bathing. The cooked leaves areeaten in Bas-Congo. The roasted seeds are alsoedible and immature fruits can be fed to pigs.Immature fruits, harvested when about 10 cmlong, can be boiled and used in curries. Thesponge has potential for use in hat manufacture,insoles for shoes, marine engine filters, table-mats, door and bath mats, gloves and for soundand shock absorbing purposes.

References Purseglove 1968, Burkill 1985, Robinson & Decker-Walters 1997

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Lycopersicon esculentum (Solanaceae)

Common names Lumantu, tomate (Fr.), tomato

Description A variable herb growing up to 2 m. The tap-root is vigorous with extensive fibrous roots.The most common variety cultivated in Bas-Congo has small, acid fruits.

Ecology Requires a fertile, well drained soil able to hold water well. Adequate manure should be addedto get a good crop. Tomatoes will grow in slightly acid soils. Commonly grown in dry season vegetablegardens in valleys as it is susceptible to blight and other leaf diseases during the rain season. As far aspossible avoid soils where tomatoes have been grown before.

Propagation Tomatoes may be up to 25% self-pollinated. Select seed from plants with good growthhabit, which produce early fruit of good shape and colour. Put the seeds in a plastic container and leavefor 3 days to allow the jelly-like coat around the seed to ferment. Sieve and wash the seeds beforedrying. Sow seeds in a nursery at the end of the rain season and transplant out when seedlings are 8 -10 cm tall. Do not water plants during the week before transplanting, other than 12 hours prior tolifting. Plant in rows 70 - 90 cm apart with 30 - 38 cm between plants. The seedbed should be in soilwhere tomatoes have not been grown before to avoid nematode damage.

Management Water should be applied to the base of the plant, not over the leaves to avoid blight andother leaf diseases. Avoid digging deeply when weeding as the plant has shallow feeder roots which areeasily damaged. Plants should be staked to allow air to circulate.

Uses An important vegetable in Bas-Congo. Ripe fruits are commonly used either fresh or cooked insoups, with fish and meat or other vegetables. Tomatoes are a good source of vitamin A and Cparticularly when fruits are allowed to ripen on the plant. The plant is sometimes crushed and applied towounds.

References Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Tindall 1983, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Siemonsma & KasemPiluek 1993

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Minsendi edible caterpillars

Macaranga monandra (Euphorbiaceae)

Common names Nyensi, nkengi, yense

Description A shrub or tree growing to 25 m. The trunk has spines up to 7.5 cm long. Leaf marginsare usually coarsely toothed. The pith of the branches exudes a sticky jelly when cut.

Ecology A forest tree of southern Nigeria andwestern Cameroon extending to Tanzania andAngola.

Propagation Can be grown from cuttings.

Uses Food plant of Minsendi (probablyImbrasia melanops), Miengeti, Kaba(Lobobunaea phaedusa), Nziemo and Nkuluedible caterpillars. In Congo (Brazzaville) adecoction of bark, together with that ofPentaclethra eetveldeana is given to women totreat sterility. Tannins, steroids and terpenes are present in the leaves, bark and roots. Macaranga sp.are known to be bee plants in Gabon.

Left : Miengeti caterpillars

References Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Lobreau-Callen1988, Keay 1989, Ambougou 1991, Pauwels 1993, Burkill1994

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Male flowers

Maesobotrya staudtii (Euphorbiaceae)

Synonym Baccaurea staudtii

Common nameMansiese

Description Ashrub or small treefrom 2 to 6 m highand from 4 to 10cm in diameter.The wood is soft,white to yellow.Leaves are 7 – 28cm long and 3 – 12cm wide, hairy onboth surfaces andthe leaf stalk andmain nerves aredensely covered

with stiff hairs. Leaf stalk is 1 – 10 cm long. Flowers are produced on the trunk, the male inflorescencebeing 3 – 11 cm long and the female 1 – 5 cm long. Fruits are round, 10 mm in diameter.

Ecology An under-storey shrub of the rain-forest often found inhumid sites, and particularly in Mayombe district of Bas-Congo,associated with Gilbertiodendron dewevrei, Scorodophleus zenkeriand Cynometra alexandri. Also present in southern Nigeria andCameroon.

Left : Maesobotrya staudtiiWith fruit in September.

Uses The fruit is edible andmakes good jam.

References FAC 1995, Keay1989, Burkill 1994

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Minsendi = Imbrasia obscura edible caterpillarsfeeding on the leaves

Maesopsis eminii (Rhamnaceae)

Common names Kingembu, kingembwa, munsambi nsambi, hornbill's calabash

Description A leafy semi-deciduous tree 10 – 30 m tall,often with a clear stem up to10 m. Branches tending tohorizontal. Bark pale greybrown. Leaves appearcompound, but alternate onthe twigs, on stalks to 1 cm.They are shiny, pointed, upto 14 cm long and the edgeshave characteristic teeth.Flowers are small and green.Fruit oval, to 3 cm long,fleshy and yellow, turningpurple, with 1 - 2 hard seeds.The tree may be recognisedby its leaves as the distinctiverounded teeth stand up likelittle flaps above the surfaceof the leaf. Fruit is like a plumand is commonly distributedby hornbills.

Ecology A large tree indigenous to East, Central and West Africa. It grows well in deep fertile sandysoils in wet tropical and wet mountain climates.

Propagation The tree regenerates from seedlings over a wide area around planted trees. It can begrown from seed or collected wild seedlings. Collect the fruits from the ground. Either cut the flesh offor rub the fruits on wire mesh to remove the flesh. Wash and dry the seeds. When planting soak themfor 3 days changing the water every 12 hours.For small quantities the seed should be nickedbefore soaking. Germination rate is 20 - 55%and takes from 4 to 78 days. Seed can bestored for up to 5 months. It is best planted inpots first but trees must be planted out earlyto avoid damaging the tap-root. It can also bedirect sown, but this may give patchy results ifthe rains are poor.

Management The tree grows very rapidlyaveraging over 1 m per year at first, or moreon good sites and reaching maturity in 20years. It does not need much attention thougha boring insect, Monohammus scabiosus maybe a problem. Young plants do not competewell with weeds, especially Imperata, but onceestablished tend to shade them out. Youngtrees are susceptible to cankers caused byFusarium solani and other fungi.

Uses The fruits are edible and contain an oil.Sapwood is nearly white and distinct from theyellow-green heartwood, which darkens to brown later. It tends to split, warp and collapse in seasoningand is not resistant to fungi, borers or termites. The wood is firm though light, of medium texture andsatiny lustre, and works easily, finishes, nails and stains well, but tends to pick up under the plane, andrequires careful preparation and filling before varnishing, polishing or painting. The wood splits easilyand is useful for fencing. It is suitable for general carpentry and construction and after treatment can beused externally. It is used as firewood. The leaves can be fed to livestock and the tree can be used as ashade for tea and coffee. The bark is used medicinally in Bas-Congo to promote urination and as a

175

Lobobunaea phaedusa

purgative. Kaba (Lobobunaea phaedusa) and two types of Minsendi edible caterpillars feed on theleaves. Sometimes large numbers can bepresent. Bees are known to visit the flowers inGabon.

References Leloup 1956, Busson 1965, NAS1983, Egli & Kalinganire 1988, Keay 1989,Ambougou 1991, Beentje 1994, Mbuya et al1994, Katende et al. 2000, Msanga 1998,Nsimundele 2004

People will travel 20 – 30 km to sell producein local markets. In addition to the head-load this lady carries, she has two cockerelsin a pouch at her back.

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Mangifera indica (Anacardiaceae)

Common names Nmanga, manguier (Fr.), mango

Description A tree from 10 to40 m high. Good varieties havelittle or no fibre in the fruits anddo not smell of turpentine.

Mrs. Major Makolo and MajorMatondo, Gracia with animproved, grafted mango (Ribe)growing at Kasangulu

Ecology Thrives in the tropicsand subtropics. A dry coolseason of at least 3 months isrequired for good fruitproduction. Night temperaturesof 10 - 20° C and dry conditionspromote flower initiation. Soilshould be at least 1 m deep and

well drained.

Propagation Large, fully developed, fresh seedsgerminate well, particularly if the seed is removedcarefully from the outer coat. Germination rate isusually over 80%. Seeds should be planted incontainers or baskets to avoid damage to the tap-root. Improved varieties can be side-, or moreusually, cleft-grafted onto rootstocks.

Mango flowers are a useful source of nectar andpollen for bees during the dry season.

Only a well matured terminal bud, and the sectionbelow it, should be used as scion wood. Immaturewood can lead to failure. Budding allows muchyounger rootstocks to be used. Buds may beprepared in advance by removing the leaves and

apical budof matureterminal wood. This results in axillary buds swelling after 1 - 2weeks. Grafting results in faster growth and earlier fruiting.

Left : A good mango varietybeing propagated by air layering

Management Transplant early in the rain season and plantwith organic manure in a hole dug out 60 x 60 x 60 cm. Allowthe main stem to grow to 1 m before topping to produce aframe of well balanced branches.

Uses The fruit is rich in vitamins A and C. The timber is used forconstruction work, flooring and furniture and is valued in EastAfrica for making large, heavy, durable canoes. Strength andsize make them useful for ferry pontoons. The wood is used forfirewood and charcoal. The flowers are an important bee forageyielding abundant pollen and nectar. The seed kernels can be

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eaten after being roasted, dried or pickled and are used as a livestock feed for cattle or poultry. Thebark is a source of a yellow dye used for silk. A decoction of the bark from the trunk is used tostrengthen the immune system and to treat diarrhoea. The tree provides shade and can be used as afirebreak.

References Crane et al. 1984, Burkill 1985 & 2000, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Mbuya et al. 1994, Nakasone &Paull 1998, ICRAF 1998, Pousset 2004

Many valuable indigenous trees can be grown from cuttings.A group of farmers at Kinseki.

A cutting taken from a Barteria nigritiana subsp.fistulosa tree. This is a fast growing speciescommon in secondary forest. The twigs areused as toothbrushes and the flowers are agood source of nectar for bees.

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Manihot esculenta (Euphorbiaceae)

Synonyms M. utilissima

Common names Dyoko, dioko, manioc (Fr.), cassava

Description A perennial shrub with enlarged tuberous roots. There are many varieties, some of whichare bitter and others sweet. Sweet varieties are short season crops being harvested after 6 - 9 months.Some of these can be eaten raw. IITA has been responsible for breeding high-yielding, disease-resistantvarieties for specific areas of the humid tropics.

Cassava leaves en route to Kasangulu market after a refreshing dip in the river.

Ecology Grown throughout the humid tropics in pureor mixed stands. Rainfall should be well distributedbut the plant can withstand periods of drought. Lightsandy loams of medium fertility give the best results,but it will grow in infertile soils if they are deeplycultivated to allow roots to penetrate.

Propagation Plant using cuttings, with at least 3buds, 22 - 30 cm long, taken from the basal to midsection wood of plants at least 10 months old. If drythese can be stored for up to 8 weeks in cool, well-ventilated conditions. Otherwise they can be storedfor 7 - 10 days only. Plant at the beginning of therains in flat fields preferably, though ridges are best inwet areas. Plant cuttings at an angle of 30 - 40°,burying half their length. This encourages the roots topenetrate deeper. For ridge planting allow 75 cmapart and 120 cm between ridges. Weed after 3weeks and ridge up after 8 - 12 weeks to encouragetuber formation.

Management Leaves should not be harvested morefrequently than at 2 - 3 month intervals otherwisetuber yield is affected.

Travel durieve

A good crop obtained after a longperiod of fallow

Uses Cassava roots provide thestaple food in Bas-Congo, but theyare low in protein and lack vitamins.The carbohydrate is however easilydigested. The leaves are cooked asthe principal vegetable (nsaki) andare rich in protein (over 6% of freshmaterial), minerals and vitamins.Some varieties flower during therain season and provide bees withpollen and nectar.

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ng the rain season is a slow businessn with a 4 wheel drive truck

Photo : Emmanuel Miaglia

Nsaki, the poundedleaves of cassava,cooked with palm oiland peppers (on right)being eaten with theleaves of Nkaka, aforest creeper.

References Kay 1973,Mbemba & Remacle1992, Burkill 1994,Latham 2002

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Manihot glaziovii (Euphorbiaceae)

Common names Nkweso, nsaki kausu, céara (Fr.), ceara rubber, tree cassava

Description A tree reaching 10m high with a short, crookedstem and bushy branching habit.

Manihot glaziovii growing in a village compound.

Ecology Single trees are oftengrown in villages in Bas-Congo.Native to north-east Brazil butnow widely planted throughoutthe tropics.

Propagation by seed orcuttings.

Uses There appear to be twovarieties in Bas-Congo. The latexof one is used to repair bicycletyres and various utensils and is asource of Ceara rubber. Leaves ofthe other are eaten as avegetable. The flowers are auseful source of nectar during therain season, but produce a bitterhoney. The tree is sometimesgrown as an ornamental and as ahedge-barrier plant. The root isrich in starch but hard and woody.It is used medicinally. The plantcan be crossed with M. esculentafor pest and disease resistancebut the resulting tubers are often woody. By back-crossing to cassava more palatable tubers are

produced which are alsoresistant to mosaic andbrown streak viruses.Stems and roots are usedas famine foods.

A tree in Mbanza Nzunduvillage provides latex forrepairing the inner tubesof bicycles.

References Uphof 1968,Burkill 1994, SEPASAL1999

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Manotes expansa (Connaraceae)

Synonyms M. pruinosa

Common names Diladila

Description A creeper orstraggling shrub growing up to 6.5m high. Leaf stalks from 5 – 25 cmlong with 3 – 13 narrowly ellipticleaflets 3 – 10 cm long and 1.5 – 5cm wide. The small flowers are inpanicles on stalks up to 50 cmlong. Fruits are 1.5 cm long.

Left : Fruiting branch

Ecology Commonly found insecondary forest on sandy soilsin Bas-Congo. Also found in rainforests from Guinea to Liberia.

Management The plantcoppices well and is frequentlyfound growing after cultivationin Bas-Congo.

Right : Young shoots growingfrom a stump in a cassava field.

Uses The tree has severalmedicinal uses in Bas-Congo.The red sap from poundedshoots is drunk for diarrhoea,dysentery or anaemia etc., dropped into the eyes for conjunctivitis or headaches or put into the ear totreat inflammation. It is also taken in Manianga district to increase milk flow in nursing mothers. Leafpaste is applied to burns. Cut stems yield a liquid that is sometimes drunk in the Congo. Kwesu(Imbrasia eblis) and Ndienga edible caterpillars eat the leaves. The stems are used for making fishingnets in Sierra Leone. The plant flowers during the rain season and bees collect nectar and pollen in

February in Bas-Congo.

Left : Imbrasia eblis feeding on the leaves

References De Wildeman 1934,FAC 1952, Arkinstall 1979, Burkill1985, Mukoko Matondo 1991,Kibungu Kembelo 1995, Neuwinger2000, Latham 2002, Nsimundele2004

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Maranta arundinacea (Marantaceae)

Common names Arrowroot, marante (Fr.)

Description An erect perennial herb 60 - 180 cm tall with fleshy cylindrical rhizomes and leaves 22 x 8cm. The flowers rise 1 m high in twin clusters but only rarely produce seeds.

Ecology Originally from theWest Indies but nowcultivated throughout thetropics. It is not commonlygrown in Bas-Congo. Itprefers a hot moist climatewith only a short dryseason. The plant requiresdeep, well-drained, acid,fertile, loamy soils. Shade isbeneficial when grown onsandy soils.

Propagation The plant isusually grown from smallpieces of rhizome withbuds, 4 - 7 cm long. Plantthe pieces in well prepared

soil, in holes 8 - 15 cm deep and spaced at 75 x 38 cm.

Management The cropmust be clean weeded forthe first 3 - 4 months andall flowers removed assoon as they appear.Growth cycle is about 11months, the rhizomesbeing harvested whenthey are 20 - 45 cm longand when the leaves beginto wilt and die down.

Uses In Bas-Congo therhizome is used to make adrink or else dried and

added to food, and is particularly eaten withchicken. Flour from the roots yields a very smoothpaste or jelly making it suitable for foods for smallchildren and invalids. It is highly digestible andespecially useful for the treatment of digestiveproblems. Preparation requires thoroughcleanliness. The root is peeled to remove the bitter,sticky substance in the skin. It is then pulped,mixed with clean water and the starch is obtainedby washing through fine sieves and allowing it tosettle. The rhizome can also be eaten after boilingor roasting. It has special value in being able toabsorb harmful substances from the body and can

also be used to heal wounds. The residue after extracting the starch can be used instead of pepper.Leaves are sometimes used for wrapping foods.

References Kay 1973, Burkill 1997

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Megaphrynium macrostachyum (Marantaceae)

Synonym Sarcophrynium arnoldianum

Common names Dingungu, makungu, bindiondi

Description A perennial semi-woody herb, formingextensive clumps, with stems to 2.5 m high eachbearing a single large leaf 30 - 60 cm long by 12 - 30cm wide.

Stems bearingfruit and flowers

Ecology Found in wet places in primary or secondaryforest from Sierra Leone to western Cameroon and inall countries around the Congo basin.

Right :Bundles of leaves beingtaken to the market at Kinseki

Uses The leaves are used to wrap chikwangueand the leaf stems are used for making mats.Before they open, the young leaves are alsocut up and cooked with oil and water as avegetable in Bas-Congo. The leaves are oftentraded in markets. They are also used forthatching houses and as packing material forvarious foodstuffs. The fruit flesh is edible. Theleaf sap is used to treat epilepsy and a leaf extract to treat poisoning in Ivory Coast.

References Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Konda et al. 1992, Burkill 1997, Neuwinger 2000

.

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Melinis minutiflora (Poaceae)

Common names Leka mbwa (= dog’s bed), fwetete

Description A perennial tufted grass with stemsup to 2 m long and reaching up to 1.5 m high.The leaves are covered with glandular hairs thatsecrete a sticky substance described as smellingof cummin, linseed or molasses.

Ecology Found on open and often steep rockyhillsides, wooded savanna, forest edges andclearings throughout tropical Africa at altitudesbetween 800 and 2500 m. The grass has alsobeen introduced to other tropical countries.

Propagation Can be grown from seed orcuttings.

Management Cutting at a height of 12 cmencourages lateral spread, produces a goodground cover and delays flowering.

Uses The dried plant is used as bedding materialto repel insects from dogs, hence the Kikongoname. The leaves and shoots are used in Bas-Congo to treat loss of voice, swollen stomachaccompanying jaundice, heart problems andinflamed swelling in the groin or armpits. Thewhole plant is reported to be insecticidal and issometimes cultivated for this purpose. InTanzania the bruised leaf is rubbed on livestock orused for nesting material for poultry to repelinsects. It can be used for grazing but is not asproductive or persistent as other species. It will

however quickly cover cultivated land and suppress weeds. The plant is also used elsewhere to treatinsanity, eczema and as a purgative.

Remarks The grass is sometimes planted in the maize crop to repel stalk borer in eastern Africa.

References Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Bogdan 1977, Burkill 1994, Neuwinger 2000, Spore 2002Vol 98 p 4, Kibungu Kembelo 2003

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Charcoal making is a popular way of earning money. It has however led to aserious loss of forest cover in the province.

Mentha arvensis or suaveolens (Lamiaceae)

Common names Ndamba, menthe (Fr.), corn, field mint or applemint

Description These are low-growing perennial herbs withunderground stems or stolons.Stems are 4-angled. Leaves aresmall and contain aromatic glandsgiving a characteristic smell whencrushed.

A container of mint growing on theverandah of a house.

Ecology Cultivated in Bas-Congo.The plants prefer moisture-holding,fertile soils and are often grown in

containers in the shade.

Propagation Divide the rootstock. Old plants should be repotted every 2 to 3 years. Stems root easilyfrom the lower nodes.

Management Shoots can be harvested as required, normally starting 40 - 55 days after division.

Uses The leaves are used to flavour food, For example they are mixed with sweet peppers and eatenwith the fruit of Dacryodes edulis or with fufu (cassava porridge). The leaves can also be used to maketea. Leaves contain menthol which acts as an antiseptic and decongestant.

References Tindall 1983, Bown 1995

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Milicia excelsa (Moraceae)

Synonym Chlorophora excelsa, Macluraexcelsa

Common names Nkamba, nkambala, Africanteak

Description A large tree which can grow 30 -50 m high with a straight bole. Buttresses areeither small or absent. The bark is pale ash-grey to nearly black. Leaves in young treeshave a rough upper surface.

Ecology Found throughout tropical Africa, fromGuinea Bissau to Mozambique, usually insecondary, lowland rainforest conditions withmoderate rainfall; also in cultivated land andmoist savanna. Grows from sea level to about1,500 m provided the climate is not cold.Annual rainfall should be from 1,000 – 1,500mm. The tree appears to be rather exacting insoil requirements.

Propagation Collect the fruits after they fallnaturally and soak them for 6 hours in water.Squeeze the seeds out and allow them to sinkto the bottom. Pour off the debris and dry theseeds. Seed germinates easily when fresh. Ifdried it can be stored for up to one year before

germination falls to 50%. Young trees transplant well but must be at least 3 cm in diameter at the baseof the stem and 25 cm long, preferably evengreater. This usually needs two years fromsowing. Young trees should be planted as partof a mixed forest rather than in pure stands.They do not like grass competition but may besuited to planting under bananas. Traditionallythe tree was often planted near the village inBas-Congo for timber and to attract Bisu(Imbrasia petiveri) edible caterpillars.

Right : Young tree growing in anAcacia auriculiformis plantation

Management Young trees coppicevigorously. A mass of root suckers may arisefrom the base of the stump, especially ifburned and these can replace the parent plantif thinned to one or two. Suckers will arisefrom roots accidentally severed and as theroots are very close to the surface, and run forgreat distances (e.g. 50 m) this is probably animportant means of regeneration in cultivatedland.

Uses Wood makes an excellent timber, hard and durable yet easy to work, and taking a good polish.The heart-wood is ant proof and resistant to water and fungal diseases. It is much used in cabinetmaking and for canoes. It is also used for charcoal making and boundary marking in Bas-Congo. Hostplant for Bisu (Imbrasia petiveri) edible caterpillar. It is possible to see whether caterpillars are presentby looking for the droppings below the tree, but to get to the caterpillars means climbing the tree - notan easy job when it is 30 m tall !

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Imbrasia petiveri edible caterpillar

Nkonko drum for calling villagers from fields

The bark also makes a good charcoal. In Bas-Congo a decoction of the leaves is taken for gallstones.The latex is applied to sores or inflamed areas of the skin. A plant extract has been found to be activeagainst the wood termite, Reticuli tremis. The tree is fairly fire resistant when mature. Young leaves areused as a vegetable but older leaves can be used instead of sandpaper. The fibrous bark is used forroofing houses and for dyeing leather and cloth. A fungicidal chemical (Chloropherine) has beenobtained from the wood.

Remarks Seedlings are often attacked by the gall bugPhytolyma lata (see right). Young trees finally outgrowthis pest but if transplanted into an existing woodlandproviding some shade, e.g. Acacia auriculiformis, may notbe so severely attacked. Resistant plants can be raisedfrom stem or root cuttings.

References Leloup 1956, Irvine 1961, Watt & BreyerBrandwijk 1962, Williamson 1975, Okigbo 1978, Keay 1989,Mukoko Matondo 1991, Iwu 1993, Pauwels 1993, Beentje1994, Msanga 1998

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Malomba loka (Antheua sp.)feeding on Millettia eetveldeana

Millettia eetveldeana (Fabaceae)

Common names Kibuengi,mbwenge, mwengeti

Description Tree which maygrow to 20 m. Leaves arecomposed of 7 – 12 pairs ofleaflets.

Left : The tree is often found inflower during the year.

Ecology Tree of primary andsecondary forests, forest borders,gallery forests, dry forests, woodysavanna and fallows in D. R.Congo, Angola, Zambia andMozambique.

Propagation Cuttings grow well, sprouting after one week.Millettia seeds germinate without prior treatment.

Uses Commonly used to make live fences and in hutconstruction. Although Rotenone and other chemicals withinsecticidal properties are present in Millettias, several ediblecaterpillars, probably all Notodontids (Miengeti, Mfundi andMalombaloka), feed on the leaves. Bees collect both pollen andnectar from the flowers. The plant is used medicinally in Bas-Congo.

Left : Mfundi (Antheua sp.) ediblecaterpillar feeding on Millettiaeetvedeana

References Cobbina 1988, Pauwels1993, Neuwinger 2000, Latham 2003

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Munsona caterpillar feeding

Millettia laurentii (Fabaceae)

Common names Kiboto, ntoka, bois noir, wenge (commerce)

Description A large tree reaching a height of 30 m. The trunk is pale grey with slight, roundedbuttresses at the base. The compound leaves are made up of 4 - 9 pairs of opposite leaflets with oneterminal leaflet. Flowers are borne above the canopy between March and December. The fruit is a podcontaining 2 - 4 seeds.

Ecology Occurs naturally in central Africa. Grows on firm clay soils in closed and gallery forests,wooded savanna and is often planted in towns for shade.

Propagation Can be grown from large cuttings and from seed.

Uses The dark-brown marbled wood is of excellent quality,very hard, dense and strong. It is used for houseconstruction, making bowls, furniture and carving. It is alsoexported for cabinet-making, panelling, parquet floors etc.The wood is hard, and resistant to fungus and insectattack. It takes a good polish. The tree is ornamental andwas extensively planted along avenues in Kinshasa. In Bas-Congo the plant is used medicinally. A decoction of the barkis used to treat pimples, for liver infections, diabetes andrheumatism. A decoction of the leaves is also used to treat

liver problems and diabetes. Poison is extracted fromthe tissues for arrows, for catching fish and makinginsecticides, but also for expelling intestinal worms andas a medicine for reducing fever. Bees collect nectar inDecember in Bas-Congo. N'boto, Ntesi and Munsona(the latter a Platysphinx species) edible caterpillars feedon the leaves. Though caterpillars eating this plant areedible they can cause illness if not well cooked or areeaten in large quantities.

References Gillet & Paque 1910, Daeleman & Pauwels1983, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Pauwels 1993, Kibungu

Kembelo 1995, White & Abernethy 1997, Latham 2002, Nsimundele 2004

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Millettia versicolor (Fabaceae)

Common names Mbota, lubota, bois d'or (Fr.)

Description Tree 20 - 30 m high but often found as a shrub 3 - 4 m high. Leaves comprise 5 pairs ofleaflets with a terminal one. The underside of the leaf is covered with fine silky hairs. The flat pods splitsuddenly throwing seeds up to 15 m away.

Ecology Often found in savanna in the process of reforestation and in secondary forests, where it iscommon at the forest edge. The tree grows back well after fire. Also present in Gabon, Central AfricanRepublic and Angola.

Propagation Grows well from cuttings.

Uses Thin straight branches are planted as fencesaround compounds and the tree is also planted forshade. The fine golden-brown wood is hard and doesnot rot. It is used for carving and for tool handles.The wood is also suitable for making charcoal. Theflowers are attractive to bees and are produced all theyear round. Mbota, Bwenge and Munsona(Platysphinx sp.) edible caterpillars feed on theleaves. The young leaves are pounded and boiled andtaken in small amounts for intestinal worms andkidney problems. The twigs and roots are also used totreat intestinal worms.

Remarks The tree is a common constituent of the“nkunku” – a traditional forest formed eitheraccidentally or by design around villages in Bas-Congocomprising fruit trees, Milicia excelsa and oil palms.

References Drachoussoff 1947, FAC 1948, Aumeeruddy & Pinglo 1988, Mukoko Matondo 1991,Pauwels 1993, Kibungu Kembelo 1995, White & Abernethy 1997, Nsimundele 2004

Mitracarpus hirtus (Rubiaceae)

Synonyms M. villosus

Common names Banda nzazi, bana ba nzazi, button grass

Description A small, annual,

s

Uefuru

R

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A village blacksmith making up a smoker from scrap metal for use when harvestinghoney

much branched herb growing 10- 50 cm tall. The stem is 4angled, hairy, sparsely branchedand woody at the base and issegmented into nodes with eachnode bearing a pair of leaves.The flower is composed of around head, 1 - 1.8 cm indiameter, arising from the leafaxil, and bearing small whiteflowers.

Ecology A common weed oftenassociated with villages, onroadsides, waste places, incultivation and in grassland

avanna throughout tropical Africa.

ses The whole plant, and particularly the leaves are used to treat fungal skin infections and eruptions,pilepsy and children's colds in Bas-Congo. Elsewhere the sap from crushed leaves is considered to bengicidal and is widely used to treat herpes, skin mycosis and ringworm. The plant, or a water extractbbed on the face, is said to cure eczema and stubborn ulcers.

eferences Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987, Burkill 1997, Neuwinger 2000, Kibungu Kembelo 2003

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Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae)

Common names Lumbusu, balsam pear, African cucumber

Description A hairy, herbaceous creeper bearing tendrils which enable it to climb. It may reach 4 mlong. When the old stems die new shoots are produced from the base. The stem is hollow and angled.The alternate leaves are lobed, up to 5 cm long, and roughly toothed. Petioles produce an unpleasantsmell when crushed. Flowers are yellow, spindly, up to 8 cm long, arising from the leaf axils. Fruit isyellow when ripe, warty, oblong with longitudinal ridges. The fruit splits to expose red seeds.

Ecology A common weed of cultivated fields and fallows throughout the tropics. It grows well in hothumid conditions up to 500 m altitude on rich soils with good water-holding capacity.

Propagation Extract seeds from pods and dry them in the sun before sowing.

Uses In Bas-Congo, tender shoots and leaves are crushed, boiled and eaten with peanut butter andtomato sauce, though they can be bitter. The bitterness can be reduced by changing the cooking wateror peeling and soaking overnight. In Bas-Congo a decoction made from the seeds is used to treatstomach pain. The plant is also used to treat skin eruptions, mastitis, tuberculosis, tooth decay, heavyperiods and prolonged crying in babies. Elsewhere in the Congo the leaf is used for colic and the seedfor roundworm. The main use of the plant in West Africa is as a laxative, to destroy intestinal worms,and to treat stomach pain, tapeworms and fever. The plant is known to have insecticidal properties. InAsia, the plant is cultivated for its edible fruits and tender shoots. Bees visit the flowers for nectar andpollen. The fruits are sometimes used as a substitute for soap when washing clothes and the leaves canbe used to clean metal.

References De Wildeman 1934, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Morton 1967, Burkill 1985, Akobundu& Agyakwa 1987, Martin et al. 1998, Robinson & Decker-Walters 1997, Amponsah et al. 2002, Schippers2002, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Nsimundele 2004

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Fruits on a plant growing on a trellis

Mondia whitei (Asclepiadaceae)

Synonym Chlorocodon wh(y)itei, M. ecornuta

Common names Kimbyolongo, ntubungu, mundiondia

Description A trailing orclimbing plant with thinhairy stems from 3 to 6 mlong. Leaves are large andopposite, softly hairy andheart shaped. The roots areyellow and stronglyaromatic. Stems, roots andleaves produce white latex.The roots grow just beneaththe ground surface coveringlarge areas.

Ecology A forest creeperwhich grows in high rainfallareas throughout tropicalAfrica. It is occasionallyplanted and grown on a

trellis or pergola in Bas-Congo.

Propagation The plant can be grown from seed or fromcuttings taken from roots or shoots.

Uses The leaves (called nloondo in Kikongo) areeaten as a vegetable. They are chopped in largepieces, dried and then cooked with peanut butter.The fleshy bark of the root is eaten raw, or

occasionally after drying, for its good taste, as an aphrodisiac, an appetizer and to freshen the mouth.The roots are also eaten to easecoughing, stomach-ache andhaemorrhoids. Root infusions areused in Zimbabwe forconstipation, anorexia, bilharziaand as an aphrodisiac. The rootshave a vanilla-like odour and asweet after-taste and havepossible use as a spice. The plantyields a fibre up to 1.5 m long.

References De Wildeman 1934,Renier 1948, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Daeleman &Pauwels 1983, Mukoko Matondo1991, Konda et al. 1992, Beentje1994, Maundu 1999, van Wyk &Gericke 2000, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Nsimundele 2004

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Monodora angolensis (Annonaceae)

Common names Mpeya, faux muscadier

Description A tree to 20 m high with a diameter of up to 40 cm. Leaves have short petioles 2 – 8 mmlong and are 4.5 – 20 cm long and 2.8 – 5 cm wide. Flowers are fragrant with petals 3 – 6 cm long and1.5 – 3 cm wide. Fruits are round to conical 5.5 – 8 cm long and 5 – 7 cm wide at the base.

Ecology Grows in humid forests in Cameroon, Central African Republic, Uganda, Tanzania, Gabon andCongo.

Propagation M. myristica is grown from seed, which is planted after soaking for 12 hours in coldwater. Wild seedlings may also be transplanted. Seed cannot be stored.

Uses The wood is used for tool handles. In Bas-Congo the seeds, together with the following driedplants:- Pentadiplandra brazzeana, Piper nigrum, Securidaca longepedunculata, Xylopia aethiopica,Aframomum melegueta, Croton mubango are finely ground, sieved and taken with a little water to treathernias. Leaves are used to treat colic and constipation. Crushed seeds are used as a substitute forsoap. The pulverized bark, together with seeds of Aframomum melegueta and of Garcinia kola, arerubbed in locally to treat joint and lower back pain. M. myristica is used in Uganda for charcoal andfirewood.

References FAC 1951, Bouquet 1969, Pauwels 1993, Moore 1994, Katende et al. 2000, KibunguKembelo 2003

195

Morinda lucida (Rubiaceae)

Common names Nsiki, brimstone tree

Description A tree 15 - 20 m high,usually having a crooked trunk andbearing a dense crown of slender, butalso crooked branches. The bark is greyand flakes off. Leaves are 7 – 15 cmlong. The characteristic green fruitsremain on the plant for a long timebefore eventually turning black.

Young tree near Kintenda village

Ecology A forest tree from Senegal toUganda and south to Angola. Foundespecially in forest regrowth andsometimes in areas liable to flooding,where it may be abundant.

Propagation The tree can be grownfrom seed.

Uses In Bas-Congo, adecoction of the leaves is takento relieve colic, diabetes,rheumatism and intestinalworms. Washing with poundedbark, after soaking it in water,is used to treat haemorrhoids.The tree is sometimes plantedaround villages for its dye. It isan important medicinal tree inWest Africa being valued for itsability to prevent or alleviatefever, its anti-malarialproperties and its use for thetreatment of ulcers, leprosy andgonorrhoea. It is especially

used to treat yellow fever. The yellow, hard wood is usedfor house-building, posts and planking. It is also used asfirewood. Roots are used as chewsticks.

Remarks “Nkunku n’siki vwaangi” (Kikongo proverb) = Atfirst the bush is protected, then the Nsiki tree appears untilat last the forest is created.

Bark chips taken for medicinal use

References Keay 1989, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Pauwels1993, Burkill 1997, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Pousset 2004

196

Morinda morindoides (Rubiaceae)

Synonym M. confusa, M. citrifolia

Common names Kongo bololo, kimeeso nkama (Meeso nkama = 100 eyes)

Description A climbing, hairless shrub to 10 m high with attractive, scented, white flowers.

Ecology Found in high forest, dry deciduous forest and coastal scrub from Senegal to west Cameroonand Fernando Po and in Sudan and the Congo basin.

Propagation The shrub can be grown from seed or cuttings.

Uses In Bas-Congo, the leaves are boiled up in water and the liquid drunk as a cure for malaria,diarrhoea, diabetes, stomach-ache and to treat intestinal worms. The bark and roots are used to treatpainful joints, diabetes, skin eruptions, wounds and haemorrhoids. The leaves and roots are reported tocontain several quinine-like compounds.

References Mukoko Matondo 1991, Burkill 1997, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Nsimundele 2004

197

Moringa oleifera (Moringaceae)

Common names Ben ailé (Fr.), drumstick, horse-radish tree

Description A small, fast growing tree, often forked near the base, and up to 8 m high, with sparsefoliage. The white, sweet smelling flowers, which are borne throughout the year, provide bees withnectar.

Ecology Native to northern India but now grown widely throughout the tropics. It grows well in poor,free-draining, sandy soils, and withstands long periods of drought.

Propagation Seed germinates easily and grows rapidly. Cuttings also grow easily even when grown inpoor soil.

Management Coppices well and the tree is best pollarded toincrease the production of leaves.

Uses The leaves are edible fresh or cooked and are used insoups and sauces. They have a protein content of 27% (drymatter basis) and are rich in calcium, iron and phosphorusand vitamins A and C. The leaves and pods are useful incombating malnutrition. Leaves can also be dried. This is bestdone under shade and for 3 days, after which they arepowdered and stored. Green pods can be cut into shortpieces and cooked as a vegetable. Seeds can be fried andeaten as nuts. Flowers and roasted seeds are also highlynutritious and are consumed in many countries. The oil fromthe seeds can be used for cooking, for lubricating sewingmachines etc., soap making and in lamps. After oil extractionthe pulp can be used as fertilizer or as feed supplement e.g.in poultry food. The plant has been found to contain anumber of antibiotic substances and powdered seed has beenincorporated into an ointment to treat common bacterialinfections of the skin. Leaves are reported to cure diarrhoea, anaemia and ulcers. Leaf tea is given fordiabetes. Seed oil is used for gout, stomach disorders and rheumatism. Roots are used for constipation,inflammation, chest wounds, bronchitis, piles, and loss of appetite. Crushed seeds can be used toremove bacteria and clarify water.

References Keay 1989, Folkard & Sutherland 1996, Burkill 1997, Hirt & M'pia 2001, Pousset 2004

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Musa spp. (Musaceae)

Common names Musa (dessert bananas) = ngala; Musa (plantains) = ngyoka

Description A large perennial herb, 2 – 9 m tall,growing from an underground rhizome.

Ecology Dessert bananas are commonly grown inhome compounds in Bas-Congo. Deep friable loamsand soils which are not compacted are preferred.High organic matter and fertility assure high yield.Bananas require an adequate water supply.

Propagation By sucker. Remove old roots anddiseased parts and, if possible, put in water at 52°Cfor 20 minutes to control nematodes and borers.For planting the best method is to dig out a hole 60x 60 x 60 cm. Add about 5 buckets of compost andmix with top soil in the base of the hole. Plant thesucker in the pit at the beginning of the rains andadd household waste material and manure fromtime to time.

Left : Dessert bananas

Right : Banana flowers are visited by beesthroughout the day for nectar and pollen

Management Remove all dead leaves. There should be 6 to 8 healthy leaves remaining on the plantfor adequate fruit development. Remove excess suckers. Cut out old stems below ground level afterharvest and cover the base with soil to reduce borer/weevil infestation. Chop up the stem to encourage

it to dry out or rot down quickly.

Uses Main use is for edible fruit. Bees forage for nectarand pollen, though not all nectar is available to bees.Nectar secretion is increased by rain and damp soil. Theflavour of honey is astringent, like tamarind.

Left : Plantains in a compound in Kinshasa

References Castagné 1983, Crane et al. 1984, Nakasone& Paull 1998

Photo : Luc Pauwels

199

Male flower

Musanga cecropioides (Cecropiaceae)

Common names Nsenga, parasolier (Fr.),umbrella tree

Description Tree to 20m with a straight bole oftenhaving prop roots. Leaves are compound, up to 110cm across, with 11 - 25 shiny leaflets, each up to45 cm long, on a hairy leaf stalk. Leaf-sheaths atthe base of the stalk are red-brown and hairy, upto 30 cm long. Male trees have flowers with morethan 50 round, pink stamen heads. Female treeshave pairs of yellow-green succulent flower heads,2 - 3 cm long, on a 12 cm stalk. Fruit head is about12 cm long, green and fleshy. The tree grows veryrapidly.

Ecology Found in secondary forests, often apioneer species on fertile soils after clearing. It will not grow in shade. The tree’s range is from Guineato Angola.

Propagation Usually direct sown on site.Seed can be broadcast. The soft yellow fruitfalls to the ground when ripe. Mash the fruitin water. Seeds sink and can then be dried.Seed can only be stored for 2 months in acool place.

Uses Fruit is edible. Wood ash is used as saltand a lye for soap making. The tree canopyproduces a dense leaf-litter and makes a goodshade tree for coffee. Wood is very light, softand coarse grained. Used for fence palings,rough partitions, and for roof insulating. Itcan also be used for making householdimplements such as stools, musicalinstruments, walking sticks, trays and basketsetc. Used as a cork substitute and for papermaking. The aerial roots yield large amountsof liquid which can be drunk instead of water.Reported as a bee forage in Bas-Congo andknown as a bee forage in Gabon. Food plantfor Nsenga edible caterpillar

References Burkill 1985, Lobreau-Callen1988, Keay 1989, Ambougou 1991, Peters et al. 1992, Pauwels 1993, Katende et al. 2000, KibunguKembelo 1995

200

Male flowers

Myrianthus arboreus (Cecropiaceae)

Common names Muntusu, dintusu, dintusi, mbuba, arbre à pain indigène (Fr.), giant yellow mulberry

Description The tree cangrow up to 20 m high buthas a short trunk. Stilt rootsare often present. Thecompound leaves have 5leaflets with a commonstalk. Leaflets are from 16 –30 cm long. Male flowersare yellow, female green.The fruits are from 6 – 10cm in diameter. The wood isyellowish-white, soft andfibrous.

Ecology Found in primary and secondary forests, oftenin damp places, from Sierra Leone to Angola, and inUganda and Tanzania.

Propagation Seed germinates readily after 4 weeks.

Uses The fruit pulp is edible and slightly acid. Ripe fruitsare picked and eaten or green mature fruits can bepicked and stored. If fruits are left until they fall they aregenerally rotten. The wood is used for making householdutensils but is difficult to work. It is also suitable forfirewood. In the Congo the seeds are eaten aftercooking. The kernel is rich in oil and amino acids. Youngleaves are sometimes eaten in Bas-Congo. They are verymuch appreciated for making soup in Nigeria. Lye can be

extracted from the wood-ash for making soap.The sap from the leaves is used to heal woundsand a decoction of root bark and leaves is takento relieve coughing. The fallen leaves form a thicklayer of humus building up fertility. Flowers arereported to be visited by bees in Gabon.

References Burkill 1985, Keay 1989, Ambougou1991, Pauwels 1993, White & Abernethy 1997,Nsimundele 2004, Pousset 2004

201

Nephelium lappaceum (Sapindaceae)

Common names Poilus, ramboutan (Fr.), rambutan

Rambutan growing in the botanic garden at Kisantu

Description An evergreen, bushy tree to 20 m high. In good cultivars the flesh is plump, sweet andjuicy. Rambutan trees grown from seed may be either male (40 - 60%), or hermaphrodite trees that arefunctionally female or truly hermaphrodite trees. The last type are the most desirable and may be foundmore frequently in certain cultivars. Bees are important for pollination.

Ecology A moist, hot climate with well distributed rainfall is required. A dry period of at least onemonth is needed to start flowering but thereafter, during fruit set and growth, adequate moisture isrequired. The tree tolerates many soil types, including poorly drained ones, but a deep, well drainedloam is preferred.

Propagation Seedling trees fruit in 5 - 6 years, but wherever possible trees should be propagatedvegetatively by marcot orbudding as a high proportionof seedlings are likely to bemale and the fruiting of theremaining females can varywidely. Rootstocks aregrown from seed.

Rambutan seedlings beinggrown for budding nearKisantu

Seed must be washed anddried and then sown in bedsimmediately. Germination isreduced if more than twodays elapse from the timethe seed is removed fromthe flesh. Rambutan

202

Thatching a house at Mbanza Nzundu with Imperata cylindrica

seedlings must be transplanted when they are about 15 cm tall with minimum disturbance to the roots.They should be transplanted into well manured, shaded beds and spaced at 30 cm. They are ready forbudding when the seedlings are 12 - 18 mm in diameter and producing new growth.

Choose good fruit-bearing trees for the bud-wood. However these should not have borne fruit in thepresent season. Shoots should have plenty of dormant buds and be taken 3 - 4 months after harvestingthe fruit. Best buds come from one-year-old wood of finger thickness. It may be necessary to cut off theleaflet blades on the shoots beforehand to encourage buds to form. Put the bud-wood in shade with thelower end in water. Keep the bud-wood moist while transporting and bud on a dull, cloudy day. Shadethe budded seedlings.

Management The rambutan canbe grown mixed with other trees,bushes and herbaceous plants.Early pruning and training to forman open centre is recommended.Prune back twigs that have bornefruits and remove suckers.Mulching is important. Ring-barkingor girdling branches or the trunk oftrees in late summer increases theflowering and fruiting of trees thatflowered poorly in previousseasons.

Uses One of the best fruits of theEast. The flesh is white and juicywith good flavour. The seed isedible when cooked and can alsobe used to make soap or candles.The wood tends to split duringseasoning but is hard, strong, easyto work and finishes well. It lasts well if used for internal carpentry work but may be attacked by fungi.Young shoots are used to produce a green colour on silk.

References Garner & Chaudhri 1988, Nakasone & Paull 1998

203

Newbouldia laevis (Bignoniaceae)

Common names Mumpese pese, boundary tree

Description A shrub or small tree from 3 to 8m high with branches that grow vertically andhaving attractive flowers.

Ecology The tree grows naturally in woodedsavanna from Senegal to R.D. Congo, but isfrequently planted around homesteads.

Newbouldia laevis growing around a homecompound.

Propagation Easily grown from cuttings.

Uses Frequently grown as a hedge orboundary marker around compounds. Thewood is pale-brown, even-textured andmoderately durable and used for posts andtool handles. It makes good firewood. Adecoction of the roots is used to controlintestinal worms in Bas-Congo. There arenumerous medicinal uses for this plant andindications are that a mouthwash, preparedfrom mature leaves, may be effective inarresting the growth of the bacteria implicatedin dental caries.

References Burkill 1985, Pauwels 1993,Neuwinger 2000, Okeke 2003, Nsimundele2004

204

Nicotiana tabacum (Solanaceae)

Common names Fumu, tabac (Fr.), tobacco

Description An annual or short lived perennial herb growing 1 – 3 m high.

Ecology Tobacco does not grow well on water-logged soils or soils with a high salt content. It thrives ina warm climate and needs sufficient rainfall while the plants are young.

Tobacco being grown on a site where charcoal had been made

Propagation Seed is long lived and should be sown thinly in a fine seedbed. One teaspoon is sufficientfor 30 sq. m. Sowing is best carried out using a watering can. Place the seed in the can, add water, stirand then use a fine spray.

Uses The plant can be used as an insecticidal spray. The highest concentration of nicotine is in thestalks and leaf ribs. Sprays are most effective when the temperature is above 30°C. Food crops should

not be eaten until 4 days later. The plant alsoacts as an insect repellent and a fungicide.Nicotine spray is effective against aphids,cabbage worms, caterpillars, flea beetles,grain weevils, leaf miners, mites, stem borers,thrips and rust disease in beans. Soak 1 kgcrushed tobacco stalks and leaves in 15 litreswater for one day. Add some grated soap(this will help the liquid stick to the sprayedplants). Filter out the solid material. Sprayimmediately using a fine nozzle. Clean out allutensils carefully after use. Nicotine is avery toxic organic poison. It isimportant not to allow the spray tocome in contact with the skin duringapplication. Tobacco is also a useful beeplant providing both pollen and nectar.Though the honey from tobacco is

unpalatable by itself it is normally brought in with nectar from other plants which mask the unpleasanttaste.

References Purseglove 1968, Crane et al. 1984, Stoll 2000

205

Nymphaea lotus (Nymphaeaceae)

Common names Longa-longa (This name is also used for N. maculata and N. nouchalii), nénuphar(Fr.), water-lily

Description A perennial aquatic herb with a long tuberous rhizome and long white roots anchored inwet mud. The floating leaves are round, up to 30 cm in diameter, shiny green above and pale, oftentinged dark purple, below. They are sharply toothed at the margins. Flowers are solitary, white and upto 20 cm in diameter. Stamens are yellow.

Ecology Widespread throughout tropical Africa. Invasive in undisturbed water.

Propagation Can be grown from seed or rhizome.

Uses In Bas-Congo the leaves are used to treat migraine, alcoholism and addiction to tobacco,browning of the hair, oedema, rheumatism, epilepsy, skin eruptions, mental disorders and scabies. Theplant ash was earlier used to make salt. In some areas people eat the rhizomes, flower receptacle andseeds. The rhizomes are eaten raw or cooked in stews and sauces. They can also be ground and madeinto flour. Roots are slimy, promote urination, and are narcotic and sedative. Bees probably collectpollen and nectar from the plant. They are reported to collect abundant pollen and some nectar from N.nouchalii in Ethiopia which flowers throughout the year.

References De Wildeman 1934, Arkinstall 1979, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Akobundu & Agyakwa1987, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Burkill 1997, Kibungu Kembelo 2003

206

Fruiting branch

Ochna afzelii (Ochnaceae)

Synonyms O. barteri, O. welwitschii

Common names Kidimbi, kidimbi ki nseke, kiluba

Description A tree growing to 12 m. Bark is smooth witha reddish slash. Leaves 5 – 7.5 cm long by 2 – 4.5 cmwide. Flowers are yellow in clusters among the leaves.

Ecology Found in savanna woodland and forest margins.Widespread in tropical Africa from Guinea to Cameroon andfrom Sudan to Uganda.

Propagation Ochna sp. Can be grown from seed orcuttings taken from young branches.

Uses The wood is light-brown, hard and heavy, and usedfor tool handles and furniture. In Bas-Congo, the inner barkis used to treat anaemia. It is dried then put in boiling water and a small amount is given to the patient.

Elsewhere in Africa the root and stem barkis used medicinally to treat coughs,dysentery, parasitic skin diseases andinflammation of the gums. Fruits andleaves are reported to be edible. Kwesu(Imbrasia eblis) edible caterpillars feed onthe leaves.

Left : Bark removed formedicinal use

References Irvine 1961, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Keay 1989, Peters et al.

1992, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1997

207

Ocimum basilicum (Lamiaceae)

Synonym O. americanum

Common names Dizulu, basilic commun (Fr.), sweet basil

Description An annualbushy, branching, aromaticherb, woody at the base,growing up to 1 m high.Leaves are light to purplish-green with toothed margins,and 3 - 8 cm long. Flowerssmall, pale blue, mauve orpurple, borne in looseflowering heads, up to 30cm long.

Ecology Widely distributedin the tropics and commonlycultivated in gardens andaround compounds in Bas-Congo. Grows best in loamor sandy loam soils with

adequate drainage and high light intensity,up to 1000 m altitude.

Propagation Sow seeds in containers orseed-beds and transplant when 5 - 8 cmhigh. Space 30 - 45 cm apart. It can also begrown from cuttings.

Management When plants reach 50 - 70cm, pinch out growing point to encouragebranching. Harvest just before flowering. Cutthe plant back to 10 - 15 cm from theground.

Uses Leaves are strongly aromatic and areused, both fresh and dried, as a condimentfor flavouring soups and sauces. The plantflowers throughout the year providing beeswith pollen and nectar. In Bas-Congo theplant is used medicinally to treat gastritis andhaemorrhoids. An infusion of the leaves canbe taken to assist digestion. The leaves canbe used to kill leaf miners in avocados andother fruit trees. Soak 100 g leaves in 1 litrewater overnight. The leaves are then groundup and strained and 1 ml soap solution is added before spraying.

References Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Tindall 1983, Fichtl & Adi 1994, de Guzman & Siemonsma1999, Stoll 2000, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Pousset 2004

208

Ocimum gratissimum (Lamiaceae)

Common names Dinsusu-nsusu, baumier (Fr.), tree basil, fever plant

Description A branched, erect, woody shrub up to2 m tall. The leaves are larger than those of O.basilicum.

Ecology Frequently planted in vegetable beds andaround village compounds. The plant is foundthroughout tropical Africa.

Mama Thérèse beside O. gratissimumgrowing behind her house at Kasangulu.

Propagation By seed or cuttings.

Uses The strongly scented leaves are used toflavour meat and soups in Bas-Congo. The leaves

and shoots, together with other plants, are used to treat diabetes, sciatica, haemorrhoids, migraine,rheumatism, dental caries, coughing, asthma,eye problems and colds. The leaves are alsorubbed between the palms and snuffed as atreatment for blocked nostrils. The oil,obtained from distilling the plant, can be usedin an ointment to treat acne. The plant is burntas a mosquito repellent in southern Africa.Other species are known to be important beeforage plants which flower over long periods inEthiopia. This and other species of Ocimum arefrequently rubbed onto hives, especiallyaround the entrance, to attract bees (Paterson- unpublished).

References De Wildeman 1934, Watt &Breyer - Brandwijk 1962, Arkinstall 1979,Howes 1979, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Brown 1995,Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Pousset 2004

209

tree

Cymothoe caenis

Oncoba welwitschii (Flacourtiaceae)

Common names Kisani, kisania Description A shrub or treeto 5 – 6 m. The leaves areovate in shape ending in along point. They are flat orvery broadly rounded at thebase, with 5 nerves. Leafstalks are 5 – 22 cm long.Flowers are large (5 cmacross) and showy, with 3 - 4broad overlapping sepals and5 - 13 white petals. Stamensare numerous, bright orange.Fruits are covered withslender spines up to 5 cmlong.

Ecology Very common insecondary forest in Bas-Congo. Also present in

Nigeria, Cameroon, Gabon, Angola, Malawi and Mozambique.

Propagation and management The tree can be grown from seed and coppices well.

Uses Poles are used for house construction and charcoalmaking and the fruit pulp is eaten in Bas-Congo. Theleaves are eaten by Nsani (Cymothoe caenis), Mimpembaand Matambungu edible caterpillars. Though the former isnot one of the tastiest species it is available in largequantities in January and again at the end of the rainseason. The flowers are frequently visited by bees,though some people report that the nectar produces abitter honey. The plant has a number of medicinal uses.In Bas-Congo the flowers and fruits are used to treatmental illness, asthma, gall bladder infections and worms.The leaves are also used to treat fleas in poultry. InCongo (Brazzaville) the leaves and bark are made into poultices to mature abscesses and into plastersfor bronchial infections and rheumatism. Leaf sap is instilled into the nose for headaches. Poundedleaves are applied to reduce swellings in bone fractures before fixing splints. Powdered leaves are

sprinkled on the severed umbilical cordof the new-born baby. Pulped bark withpalm oil is used to treat itch, and juiceextracted from the bark is used to expelparasites. Root scrapings are rubbed onto kill body lice. The seed oil has beenused in Congo for leprosy, and thepresence of Chaulmoogric andHydnocarpic acids has been shown.

Remarks Some people say the woodshould not be used to make beehives ortop bars as it can kill the bees. Leaf pulpis used to repel bees during honeyharvest in the Central African Republic.

References Renier 1948, Aké Assi et al.1981, Keay 1989, Ambougou 1991,Pauwels 1993, Nsimundele 2004

210

Oryza sativa (Poaceae)

Common names Loso, riz (Fr.), rice

Description An annual, many-stemmed grass toabout 1 m high, bearing a loose head of grain.

Ecology Originally from Asia. An annual rainfallof between 400 and 800 mm is required. Yield isaffected by sunlight, as the number of shootsproduced by each plant is determined by havingsufficient days of unclouded sun. On acid soils aphosphorus deficiency is frequently seen.

Left : Rice growing in Nkondi village, Manianga

Propagation Use seed that has been stored for3 - 6 months. Sow in lines across the contour tofacilitate weeding. Plant to ensure that floweringtakes place during the rain season and harvest inthe dry season.

Management Upland rice cultivation isthe usual method used in Bas-Congo,especially in Manianga district. This isnormally done on burnt forest land onhillsides where it is planted in a shiftingcultivation system. The system can beimproved by planting 3 m wide strips ofleguminous cover crop (e.g. Canavaliaensiformis or Desmodium gangeticum)across the slope to control erosion androtating with maize and groundnuts in thefirst year followed by cassava in thesecond.

Above and left : Tata Masola, Pambaharvesting his rice crop near Nkondi

Uses An important food crop, often used for specialoccasions. In Bas-Congo a decoction of the roots,leaves and seed husk is taken for madness and beriberi. A decoction of the seed, with some salt, is takenfor rehydration when suffering from diarrhoea.

References Mukoko Matondo 1991, Raemaekers2001, Pousset 2004

211

Pachira glabra (Bombacaceae)

Synonym Bombacopsis glabra

Common names Nguba nguela,nguba mputu, noyer d’Amérique(Fr.)

Description A tree from 6 to 8m high with large, fragrant, whiteflowers. The fruit contains 10 - 20seeds with an average weight of1.8 g each.

Pachira glabra with fruit

Ecology Often planted around compounds inBas-Congo. It is a hardy tree growing well onsandy soils. It is also grown in the Sudan and inZambia.

Propagation Grown from cuttings but seedgerminates readily and seedlings can betransplanted easily.

Right : Freshly collected seeds

Management Often grown as a hedge around village compounds. In Zambia trees commenced to bearin their third year and reached maximum production in the seventh year. Yields of 4.5 kg per tree wereobtained.

Uses In Bas-Congo, theseeds are eaten afterroasting. They have a highoil content (45%) and canbe used in making soap.The young leaves are eatenin Equatorial Africa.

References Anton-Smith1964, Burkill 1985

212

Pandanus candelabrum (Pandanaceae) Common names Kenge Description A plant growing to 10 m high. The branched stems have aerial stilt roots. Leaves are about 1 m long and 4 cm wide. Flowers are white and heavily scented. The genus Pandanus has not been sufficiently studied to date and a revision of the species name may be required. Ecology Grows on river banks and in river beds. Sometimes planted in villages. Pandanus spp. are found throughout tropical Africa. Pandanus candelabrum growing in a village compound.

Propagation Seed or aerial stilts grow easily in moist soil.

A basket made from Pandanus candelabrum

Uses The leaves are tough and strong. Once the spines and midrib have been removed, they may be dried entire or cut into strips. In Bas-Congo, they are used for making mats and

baskets for carrying food. The wood is yellowish and porous, breaking up into fibrous strands and used as a poor quality firewood. The plant has various medicinal uses.

References Purseglove 1972, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1997 Making up a sleeping mat at Kubana near Mayenga.

213

Tata Mansita with a granadille plant growing over an arbour

Passiflora edulis f. flavicarpa (Passifloraceae)

Common names Goki dimputu, maracuja, granadille (Fr.)

Description This species has yellow, as opposed to purple,fruits when ripe, and is more vigorous, with larger leavesthan P. edulis. The most important pollinators for passionfruits are bees.

Ecology Grows at lower elevations than P. edulis, from sealevel to 600 m. Passion fruits require a well drained soil anda well distributed rainfall. Rainfall however should beminimal during flowering as it causes the pollen to burstopen and hinders the activity of pollinating insects.

Propagation The plant is grown from seed. Wash the seeds from thepulp, dry and sow them within 3 months. Germination rate can be up to85%. Transplant the seedlings into tubes when they have from 2 to 4leaves and place them in the shade for 1 - 2 months. Gradually providemore sunlight and transplant into the field when they have reached 25 -50 cm high and have been hardened off in full sunlight for 1 - 2 months.

Right : Passion-fruit concentrate bottled in the Congo

Management Provide a trellis support or a frame for the vine to growover.

Uses The fruit juice has a unique taste and is rich in vitamins. Howeverjuice from some vines may be of poor flavour so these vines should beremoved.

Reference Nakasonne & Paull 1998

214

Passiflora quadrangularis (Passifloraceae)

Common names Barbadine

Description A strong perennialcreeper with fleshy tuberous roots.Stems are quadrangular and winged.Flowering occurs on vigorous shootsapproximately 9 months from plantingand fruit is produced 60 to 80 dayslater. Fruits are yellowish-green, 10 –30 x 10 - 18 cm. A third species, P.foetida, is edible, grows in the savannaand is a good bee-forage.

Ecology Native to tropical SouthAmerica. Often grown over a trellis inBas-Congo where it provides a shadyspot near the house. The plant prefersa moist soil, rich in humus.

Propagation Seed or cuttings can beused. Seed germinates after 2 - 4weeks. Transfer seedlings to sachets atthe two-leaf stage when the plant is 4 -5 cm tall. Plant out after 4 monthsspacing at 4 - 5 m and train over atrellis support which permits the fruitto hang underneath.

Management Outside the area oforigin poor fruit set is often reported.Hand pollination is recommended toensure a reasonable crop. It may benecessary to cover the fruit to protectit from birds, bats or rats. Cut the

shoots back after the fruit has been harvested,retaining only the stem and main branches.The plant has a useful life of 5 - 6 years.

Uses The flesh and pulp of the fruit are edibleand can be eaten alone or with other fruits.The juice can also be mixed with sweetorange, paw-paw or guava. The green unripefruits may be boiled and eaten as a vegetable.The taste of the fruit is insipid compared withthe purple or yellow passion fruit.

References Purseglove 1968, Masefield et al.1975, Macmillan 1991, Dupriez & De Leener1989

215

Pentaclethra eetveldeana (Mimosaceae)

Common names Nseka, kiseka, nsombo nseka, nseka mfusila, nsambu

Description A tree growing from 15 to 30 m tall.

Ecology Grows in secondary forests in Gabon, Cabinda and Mayombe and is common in Bas-Congo.

Propagation Seed germinates unevenly but with a highpercentage. Best shallow planted direct into field to avoiddamaging the tap-root.

Management The tree coppices well in the forest fallow.

Uses The seeds, which contain oil of similar quality to that ofP. macrophylla, are sometimes eaten in R.D. Congo. The treeis an important source of fuel-wood and charcoal in Bas-Congo. The white wood is hard, strong, durable and

attractive, but is not resistant to insectattack. It makes a good constructiontimber and is also used for pestles andmortars. A decoction of the leaves is takenfor colds and stomach-ache. Minsangulaedible caterpillars feed on the leaves andbees forage for nectar in March. In Gabonthere are reports that it produces a toxichoney causing nausea and colic, howeverthis does not appear to be the case in Bas-Congo.

Right : Minsangula caterpillars being soldin a village market.

References Dennis 1932, De Wildeman1934, Drachoussoff 1947, Renier 1948,Allen & Allen 1981, Mukoko Matondo 1991,Pauwels 1993, Ambougou 1991, KibunguKembelo 1995, Latham 2002

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Pentaclethra macrophylla (Mimosaceae)

Common names Ngansi, oil bean tree

Description A fast growing tree to 25 mhigh. Seedlings can attain 1.5 m in thefirst year. The tree nodulates, has goodnatural regeneration after fire and istermite resistant.

Ecology Growth can be good whererainfall is adequate, even on relatively acidsoils. It tolerates waterlogging, though thetree prefers a medium/loamy, well drainedsoil.

Left : A young tree growing in secondaryforest

Propagation Seed should be planted assoon as possible after harvest. Soaking inwater for 24 hours improves germination.Seed is normally planted direct into thefield, as seedlings are difficult to transplantbecause of the long tap-root.

Uses The timber is difficult to work butused for making mortars and other

utensils. It makes goodcharcoal and firewood,though the latter gives offan unpleasant smell. Seedpods can be used for fueland, when burnt to ash,yield a lye used for makingsoap. The flowers are animportant source of nectarfor honey bees which collectthroughout the day. Theleaves are shed during thedry season and in Bas-Congoit is believed that the mulchimproves soil fertility.Minsendi (Imbrasia obscura)and Minsangula ediblecaterpillars feed on the

leaves. Elsewhere the tree is planted onthe fringes of farmland for its edibleseeds. The seeds are eaten afterroasting or boiling for 12 hours. Flourfrom seeds can be used for makingbread. A decoction of the leaves is drunkto treat diarrhoea.

Imbrasia obscura feeding onPentaclethra macrophylla

References Irvine 1961, Pauwels 1993,Burkill 1995, Kibungu Kembelo 1995,Ladipo & Boland 1995, ICRAF 1998,Pousset 2004

217

Pentadiplandra brazzeana (Capparaceae)

Synonym Cercopetalum dasyanthum

Common names Nkenge-kyasa, nke-kyasa, kiasa

Description A climbing shrub with vine-like branches. Leaves measure 12 cm long and 5 cm wide.Flower heads grow from leaf axils and individual flowers are white with red and blue spots near the top.Fruits are mottled grey, 4 cm long having a short stipule.

Ecology Common in forests around villages in Bas-Congo.

Uses The leaves are used as a vegetable in Bas-Congo. The fruit is edible, sweet and peppery. The roottastes like horse-radish and is used to treat various illnesses including asthma, psoriasis, rheumatism,epilepsy, colic, haemorrhoids and as a counter irritant. The bark is used as an aphrodisiac.

References Renier 1948, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Mbemba & Remacle 1992, Neuwinger 2000,Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Nsimundele 2004, Pousset 2004

218

Persea americana (Lauraceae)

Common names Divoka, avocatier (Fr.), avocado pear

Description An evergreen tree growing from 6 - 15 m tall.

Ecology Avocados can be grown on sandy-loam soils, but are sensitive to poor drainage andwaterlogging. A rainfall of between 1,250 – 1,750 mm should be evenly distributed. Dry conditions arepreferred during flowering. Mexican races are more tolerant to water stress and low humidity and alsoto a humid, warm climate with optimum temperatures around 25 - 28 °C.

Propagation The tree can be grown from seed but is best grafted. Seed remains viable for 2 - 3 weeksbut can be stored for longer if kept dry. Quicker and better germination can be obtained if the seed coatis removed. Transplants are made with a ball of earth round the roots. Guatemalan and West Indianraces produce the best rootstocks, however they are not compatible with West Indian scions. Seeds areplanted in nurseries, 35 cm apart and should not be covered with more than 1 cm of soil. Stocks shouldbe side grafted with terminal tips 6 cm long or older stocks may be shield budded. Budded and graftedplants can be transplanted after about 18months.

Uses Mainly grown for its edible fruit which isrich in fat, protein and vitamins. It is the mostnutritious of all fruits. Bees are known toincrease yields of fruit and nectar secretion isabundant when humidity is high. The honeyproduced is dark with a strong flavour.

References Purseglove 1968, Crane et al.1984, Pauwels 1993, Fichtl & Adi 1994,Nakasone & Paull 1998, Jones 1999

219

Petersianthus macrocarpus (Lecythidaceae)

Common names Kivinsu, abalé (Fr.),stinkwood tree

Description Tree grows from 20 to 30 mhigh. Fruits are 4.5 – 6 long by 4 – 7.5 cmwide and have four characteristic wings.

Ecology The tree grows in dense, usuallysecondary forest in Bas-Congo. Found fromGuinea to Congo and south to Angola.

Propagation Grows from seed which isreported to germinate after about a month.

Management The tree coppices well.

Uses The timber is resistant to termites andused for heavy-duty carpentry, mortars,house-building and for canoes and paddlesbut it has a foul smell when freshly cut. Itmakes a good fuel wood. Mvinsu (Imbrasiaepimethea), Munsongo (Imbrasia alopia),Nsila and Mbambi edible caterpillars feed onthe leaves.

Right : fruiting branch

Mvinsu caterpillars are very muchsought after and when a young colonyare found the tree is often marked tosignify the colony has been claimedand must not be removed. The root,stem and particularly the bark are used

medicinally as a laxative, purgative and abortive.Elsewhere the plant is used to cure malaria. Reported as abee forage in Gabon.

References Irvine 1961, Keay 1989, Ambougou 1991,Iwu 1993, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1995, Kibungu Kembelo1995, Nsimundele 2004

Left : Mvinsu edible caterpillars on a branch at Ndembomission. Two generations are reported to appear eachyear.

220

Plants growing on a trellis at Kimbambu

Phaseolus lunatus (Fabaceae)

Common names Haricotde lima (Fr.), lima, butter,Madagascar or sugar bean

Description An annual orperennial herb showingconsiderable variation inthe form of the vines,pods and seeds. Poletypes twine and usuallygrow from 1.8 to 4 m talland have an enlarged tap-root. Bush types aregenerally annual and only30 - 90 cm tall. Leaves aretrifoliate and often hairyon the lower surface. Theflowers are white oryellow-white. The podscontain 2 - 6 seeds.

Ecology Occasionally grown inBas-Congo. The plant thrives inwell drained, highly leached soilsand in drought prone areas. Athigh temperatures seriousshedding of blossom and pod dropmay occur. Climbing types must begrown over a support or bush.

Propagation Seed germinatesafter 5 to 6 days.

Management Plants are grownon a trellis and are replanted after3 years. Rotate crops with cerealsto reduce eelworm infection asthey can affect yields very badly.The plants produce mature seeds

90 to 110 days after planting.

Uses The seeds are eaten while still immature, being taken from thepods as the green colour fades. Mature beans are usually eatenboiled, fried in oil or baked. The pods and leaves can also be eatenwhen young and tender. The shed leaves help to restore fertility. Dueto the presence of poisonous Cyanogenetic glycosides in somevarieties (often the dark-seeded types - white seeded varieties areusually safer) care should be taken in preparation. Beans should besoaked in several changes of water first and then cooked thoroughly.The crop may be fed to livestock.

References Kay 1979, NAS 1979, Smartt 1979, Burkill 1995,Raemaekers 2001

221

Phaseolus vulgaris (Fabaceae)

Common names Deso, madeso, haricot vert (Fr.), French bean, pole bean

Description Two main varieties arerecognized: a) Dwarf or bush typeswhich are early maturing, 20 - 60 cm inheight, with lateral and terminalinflorescences and determinate growth.b) Climbing or pole types, withindeterminate growth, up to 3 m inheight.

Left : Pole beans

Ecology Pole beans are frequentlygrown as a dry season crop in the valleygardens in Bas-Congo. The plant has awide range of tolerance. Most varietiesare adapted to growing up to 1,000 m insoils with a pH range between 5.5 and

6.5. Acid soils should be avoided as they reduce the activityof the Rhizobium nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Moderately heavyloam soils are suitable. Pole beans give better results thandwarf varieties in the rain season.

Propagation The plants are grown from seed planteddirect, 1 - 3 cm deep. 4 - 6 seeds are planted at each site,spaced 80 - 100 cm apart.

Management Weeding is important until the plant flowers.The crop is grown on wigwams or trellises up to 2.5 m high. Sticks or bamboo poles should be in placesoon after the seed germinates. Beans can be harvested from 70 - 90 days after planting and should bepicked before the pods split open.

Uses Grown mainly fordried seeds thoughelsewhere the young leavesare eaten as a vegetable.The leaves may also bedried and stored for lateruse.

References Tindall 1983,Raemaekers 2001

Left : Dwarf beans growingin Manianga district

222

Phytolacca dodecandra (Phytolaccaceae)

Common names Tidi, épinard sauvage (Fr.)

Description A fast growing shrubby or woody climber to 7 m high and 15 m long. Nodes are up to 10cm apart and stems can be 9 mm in diameter. Leaves are usually hairless, 4 – 15 cm long and 2 – 10cm wide, oval to elliptic and have slender petioles, 1 – 5 cm long. The central flower stalk may grow 40cm long with the scented flowers being red, white, yellow or green.

Ecology Found in closed forest, wooded savanna and on cultivated land up to an altitude of 2,000 m.Originally from tropical America but now widespread from Guinea to west Cameroon and in Madagascarand South Africa. Sometimes cultivated in Bas-Congo.

Propagation Can be grown from seedlings or from cuttings.

Uses Young leaves are coarsely cut, cooked and used as a vegetable in Bas-Congo, though elsewherethey are regarded as being highly poisonous. The fresh leaves have a protein content of up to 6%.Leaves are also reported to be poisonous to livestock. They are used to treat scabies in R.D. Congo.Dried leaves are applied to cuts and swellings. The fruits are a good soap substitute and are especiallyused for this purpose in northern Kenya and Ethiopia. Fruits can be collected when still unripe and driedfor later use. They produce a good lather and contain Saponin, which acts as a poison to snails, and ithas been noticed that water snails carrying bilharzia are reduced downstream from where people washtheir clothes with these berries. The juice can also be used for killing mosquito larvae in ponds. Leavesare the source of a yellow dye. The roots are used in small quantities as a remedy for round- and tape-worms. Where common, both pollen and nectar are collected by bees, and the plant is reported as abee forage in Ethiopia and Gabon.

Remarks The older leaves and berries are very poisonous.

References FAC 1951, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Wild 1972, Kokwaro 1976, Daeleman & Pauwels1983, Ambougou 1991, Konda et al. 1992, Mbemba & Remacle 1992, Bekele-Tesemma et al 1993,Blundell 1994, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Burkill 1997

223

Piliostigma thonningii (Caesalpinaceae)

Common names Pied de boeuf (Fr.), camel's foot

Description A bush ortree from 3 - 6 m highwith a short twisted trunkand branches. Leaves arecharacteristically twinlobed and hairyunderneath. Flowers arewhite and sweet-scented.

Ecology Found in woodedsavanna throughouttropical Africa. Oftenassociated with Annonasenegalensis.

Propagation Seed issown direct after beingsoaked in cold water for24 hours. Germination

rate is normally good. The seed can be stored for several years if kept cool, dry and insect free.

Management The tree grows fairly fast and can be coppicedor pollarded.

Right: The fruits remain on the tree for a long time.

Uses The wood is hard but easy to work though liable totermite and insect borers. It is used for house posts, pestles,handles of implements, furniture and general carpentry, thoughits small size limits its usefulness. Twigs and roots are used astoothbrushes. The wood burns well, is long lasting and picks upwell from sleeping embers burning with a hot flame and littlesmoke. The bark is stripped off for roofing ties, fencing andbridge building. Fibre can be extracted for use as rope. Thegum from the trunk is used for repairing boats. The plant has anumber of medicinal uses in West Africa. For example the fresh

leaves are applied to woundsto assist with healing andthey are similarly used totreat rheumatism. Pulpsurrounding the seeds isedible, biscuit-like andchewed by children or eaten during famine. The leaves, crushedgreen pods and seeds can also be eaten. Young leaves are chewed torelieve thirst. Pods and seeds produce a blue dye and roasted seeds ablack dye. The flowers are reported to be visited by bees.

References Peters et al 1992, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1995, Katende et al. 2000, Pousset 2004

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Piper nigrum (Piperaceae)

Common names Kapidi, poivre (Fr.), pepper

Description A perennial climbing vinewhich may grow to 10 m but isnormally pruned to about 4 m. Leavesare 8 - 20 cm long, alternate, oval andpointed. Flowers are mostly bisexual.Fruits are 3 - 6 mm, red when ripe,turning black when dried. Piperguineense has shorter leaves and fruitspikes and a more branched habit thanP. nigrum. There are numerousimproved varieties.

Ecology Grown widely in the tropics.It requires a hot, wet climate butcannot stand waterlogging. Shade anda fertile soil, rich in compost or otherorganic material, is required. Plants arevery susceptible to drought.

Propagation Normally grown fromcuttings taken from young stems orstem shoots about 50 cm long. Theseare grown in moist soil under shadeand produce roots after about 2months. The plant can also be grownfrom seed.

Management The plants are grown on mounds andplanted so that they climb up trees. The latter may needto be pruned to reduce excessive shading. Two or threestems are allowed to develop and each stem needs to bepruned back to 10 nodes until the fruit has beenproduced. To stagger production the stems can bepruned in rotation allowing 3 - 4 week intervals. Weedingand mulching are beneficial. Plants remain productive forup to 30 years.

Uses As a condiment. Fresh or dried fruits, either wholeor crushed, are hot spices used in cooking. Pepperstimulates digestion, increasing the flow of saliva and thedigestive juices. Peppers were used to relieve wind andas a worm remedy. To prepare black pepper fruits are left in heaps overnight and then dried on mats inthe sun the following day. They should be raked regularly and are ready after 4 – 5 days. Pepper oil isdistilled from the fruits and used in perfumes.

References Purseglove 1968, Dupriez & De Leener 1989, Borget 1993, de Guzman & Siemonsma 1999

225

Piptadeniastrum africanum (Mimosaceae)

Synonym Piptadenia africana

Common names Singa singa, African greenheart

Description The tree grows to 45 m high and has large thin buttresses reaching from 3 to 5 m up thetrunk. Young branches are covered with dense brown hairs. Leaves are composed of 10 - 19 pairs ofpinnae borne on red leaf stalks. Flowers are yellow-white on branched spikes each one 4 - 11 cm with ahairy brown stalk. Fruits are flat, dark-brown 17 - 36 cm long.

Ecology Grows in lowland forests from Sierra Leone to Angola and Uganda.

Propagation Can be grown from seed or wild seedlings. The winged seeds are collected from theforest. Seeds germinate after 1 - 2 weeks but lose their viability very quickly.

Uses The bark can be used as a soap substitute and ash from both pod and bark is used for makingsoap. The root contains a large amount of Saponin. The wood is used as a general purpose timber. It isof good quality, durable in fresh water, somewhat termite resistant, but has a bad smell. It is especiallygood for heavy construction and flooring. The bark is sometimes used to cause abortion but this can bedangerous. The gum is used as an ordeal poison and the crushed fruits as a fish poison in Bas-Congo.Minsendi & Nsinga edible caterpillars feed on the leaves. Bees visit the flowers, which are producedduring the rain season.

Remarks The tree has other medicinal uses in Africa but great care should be taken whenusing any part.

References Allen & Allen 1981, Keay 1989, Ambougou 1991, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1995, Katende etal. 2000, Kibungu Kembelo 1995, Neuwinger 2000, Nsimundele 2004

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Tree in flower and with fruit at Kisantu botanical garden in August

Pseudospondias microcarpa (Anacardiaceae)

Common names Nyibu

Description Tree 6 – 20 m high with a usually short trunk, 3 - 18 m tall, twisted and stronglybuttressed. Bark falls off in large flakes. Leaves are compound and have 5 - 17 leaflets, each 5 - 20 cmlong and 3 - 8 cm wide. Male and female flowers produced separately. Fruits ellipsoid 1.5 - 2.5 cm long,blue-black when ripe.

Ecology Grows in densefringing and secondaryforests, in damp sites andoften on stream banksoccurring throughout WestAfrica and south to Angolaand in Uganda and Malawi.

Propagation The tree canbe grown from seed whichshould be soaked for 12hours in water beforeplanting. Seed can bestored for up to 5 months,but is best kept in the driedwhole fruit. Wild seedlingsor cuttings can also beused. The young trees canbe planted out in dampareas.

Management The tree is fast growing and canbe coppiced or pollarded.

Right : Bulongo mushrooms grow on the rotting wood of Pseudospondias microcarpa.

Uses Wood is soft to moderately hard and grey orgreenish, liable to warp, perishable and liable toborer attack. It is sometimes used for poles andplanks. The bark is used to treat dysentery in Bas-Congo. Tannin is produced in both bark andleaves. The fruits are sweet and edible. Bees visitthe flowers in January and August. Pseudospondias spp. are known to provide bee forage in Gabon.

References FAC 1960, Burkill 1985, FTEA 1986, Lobreau-Callen 1988, Ambougou 1991, Peters et al.1992, Pauwels 1993, Katende et al. 2000, Latham 2002, Nsimundele 2004

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Psidium guineense, another introduced species, is now frequently found growing wild

Psidium guajava (Myrtaceae)

Common names Fulunta, goyavier (Fr.), guava

Description A shrub growing from 1.5 to 4 m high.

Ecology Grows throughoutthe tropics, sometimesbecoming a serious weed.Found from sea level to1,500 m. The plant isadapted to a wide range ofclimate and soil conditions.It can tolerate temporarywater-logging and hightemperatures.

Propagation Select a goodvariety and propagate bymarcot (air layering). Thetree may also be grownfrom suckers, which can beinduced by cutting the root60 - 90 cm from the trunk.

Management Trees come into bearing two years after transplanting and are in full bearing after 8years.

Uses The edible fruits are variable in size and flavour, ranging from sweet to tart. Ripe juicy types areeaten fresh, or the flesh canbe stewed. Guavas contain 2- 5 times the vitamin contentof fresh orange juice and arean important source ofvitamin C. Guavas are also afair source of vitamin A, iron,calcium and phosphorus.The wood is hard and usedfor making tool handles. Atea, made from the leaves,is used to control intestinalworms and to treat colic andfever in Bas-Congo. Eatingunripe guava fruits ordrinking a tea made with theleaves can be effective intreating ordinary diarrhoea.Eating ripe fruit guardsagainst scurvy. It is alsouseful for treating coughs,diabetes, bleeding wounds, open abscesses and following childbirth. The flowers are frequently visitedby honey bees and provide heavy yields of pollen and moderate amounts of nectar. The honeyproduced is light yellow, has a thin viscosity and pleasant flavour. In some countries the leaves are usedfor dyeing and tanning.

References Renier 1948, Purseglove 1968, Ambougou 1991, Bekele-Tesemma et al. 1993, Iwu 1993,Pauwels 1993, Lakshmi & Mohana Rao 1998, Hirt & M’pia 2001, Nsimundele 2004, Pousset 2004

228

l

Photo : Rudy Schippers

Psophocarpus scandens (Fabaceae)

Common names Kikalakasa, African winged bean

Description Aperennial woodyclimber up to 6 mlong. Leavescomposed of 3leaflets, 2.5 – 12 cmlong and 1.8 – 10 cmwide, on a petiole 5– 18 cm long.Flowers are blue,reddish or violet-blue, 1.6 – 2.4 cmlong. Fruits arerectangular in crosssection, winged and3.5 – 8 cm long 1 –2 cm wide containing5 – 8 seeds.

Ecology Occurs in the savanna, and in riverine and gallery forests, onwaste ground and around swamps throughout Central Africa fromCameroon, to Angola and in Tanzania, Mozambique and Mauritius.

Propagation The surface of the seed needs to be scratched orscarified before planting to aid germination. Germination capacity isretained for a long period.

Management Grows well in association with sweet potatoes.

Uses A valuable vegetable. Leaves, pods, sprouts, beans and tubers are all edible. Fresh leaves contain7% protein or 39% when dried.They can be dried, made into aflour and mixed with otherflours; seeds can be roastedand make a good flour very richin protein (33%). Leaves areknown to assist milk productionin nursing mothers. In Ubangifresh leaves are made into apulp and applied as a poulticefor lumbago. Plant sap is usedfor healing sores and, togetherwith Lannea welwitschii, as amouth-wash for infections.

References FAC 1954,Mbemba & Remacle 1992,Burkill 1995, Paulus 1997

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Psorospermum febrifugum flowering in January

Psorospermum febrifugum (Clusiaceae) Common names Kisokosoko (Kikongo), mchakwe (Swahili), Christmas berry

Description A shrub or small tree to 6 m high. Bark is grey to brown, rough and rather corky, flaking or peeling in strips. Leaves opposite, broad oval, 3 – 7 cm long, the lower surface covered with rusty star like hairs. Upper surface is a dark shiny green. Flowers are creamy-white, 6 - 8 mm in diameter and sweet-scented. The stalks are covered with rusty coloured hairs. Fruits are 6 - 10 mm in diameter. Ecology A common and widespread shrub of the savanna found from Guinea to Ethiopia and south to Mozambique. Uses The bark, and particularly the root bark, is crushed, mixed with water or palm oil and rubbed on to treat skin problems e.g. scabies and itching. It is also used to treat sores in domestic rabbits. In East Africa a decoction of the roots and leaves is drunk to cure leprosy. Bees collect nectar from this plant, which can often be found flowering in Bas-Congo. The bark can be used as an insecticide. The fruits are eaten in Tanzania. The wood is used for fuel and to make tool handles. References Kokwaro 1976, Palgrave 1983, Dupriez & De Leener 1993, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1994, Latham 2002, Ruffo et al. 2002

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Psychotria calva (Rubiaceae)

Synonym P. kisantuensis

Common names Kibofula

Description A smooth-stemmed, straggling shrub growing to 3 m high or more.

Ecology Grows beside streams, on the edge of closed forest or in savanna woodland. Found fromSenegal to western Cameroon.

Psychotria calva growing at the edge of woodland near Madimba

Propagation The plant can be grown from seed, collected after it falls.

Uses Leaves are eaten as a vegetable in Bas-Congo. The bark is used as an emetic. A maceration ofthe leaf is rubbed in or drunk to relieve headaches and depression. A root decoction, made up togetherwith roots of Phyllanthus muellerianus and Harrisonia abyssinica, is taken for coughs or whooping coughelsewhere in Africa.

References De Wildeman 1934, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1997, Neuwinger 2000, Nsimundele2004

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Pteridium aquilinum (Dennstaedtiaceae)

Synonym Pteris aquilina

Common names Nteko, matekwa tekwa, biteku, nkungambwa, bracken, eagle fern

Description An erect fern, from 1 to 3 m high, growing from long subterranean rhizomes. The plantreproduces from rhizomes as well as from spores. The stem is thick, rounded and hairy. The compoundleaf is up to 45 cm long, triangular in outline and lobed. Each leaf is about 12 cm long, withapproximately 21 pairs of leaflets.

Ecology A common weed offield crops in the forest zoneoften found in denseconcentrations along theedges of slopes on clay soils.

Uses Young shoots arecooked as a vegetable withonions etc. in Bas-Congo.They are also usedmedicinally to ease chestpain, painful joints, andhaemorrhoids. The rhizomesare consumed by somepeople and constitute animportant food among theMaoris in New Zealand. Theyhave also been used to treattapeworms. Rubber has beenobtained from the plant inUSA. Young growth can begrazed by livestock, if noother food is available, but itis toxic if eaten for more than3 weeks.

Remarks Munsuka (Imbrasiaanthina) and N'teku edible caterpillars feed on the leaves. Pteridium aquilinum subsp. centrali -africanum is the food plant of Nyodes prasinodes edible caterpillar in Katanga.

References Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Uphof 1968, Wild 1972, Arkinstall 1979, Malaisse & Parent1980, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987, Konda et al. 1992, Kibungu Kembelo1995

232

Pycnanthus angolensis (Myristicaceae)

Common names Kilomba, kunda mavondu, faux muscadier (Fr.), false nutmeg, African nutmeg.

Description A treegrowing to 30 m.Branches are bunchedtogether at the top. Theleaves are usually eatenby insects, so are rarelyfound entire.

Ecology Found insecondary forest on claysoils or in valleys inCongo, Angola andTanzania and fromGuinea to Uganda. Thetree is light demanding.

Propagation Seed iscollected from belowthe parent tree and issown in pots aftersoaking in cold waterfor 24 hours.

Uses Timber is uniform, greyish white todull pink, soft and light. It is easy to saw andplane and cut into planks. It polishes andglues well. Widely used in hut construction,for walls, doors and window frames. It canbe split into shingles but they only last forabout 4 years. The timber is liable to beattacked by fungi, borer and termites. The

wood makes good firewood. In Bas-Congo, the sapfrom the bark is used to heal wounds and tostimulate lactation. The twigs, roots, seeds andleaves are also used medicinally. The seeds are animportant source of fat and are extensively used forillumination and soap making. N'lombela ediblecaterpillars, which feed on the leaves, are a specialfood reserved for elders.

Remarks The tree is invasive and fast growing.

References Keay 1989, Pauwels 1993, Katende etal. 2000, Burkill 1997, Nsimundele 2004

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Raphia gentiliana (Arecaceae)

Common names Koko

Uses The leaf stems are used for makingvillage furniture.

Koko flowering at Matolo’s farm nearKasangulu and (below) growing in secondaryforest near Kintudi village

234

The “Bimango” hive designed by acommercial beekeeper from Brazzavilleand made up from Raphia gentiliana leafstems.

A young mechanic with his Izuzu truckmade from Koko palm stems.

235

Raphia sp. (Arecaceae)

Common names Tombe, ba dimatombe

Uses The leaf stems are used to producevillage furniture and the palm is tapped forpalm wine. The heart of the trunk can beeaten in times of scarcity (Personalcommunication – Gracia Matondo).

A bed and cupboard being made up nearMbanza Nzundu by Papa Antoine

Reference Daeleman & Pauwels 1983

236

Rauvolfia vomitoria (Apocynaceae)

Common names Kilungu

Description A shrub or small tree growing from 4 to 6 m high with whorled branches and branchlets.

Ecology Grows in moist lowland forest, tropical savanna and secondary forest. Found from Senegal toSudan and Angola to Tanzania.

Propagation Fruits are collected when ripe and dried. The seed is then sown direct into the field fairlysoon afterwards as it only retains its viability for about a month. The tree can also be grown fromcuttings.

Management Seedlings transplant easily and grow quickly. Trees can be coppiced or pollarded.

Uses An important medicinal tree, the pulverized root bark was traditionally exported from the Congoto treat arterial hypertension. The root yields Reserpine which produces a long sedative reaction. Theroot bark is now used in Bas-Congo to treat insanity and the latex from young leaves for stomach pain.The tree has many other medicinal uses in Africa, for example the root bark is also used to treat dentalcaries or abscesses and the boiled roots and leaves are used to treat worms or as a purgative. Leaves,heated in oil from the seeds of Baillonella toxisperma, is used in Gabon as an ointment to treatrheumatism. Widely planted as an ornamental tree. The wood is white and fine grained but has littleeconomic importance, though it is suitable for firewood. A yellow dye can be produced from the bark.Bees are reported to visit the flowers. Host plant for Dindeengula edible caterpillar.

References Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Keay 1989, Ambougou 1991,Mukoko Matondo 1991, Pauwels 1993, Mbuya et al. 1994, Katende et al. 2000, White & Abernethy1997, Neuwinger 2000, Nsimundele 2004

237

Flowering branch

Ricinodendron heudelotii (Euphorbiaceae)

Common names Kingela, cork wood treeDescription A fast growing treewith a straight trunk up to 50 mtall. Branchlets have a densecovering of brown hair whenyoung. Leaves are compound with3 to 6 leaflets. Fruit is producedafter 7 - 10 years. The tree is deeprooting and can live for 200 years.

Ecology Common in fringing,deciduous and secondary forests intropical Africa. Found from Guineato Angola and from East Africa toSudan. It grows in acid, welldrained soils. Thrives in hot humidclimates but can also withstanddrought. As long as it is notsubjected to heavy competition forlight, it thrives across a range ofsoil, moisture and drainageconditions.

Propagation By seedling, directsown or from cuttings. Wildseedlings can be transplanted andgrow well (see Sunderland et al.1999 who mention that seedsgerminate well on the forest flooreven though they do notgerminate so well in nurseries).Nuts are removed from decayedfruits and sown in shadednurseries. As the shellssurrounding the nuts are very

hard, emergence takes place after many months but after that growth is rapid. Transplant seedlingswhen they reach 0.5 m high. Cuttings can also be used, and these should be about 1 m long. Theyoung plants are often attacked by an unidentified insect.

Management The tree can be pollarded or coppiced and can be grown with other orchard plants(bananas, palms and seasonal crops).

Uses Used for making drums andmortars and planted to attract Mvinsu(Imbrasia epimethea) caterpillars inBas-Congo. The kernels aresometimes eaten after boiling inwater or in a sauce in a similar wayto groundnuts. The nut contains 15 -45% oil and the tree could become amajor source of cooking oil. Wood iswhite and soft, light, buoyant andperishable and is used for coffins,rough planks and drums. The woodash is used as a cooking salt, forsoap making and in the indigoindustry. The bark sap is used totreat diarrhoea, and an infusion ofthe bark is used as an enema.Leaves and shoots produce a highquality sheep and goat fodder with

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Tree with unripe fruit

an average of 16% protein. It has no known toxicity. Minsendi, Mvinsu (Imbrasia epimethea),Mimpemba, Kaba (Lobobunaea phaedusa) and Bisu (Imbrasia petiveri) edible caterpillars feed on theleaves. If Imbrasia epimethea caterpillars are found on a tree planted in a village, they belong to itsowner. It used to be a custom to plant these trees on or near graves in Bas-Congo. Leaves are used aswrapping material and for mulching. Being deep rooting it is useful for erosion control and soil

improvement. Edible mushrooms are commonly produced at the base of the trees. Bees work theflowers in the early morning, probably fornectar.

Remarks To store the nuts they should beremoved from the decayed fruits picked upunder the trees. They are then put into boilingwater for an hour and a quarter in order tosoften the shells. Kernels are removed from thesplit nuts and smoked, after which they willkeep for several years.

References Butaye 1909, De Wildeman 1934,Irvine 1961, Busson 1965, Dupriez & De Leener

1989, Kibungu Kembelo 1995, Anigbogu 1996, Mapongmetsem 1996, Shiembo et al. 1997, Sunderlandet al. 1999, Neuwinger 2000, Latham 2002, Latham 2003, Nsimundele 2004

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Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae)

Common names Mpuluka, ricin (Fr.), castor oil plant

Description A shrub to 3 m high often branching at the base. Leaves are alternate, dark green or redon long leaf stalks. Male and female flowers are borne separately. The fruit is a spiny capsule containing3 seeds.

Ecology Indigenous to the tropics and often cultivated. It can be grown in areas with both high andlow rainfall.

Propagation Seeds remain viable for 2 to 3 years. Even germination is obtained by pouring boilingwater over them and leaving them to soak for 24 hours.

Uses The oil extracted from the seed burns with a clear light. It can be used in insecticides, for woodpreservation and in anti-malarial sprays. Medicinally it is used as a safe purgative and to treat bodyvermin and parasitic skin diseases. The oil is used commercially in paints, varnishes, lubricants, greases,hydraulic fluids, soap, printing ink and various chemicals. After extracting the oil the cake can be usedas a fertilizer. Bees occasionally visit the flowers for nectar.

Warning Keep the seeds away from children. If eaten they produce a lethal toxin.

References Iwu 1993, Burkill 1994, van Wyk et al. 1997

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Rumex usambarensis (Polygonaceae)

Synonym R. maderensis

Common name Oseille Chinoise.

Description A weak shrub, sometimesalmost a climber, with oblong leaves havingpointed tips and outward pointing lobes atthe base. The flowers are carried as acomplex red panicle about 7.5 cm across.

Left : Rumex usambarensis growing in acompound at Teki village near Kisantu

Ecology Common in grassland andwoodlands between 900 and 2400 m in EastAfrica. It is sometimes cultivated and growsbest in soils rich in humus. Found in Centraland southern Africa and introduced into D.R. Congo.

Uses The leaves are eaten raw or as a vegetablein Bas-Congo. Raw stems are chewed for theirsour and salty taste. The stems are roasted andeaten with sugar or salt in Kenya. They should bepeeled or cleaned before eating. In Kenya, theroots are used to treat scabies and in Uganda area source of dye. The fresh leaves, sap and rootsare used medicinally in Africa to treat diabetes,conjunctivitis, pain, colds, coughs, diarrhoea,bilharzia and asthma and to aid digestion.

References Goode 1974, Blundell 1994, Katendeet al. 1999, Maundu 1999, Neuwinger 2000,Nsimundele 2004

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Rungia congoensis (Acanthaceae)

Common names Kinzonzi

Description A small creeping, herbaceous plant growing to 20 cm tall and 30 cm long. Leaves havepetioles 1-3 cm long, and are opposite, hairless and wedge shaped at the base.

Ecology Grows in cool shady sites. Also present in southern Nigeria, Cameroon and Gabon

Uses A spice plant. The dried leaves are ground and mixed with simsim paste and eaten with meat,beans and squash as for Ocimum gratissimum. The plant is also eaten with other vegetables. A relatedspecies R. grandis, also present in Bas-Congo, produces edible young leaves.

References FG 1966, Terra 1966, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983

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Saccharum officinarum (Poaceae)

Common names Munse, mukuku, canne à sucre (Fr.), sugar cane

Ecology Frequently grown in small plots,especially around homes. It requires hightemperatures, fertile, and if possible heavysoils, with a high rainfall. Adequate manuringis required.

Propagation Stem cuttings from immaturecanes, 8 - 12 months old, are used forplanting. The canes should be topped a weekbefore cuttings are taken and only the topthird of the cane used for best production.They should have 3 buds. Space at 1.5 - 1.8m x 60 cm planting at an angle of 45° or flatin the base of a furrow. Planting should bedone early in the rain season.

Management Sugar cane is a perennial crop.The first crop takes 15 - 16 months to mature.After harvest the stumps are left to producetwo to four further crops, each taking about ayear to mature.

Uses Mainly grown for chewing whichpromotes salivation with a cleansing action aswith a chew-stick. The juice is mainlyextracted to prepare malafu, an alcoholicdrink.

Sucrose is extracted for sugar and molassesfor local use or commercial sale. Industrialalcohol is made from molasses and can beused as a motor fuel. Molasses is also used tomake yeast and as a stock food. Under certainconditions the treatment of molasses with ureaconverts sugars into a protein substitute whichcan be eaten by ruminants. The fibrousresidue, bagasse, is used as a stock feed,often with molasses, but can also be used tomake paper, cardboard and fibre board. Beesforage for sap exuding from cut stems andburnt canes.

References Purseglove 1972, Crane et al.1984, Burkill 1994

Right : Extracting juice from small pieces ofcane with a hand-operated press.

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Salacia pynaertii in cleared forest near Kintudi village

Salacia pynaertii (Celastraceae)

Synonym Salacia elegans var. pynaertii

Common names Mbondi

Description A strong-growing creeper from 2 to 40 m long. Leaves are 3.5 – 18 long and 1.5 – 8 cmwide, opposite, with short petioles 2 – 12 mm long. Flowers are yellow to brown 3 – 4 mm in diameter.Fruits are globular, 1.5 – 3 cm in diameter.

Ecology Found in secondary and swamp forest. With the reduction in the length of the forest fallowand possible over-collection this plant has become rare in some areas of Bas-Congo.

Propagation The plant can be grown from cuttings.

Uses Eaten as a vegetable in Bas-Congo. There was an important market for this plant at Kinzala, onthe road to Kimvula. The fresh leaves contain over 3% protein and are usually pounded and cookedwith peanuts (together with caterpillars or mushrooms and local tomatoes) or with pumpkin seeds(together with mushrooms, caterpillars or flying ants). The fruits of this and several other relatedspecies are eaten.

References Adriaens 1951, FAC 1960, Mbemba and Remacle 1992, Peters et al. 1992

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Male flowers

Sapium cornutum (Euphorbiaceae)

Common names Kititi, ntiti, tinti, titi mbwela

Description Shrub or small tree from 1.5 to 12 m high. Leaves 10 – 13 x 4.5 - 6 cm. Male flowers arecatkin like, 3 – 16 cm long, several in each bract. Female flowers are 1 mm. The ribbed fruits turnyellow then red on ripening.

Ecology Commonly found in secondary forest and wooded savanna, especially on sandy soils, in Bas-Congo. Present in closed forest from Sierra Leone to Liberia and from Cameroon to Angola. Sapium sp.prefer well drained soils.

Propagation Can be grown from seed.

Management The tree coppices well.

Right : Maturing fruits

Uses In Bas-Congo a decoction of theleaves is used for coughs and riverblindness. Crushed leaves are applied to insect or snake bites. Host to Ntiti and Kaba (Lobobunaeaphaedusa) edible caterpillars. Bees collect nectar from the male flowers throughout the day.

References Irvine 1961, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Pauwels 1993, Latham 2002

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Sarcocephalus latifolius (Rubiaceae)

Common names Kienga

Description A climbingshrub or small tree 5 - 6 mhigh. Deep rooting.

Ecology Grows best inmedium loamy, acid, welldrained soil. There are twoforms one growing in thesavanna and the other in theforest. The tree is commonthroughout West Africa andacross the Congo basin toUganda.

Right : A rooted cutting at theKavwaya nursery.

Propagation The tree can be grownfrom seed or cuttings but the seedsare even smaller than those ofEucalyptus. When the fruit is ripe itfalls to the ground. Gather themtogether and allow the outer coat todecompose or the fruits can bemashed and floated in a pail of water.The seeds will then separate and sinkto the bottom after which they can becollected and dried. Store in a sealedcontainer in a dry place. Plant within2 months. Before planting immerseseed in hot water, allow it to cool and soak for 24 hours. Wild seedlings can also be transplanted.

Left : Bunaea alcinoe feeding

Uses The wood is suitable for furniture-making and veneers. It is used for makingcharcoal, for firewood and for live stakes forfencing. The bark is an effective wormremedy. The roots are widely used for thetreatment of fevers elsewhere in Africa. Thefruits are edible but not particularly liked.Bees visit the flowers from October toDecember in Bas-Congo. Makedi kedi(Bunaea alcinoe) and Munsona (Platysphinx

sp.) edible caterpillars feed on the leaves.

References Katende et al. 2000, Kibungu Kembelo 1995, Burkill 1997, ICRAF 1998, Latham 2002,Nsimundele 2004

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Schwenkia americana (Solanaceae)

Common names Tumpu di nkombo, nzila nzila

Description A slender, erect, annual herb, woody at the base, much branched and growing from 30 to60 cm tall. Leaves are alternate, the lower leaves being larger with distinct petioles up to 1 cm long.Leaf blades ovate, 4 cm long and 2.5 cm wide with a blunt apex. Upper leaves are small and withoutstalks. The white flowers are borne at the top of the stems.

Ecology Common in waste places and aweed of cultivated land from Senegal towest Cameroon and elsewhere in Africa. It isalso found in tropical America.

Propagation The plant can be grown fromseed.

Uses In Bas-Congo, the root and leaves areused to treat diabetes, protein malnutritionin young children, sciatica, chest pain,gastritis, hernia, rheumatism and asthma.Elsewhere in Africa the plant is used as apurgative and to treat anxiety, colic,constipation, conjunctivitis, convulsions withfever, measles, chicken-pox, oedema andrespiratory diseases in children. Thepounded plant is an effective fish poison.

Warning It is reported that all parts of theplant can cause the destruction of red bloodcells.

References Arkinstall 1979, Akobundu &Agyakwa 1987, Burkill 2000, Neuwinger2000, Kibungu Kembelo 2003

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House roofed with Sclerosperma mannii leaves

Sclerosperma mannii (Arecaceae) Common names Bondo, ba di magangu, mangangu, gangu Description A virtually stemless palm producing suckers and arched leaves up to 5 m long. Ecology The plant grows beside rivers and in damp places. Found from Ghana to Cameroon and in Gabon and Angola.

Propagation Can be grown from suckers split from the parent plant. Uses Leaves are used for roofing houses, matting and for hut walls. The fruits can be eaten after removing the outer coat when young and but become hard with age. They are similar to those of rambutan. Leaf ash is applied to the eyelid to treat itching eye worm. References Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Tereshima et al. 1992, Burkill 1997

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Scoparia dulcis (Scrophulariaceae)

Common names Kyese kyese, balai doux (Fr.), sweet broom weed

Description A tough, erect, leafy, muchbranched, shrubby herb to 90 cm high.The stem is more or less woody, ribbedand hairless. The leaves are opposite, or3 to a node, oval or spear-like, about2.5 - 5 cm long and 1.5 cm wide, theupper half widely toothed and wedgeshaped at the base. The leaf blade has asmooth surface, though the lowersurface has some glandular dots. Theinflorescence is a slender raceme with 1or 2 flowers in the upper leaf axils. Theflowers are white or tinged with blue.The fruit is a round capsule.

Left : Scoparia dulcis growing at the sideof a house in Nsumba village

Ecology Native of central America, nowcommonly found in waste and dampplaces throughout the tropics.

Propagation Can be grown from seed.

Uses A medicinal plant used to treattooth-ache and dental caries. When the plant is chewed the leaf is at first bitter but then becomessweet. It is used when taking other unpleasant tasting medicines. There are numerous other medicinaluses for this plant in Africa (e.g. a decoction of the leaves is taken to treat stomach ulcers, or droppedinto the ears to treat inflammation). The plant is sometimes used as a broom.

Remarks Kyese kyese means joy in Kikongo – probably a reference to the sweet taste of the leaves.

References Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987, Burkill 2000, Neuwinger 2000, Pousset 2004

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Scorodophloeus zenkeri (Caesalpinaceae)

Common names Kiwaya, arbre à ail (Fr.). Kiwaya is also used for Olax gambecola and Hua gabonii.

Description A tree growing from 25 –40 m high and up to 80 cm diameter.The whole tree, but especially the bark,has the smell of garlic, particularly afterrain. Bark in young trees is smooth, paleyellow-grey becoming flaky later. Treesmay have a slightly fluted base. Theleaves are composed of 5 – 10 pairs ofalternate, asymetrical leaflets. Individualleaflets, 3.5 – 4.5 long and 1.3 – 2 cmwide, are sessile and rounded at the top,unequal at the base. Flowers are bornein tight bunches 5 – 8 cm long. The fruitsare small pale-green pods 7.5 – 13.5 x3.5 cm.

Ecology The tree is also present inCameroon, Gabon and in the Congo inMayombe, Kasai, Forestier Central aswell as Bas-Congo provinces. Trees arefound in forests on firm soils, and oftengrow in groups together.

Uses The bark is used as a condiment.The leaves are also edible. In Bas-Congothe bark is used, together withAframomum melegueta, in the treatmentof haemorrhoids. The bark is also usedto treat weight loss and diabetes in

combination with several other plants. Theseeds are used to treat hookworm infection,heavy and prolonged periods. The Mongopeople use the bark, stems, twigs and trunkmedicinally. In Gabon an infusion of the barkis used to treat constipation and powderedbark is used to treat headache.

References De Wildeman 1934, Hulstaert 1966,Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Pauwels 1993, White &Abernethy 1997, Kouokam et al. 2002, Kibungu Kembelo2003

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Sechium edule (Cucurbitaceae)

Common names Christophine or chouchou (Fr.), chayote, vegetable pear

Description A vigorous, climbing, perennial herb with a large tuberous root. The plant may grow 10 -15 m long in one season. Fruit is a one-seeded, fleshy berry, commonly pear-shaped, furrowed, yellow-green and 7 - 20 cm long. Male and female flowers are separate but on the same plant. Fruits exposedto sun are light yellow but in the shade are dark green. A single, white seed is produced.

Ecology Originally from Southern Mexico and Central America but now grown throughout the tropics,though not very popular in Africa. It does best in rich well-drained soils and is not tolerant ofwaterlogging. It is susceptible to drought and high wind. Tolerant to high temperatures, thoughrelatively cool nights appear to promote fruit development. It produces well in light shade.

Propagation A mature fruit is planted to a depth of two thirds of its length in prepared planting holes,with the widest end downwards or on its side. Plant rows at 100 - 120 cm with plants at 60 - 75 cm. Itcan also be grown from stem cuttings 15 - 20 cm long. These must be shaded and kept moist. Plantsrequire supports of poles or a trellis. Tubers do not develop until the second year.

Management First fruits are ready for harvest at 100 - 120 days from planting and the harvestingperiod continues over a long period. Replace plants after 3 years because of disease problems. If tubersare dug up individually the plant will continue to grow and produce more tubers.

Uses Young leaves are used as a vegetable. They are rich in vitamins A and C, the B vitamins, calciumand iron. The immature fruits, young leaves and shoots, and tuberous roots are eaten elsewhere. Fruitsvary in flavour from bland to sweet or starchy. The tuberous roots can be cooked as a staple food. Theyare a good source of easily digestible starch. The flowers are reported to be very attractive to honeybees and are produced throughout the year.

References Tindall 1983, Portugal-Araújo 1974, Crane et al. 1984, Dupriez & De Leener 1989,Siemonsma & Kasem Piluek 1993, Robinson & Decker-Walters 1997, SEPASAL 1999

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Securidaca longepedunculata (Polygalaceae)

Common names Nsunda, nkama nsunda, violet tree

Description An attractive tree from 4 to 5 m tall. Fruits are more or less a round nut, usually veined,occasionally smooth, bearing a single, oblong, rather curved, wing up to 4 cm long. The wing ispurplish-green when young becoming pale, straw-coloured when mature.

Ecology Usually a savanna shrub, but sometimes found in forest. Found most commonly in tropicalAfrica, but present from Sudan to South Africa. Found on sandy or rocky soils.

Propagation Seed should be soaked in cold water for 24 hours. Sow direct. The seed can be stored forlong periods at room temperature if kept dry. Seedlings do not transplant easily. The tree can also begrown from cuttings.

Management The tree is slow growing.

Right : Flower buds on a bush near Kisimba village

Uses The Kikongo name indicates that this planthas a hundred uses. The root is used to treatlaryngitis, sciatica, skin eruptions, painful andheavy periods, painful urination with bleeding,hernias, rheumatism, sinusitis, Parkinson'sdisease and coughing. The pounded root bark isused in Katanga Province and north-westernZambia to induce abortion. The roots are alsothe main ingredients for remedies used in SouthAfrica. Decoctions are taken for chest complaintswhile the roots are chewed for toothache. A hotwater poultice of the roots is reported to give relief from the symptoms of rheumatism. The volatile oilof the roots contains large amounts of methyl salicylate, better known as Wintergreen oil. The youngleaves are eaten in Malawi. Seeds are rich in oil which is used as a snake repellent, being applied tobracelets and anklets. A fibre, obtained from the branches, is of excellent quality, especially that fromthe young annual shoots, and is used for rope making. Poles are resistant to rot and termites. The wood

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is suitable for firewood and charcoal. The flowers are an important source of nectar and pollen inEthiopia.

Remarks There are two varieties in the region var. longepedunculata and var. parvifolia.

Left : Root and branch of Securidacalongepedunculata

Warning Great care should be taken withall medicinal uses of this plant as it can behighly poisonous.

References Irvine 1961, Watt & Breyer-Branwijk 1962, Wild 1972, Williamson 1975,Palgrave 1983, Pauwels 1993, Fichtl & Adi1994, Mbuya et al. 1994, Malaisse 1997, vanWyk et al. 1997, Dery & Otsyina 2001,Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Pousset 2004

Cane rats, called nsisi in Kikongo ornsimbiliki in Lingala, are often huntedor trapped for food. Here two youngtrappers prepare to catch rats at BokoBuansa, near Kavwaya.

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Senna siamea (Caesalpiniaceae)

Synonyms Cassia florida, Cassia siamea

Common name Casse du Siam, Siamese tree senna, Siamese cassia

Description A tree to 18 m high. It commences to flower after 2 - 3 years and flowers throughout theyear.

Ecology From south-eastAsia, but now widely grownin the tropics. Prefers adeep well drained soil, butwill grow in degradedlaterite soils so long asdrainage is good.

Propagation Normally byseed which will remainviable for 2 - 3 years.Remove seed from ripepods on the tree. Freshseed can be sown withoutpre-treatment but must besown in a site with full sun,as the slightest shadereduces germinationconsiderably. Germination isup to 75% after 4 - 29 days.Older seed should be put in

boiling water and allowed to cool. Seedlings grow slowly but are ready for planting out after 5 months.Often seedlings are grown until well established and then cut back to stumps before planting. Youngplants are fire sensitive.

Management Plant out at 1 - 3 m spacing for firewood production and at 25 - 50 cm spacing forwindbreaks. Once established the trees grow fast, even on infertile soils. The tree coppices easily and ingood conditions can yield timber in a 4 -7 year rotation.

Uses Sometimes planted round cattle paddocks in Bas-Congo. Produces a good charcoal but makesrather smoky firewood. Grown as a shade tree along roads, and in coffee and cocoa plantations and asa windbreak. The tree is valuable for reforestation of eroded, infertile soils. Reported to fix nitrogen.The wood is hard, resistant to termites, strong, durable and takes a good polish but is difficult to work.Heartwood makes an attractive timber and is used for cabinet-making. Young trees are used forbuilding-poles etc. An important nectar source for bees in Venezuela and known to be a bee forage inGabon.

Remarks Not suited to agroforestry because of root competition. The seeds, pods and leaves arehighly poisonous to pigs.

References NAS 1980, Little ?, Crane et al 1984, Lobreau-Callen 1988, Mbuya et al 1994, ICRAF 1998

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Senna spectabilis in flower at Mbanza Nzundu in January

Senna spectabilis (Caesalpiniaceae)

Common name Mbwenge mputu, yellow cassia

Description A deciduous tree growing from 3 to 9 m high. It is reported to be easier to raise, lesssusceptible to pests and diseases and more drought resistant than S. siamea.

Ecology Native to tropical America. Often associated with villages or old village sites in Bas-Congo,covering an extensive area and excluding almost everything else. Grows well on deep, moist, sandyloam but will even grow on black cotton soil if not too dry. Recommended for acid soils. It will grow upto an altitude of 2,000 m.

Propagation Use seedlings or sow direct into the field. Pour boiling water over seed and soak for 24hours before planting. Seed can be stored for up to 2 years. Can also be grown easily from cuttings.

Management The tree is fast-growing on good sites and can be coppiced.

Uses The tree is reported to improve soil fertility in Bas-Congo. Leaves are known to provide a nitrogenrich mulch. Often used as a hedge and fire break in the Congo. Provides shade in coffee plantations andis useful as a windbreak. Poles provide firewood and charcoal. The wood is hard, heavy, durable andtermite resistant. It can be used for tool handles. Bees are reported to visit the flowers, though inArgentina, they are said to be poisonous to bees.

References IITA 1978, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1995, ICRAF 1998

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Sesamum orientale (Pedaliaceae)

Common names Wangila, sesame, simsim

Description An annual herb to 1.5 m high. Some varieties have pods which do not shatter on ripening.

Ecology Native to Africa and oftengrown as a cash crop in areas with ashort dry season. It is moderatelydrought resistant when established.Grows up to an altitude of 1,220 m.Fertile loam soils are preferred and itwill not tolerate waterlogging.

Propagation Grown from seedwhich is broadcast on well cultivatedland.

Management The crop normallytakes 3 - 4 months to ripen and is cutwhen the lowest capsules on thestem begin to open and before theplants are fully ripe.

Uses The seed is either eaten as afood or an oil is extracted from it forcooking. The seed is high in calciumand phosphorus and therefore is avaluable food for children. The leavesof this species and of S. alatum andS. radiatum = Wangila matebo, areeaten as a vegetable when youngand used to thicken soup. They arealso used as a remedy for coughsand sore eyes. The ash obtainedfrom burning the stems is usedmedicinally and as a vegetable salt.The plant contains Sesamin, a

substance known to have insecticidal properties. Flowers provide bees with nectar and pollen. Thenectar secretion is higher the day after rain has fallen. The plant is an important honey source andworth cultivating for this purpose.

References Godin & Spensley 1971, Crane et al. 1984, Iwu 1993, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Burkill 1997,Martin et al. 1998

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Sida rhombifolia (Malvaceae)

Common names Kembela, lumvumvu, wireweed, Queensland hemp

Description A variable, erect, short-lived, perennial shrub up to 1.5 m high. Leaves are much largerthan in S. acuta, up to 6 cm long and 2.5 cm wide, with petioles 4 - 5 mm long. Flowers white to paleyellow arising from the axils of the leaves. Fruit is a capsule with 8 - 12 carpels and the beak of eachcapsule is rather shortly bent, not straight and pointed.

Ecology A common plant in the tropics, especially in disturbed land around villages and on roadsides.

Propagation Can be grown from seed.

Uses The whole plant and especially the leaves and roots are used with other plants to treat diarrhoea,bed-wetting, chest pain, contraction of fingers or arms and burns. In West Africa the leaves are widelyused as a healing dressing on sores, ulcers, cuts and lumps. The whole plant is used for makingbrooms. The wood tar obtained when the plant is burnt, as for charcoal, can be used as a black dye.The fibre extracted from the stem is of good quality, soft, lustrous and of even texture. It can be eitherspun with silk or used as a substitute for jute. Bees collect nectar and pollen in March in Bas-Congo.

References Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987, Blundell 1987, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Burkill 1997, Latham 2002,Kibungu Kembelo 2003

A group of charcoal makers at Kavwaya.The charcoal makers have become treeplanters, growing mainly fast-growingindigenous trees in their food crop farmsto re-establish the forest fallow once thecrops have been harvested.

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Solanecio angulatus (Asteraceae)

Synonym Crassocephalum bojeri

Common names Lulaka lu ngombi, ngondi longo, kimandi susu

Description A creeper which grows up to 3 m long.

Ecology A weed of cultivation. Edible species of Solanecio and Crassocephalum are wild or occasionallycultivated plants. They grow well in shade in contrast to almost all other leafy vegetables. C. crepidoidesis found particularly in wetter regions.

Uses Leaves of S. angulatus, C. bumbense and C. vitellinum are coarsely cut and cooked as a vegetablein R.D. Congo. Whole young plants and the semi-succulent leaves of C. crepidoides are slimy and areeaten as a vegetable and in soups and sauces, as is C. rubens elsewhere. Bees collect pollen and nectarfrom this and other speciesof Crassocephalum whereplentiful and because of thelong flowering period it isprobably useful for buildingup the strength of coloniesand producing honey.

Bunguni - an edible speciesof Crassocephalum

References Goode 1974,Grubben 1977, Burkill 1985,Dupriez & De Leener 1989,Stevels 1990, Konda et al.1992, Peters et al. 1992,Fichtl & Adi 1994, Schippers2002

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Binsukula growing at Ladi

Solanum aethiopicum (Solanaceae)

Common names Binsukula, biwansi (Gilogroup) and kinsumba or musoso, (bilolo inLingala)(Shum or Nakati group), tomateamère (Fr.) garden egg or scarlet eggplant

Description A perennial or annual herb, upto 2 m tall, often much-branched. Fruits ofBinsukula are usually borne in clusters of from1 to 3 with fruit size ranging from 2 - 8 cm,white to green when immature, turningorange to red when ripe. There are threevarieties present in Bas-Congo with long,short, plum-shaped or round fruits. Kinsumbahas small fruits, borne either singly or inclusters. There is a large fruited variety (30mm diameter) - both leaves and fruit of whichare eaten and a small fruited variety (20 mmdiameter) of which only the leaves are eaten.

Left : Kinsumba growing in a valley garden atKavwaya

Ecology Widely cultivated in Bas-Congousually in valleys in the dry season. Soilsshould be fertile, deep and well drained.Compost should be used if available.

Propagation Sow seeds in a nursery andtransplant after about 5 weeks. Plant out at 90x 90 cm.

Management Thecrop should bemulched if grownduring the dry season.Bees are important forpollination.

Uses Both the leavesand fruits of somevarieties of Kinsumbaare eaten. With othersonly the leaves areeaten. Protein contentof fresh leaves is justover 4%. They are agood source ofvitamins. The boiledleaves can be dried andpowdered for later usein sauces andgroundnut stews. Onlythe fruits of Binsukulaare eaten. They aredried in the sun andground to powder to beused in soups or used as a medicine for high blood pressure.

References Mbemba & Remacle 1992, Schippers 2002

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Solanum macrocarpon (Solanaceae)

Common names Nkeka, faussetomate (Fr.), Gboma eggplant

Description A perennial branchedherb to 150 cm.

Ecology Cultivated especially inWest Africa but also grown in manytropical areas. The plant is fairlydrought resistant and requires fullsun and well manured soil.

Propagation Collect seed from fullyripe fruit and ferment this in waterfor 24 - 36 hours. Wash and dry theseed. Plant in nursery beds and thentransplant when 6 - 8 cm high andspace 50 - 50 cm both ways. Goodsoil fertility is important.

Management Harvesting of theleaves starts 1 week after the flowersappear. The whole shoot includingthe terminal bud is picked. Frequent

harvesting keeps the plants low growing. Choose varieties which shoot again quickly for best yields.

Uses Both leaf and fruit are eaten. Fruit is used as a meat substitute in Bas-Congo. It is an importantmarket vegetable in West Africa. The fruits are sold in the Ivory Coast and Ghana, but the youngleaves, particularly from dark varieties, are much appreciated and more widely used in other areas.They can be harvested over a long period. Fruits can be eaten raw but are more frequently cooked orfried. The leaves are added to soups and sauces; the flowers are also edible. The leaves are rich incalcium. However leaves should not be eaten too often, especially the bitter varieties, and should becooked well. The water in which the leaves are cooked should be discarded. Host plant of Munsonasona (Acherontia atropus) Death’s Head hawkmoth, which, though the caterpillar is edible, is a pest tobeekeepers.

Right: Mature fruit is cut in pieces and dried forabout a week. It can then be soaked in waterand cooked as a vegetable.

References Grubben 1977, Tindall 1983,Schippers 2002, Latham 2003

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Solanum melongena (Solanaceae)

Synonym S. esculentum

Common names Mbolongu, aubergine (Fr.), eggplant

Description A short lived perennial herb with a branching habit, 0.5 - 1.5 m high. It has a deep-growing, vigorous tap-root. The plant is normally grown as an annual.

Aubergine growing in a valley garden

Ecology Probably originated in India. Cultivated throughout the tropics. Requires well drained,preferably sandy soils, but with good moisture retaining properties. Soils should be deeply cultivatedbeforehand. Mulching is beneficial. Excess rainfall checks growth and flower production. The plant canbe grown up to an altitude of 1,200 m.

Propagation Seeds are often soaked in water for 24 hours before planting. Sow in a shaded, shelteredseed-bed and transplant when 8 - 10 cm high. Plant out at 50 - 60 x 50 - 60 cm.

Management Terminal shoots can be removed when the plants are established to encourage lateralbranching. Support may be needed for some plants.

Uses Mature and immature fruits are eaten after slicing and frying or roasting.

Reference Tindall 1983

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Solanum scabrum (Solanaceae)

Synonym S. guineense, S. melanocerasum

Common names Kinsumba

Description A woody herb with strong green or purple stems and more-or-less toothed wings. Plantsare usually about 60 cm high but can grow to 120 cm or more. There are both small and large leavedcultivars with different leaf shapes and the leaf colour can be either green or dark-purple. It is also theonly species whose berries remain on the plant at maturity. The dark purple fruits have a distinct bloomwhen young and become glossy when they get older.

Ecology Occasionally grown in Bas-Congo. It is by far the most common species in West Africa andmany different varieties can be seen, often of local importance only. It is cultivated in several locationsin Africa’s humid highlands and somewhat less in its lowlands. It is mainly found in the high rainfallareas and especially at medium and higher altitudes.

Propagation Grown from seed or cuttings. Seed can be sown either direct or in a nursery andtransplanted. Manure or ashes should be added to the soil for good germination.

Uses Leaves and shoots are cooked and eaten as a vegetable. Dried leaves can be stored and added tosoup. If dried in the shade nutrient loss will be minimal. The fruits are sometimes eaten or can be madeinto jam.

References Martin et al. 1998, Burkill 2000, Schippers 2002

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Spondias mombin (Anacardiaceae)

Common names Mungyenge, hog plum

Description The tree can grow to 25 min Bas-Congo. Flowering occurs duringthe dry season. Fruiting starts afterabout 5 years though cuttings mayproduce earlier. The tree has a bushyhabit on drier sites.

Ecology Originally from Central Americabut now grows from Senegal to Angola.It is also present in the West Indies. Thetree is often found on the sites of oldvillages in the west of D. R. Congo. Itdoes well in a great variety of soils,including shallow sands, gravel andheavy clay, but grows best on rich,moist, relatively heavy soils.

Propagation Ripe fruits are collectedfrom the ground, but this must be doneas soon as they fall before they rot orare eaten by animals. Seed normallygerminates well after 35 - 75 days.Cuttings, 50 - 70 cm long, grow moreeasily and produce fruit earlier. Theyshould be taken from wood of the

previous season or earlier. Plant to a depth of 30 cm intheir final position. Best varieties are multiplied bybudding. When grown as a hedge 1.5 – 2 m long stakescan be used for planting.

Management Plant at 7.5 – 9 m each way. Growth canbe fast in fertile soils reaching 7 m in less than 5 years.Large trees can produce 100 kg fruit per year. Insectlarvae may attack fruits.

Uses The fruits can be eaten fresh, dried or boiled andare also used commercially in syrups, ice creams and jellies. They have an acid taste, though theflavour varies considerably. A drink can be made from the fresh juice which, however becomes less acid

if kept overnight. The fruitis high in vitamins A and C.The seeds are also edible.The leaves can be used as afodder for cattle and thefallen fruits are eaten bypigs. The tree makes a goodshade tree. It can be grownas a fence and the stakesare used for yam poles. Theflowers are a honey sourcein Gabon and CentralAmerica. Wood is white togrey and mainly used forfirewood. It is attacked bytermites. Poles are used forhouse posts and branchesfor tool handles. Wood ashis used in the indigoindustry. Plant extracts have

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Spondias cytherea bearing fruit in January

antibacterial properties. In Bas-Congo adecoction of the leaves is used to treatrheumatism. Crushed and soaked in waterthe leaves are also used to treat asthma.The plant is widely used medicinallyelsewhere in Africa.

Remarks There is a large variation in fruittype, therefore select those that are sweetand that have a large proportion of flesh. Arelated species S. cytherea (Manga zinsende) is cultivated around Kisantu. Thefruits have a soft fibrous flesh and are besteaten while still fresh and firm.

Left : Spondias mombin stakes planted as ahedge around a house.

References Irvine 1961, Martin & Ruberté1975, FAO 1982, Crane et al. 1984, Burkill1985, Aumeeruddy & Pinglo 1988, Lobreau-Callen 1988, Dupriez & De Leener 1989,Keay 1989, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Pauwels1993, ICRAF 1998, Burkill 2000

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Steganotaenia araliacea (Apiaceae)

Common names Mvumbi mvumbi, lumvumbi vumbi, pop-gun tree, carrot tree

Description A shrub or small treefrom 5 to 8 m high. The trunk iscrooked and the branches arestout. Bark is thick and corky.Leaves are borne on a commonstalk, 15 - 40 cm long, which isswollen at the base and claspingthe stem. The leaves are crowdedat the end of the branches, eachhaving 5 - 9 leaflets. The whiteflowers are produced in compoundheads before the leaves appear.

Ecology Found in woody savannathroughout tropical Africa,especially at low altitudes and onrocky outcrops.

Propagation Wild seedlings orcuttings are used for propagation.Seeds are difficult to collect.

Management The tree is fast-growing and can be coppiced and

pollarded.

Uses In Bas-Congo, leaves, shootsand roots are used for post-natalpain in the lower abdomen, forinflammation of the ovaries,infection of the uterus, and forsores and hernias. A branch is putunder the pillow to stop onedreaming about death. Wood is softand brittle and mainly used forfirewood, carving and farm tools.The whole plant is aromatic,resembling fennel or carrot, and isused to perfume garments. Theplant is known to be stronglyemetic. The roots are used torelieve sore throats, asthma andinfertility in southern Africa. Beesare reported to collect pollen andnectar in Ethiopia. Children use thehollowed-out stems as pea-shooters.

References Wild 1972, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Palgrave 1983, Keay 1989, Pauwels 1993, Bentje1994, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Katende et al. 2000, Burkill 2000, Neuwinger 2000, van Wyk & Gericke 2000,Kibungu Kembelo 2003

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Sterculia tragacantha (Sterculiaceae)

Common names Nkondo mfinda, African tragacanth, parasol tree

Description A shrub 5 - 6 m high or a tree to 25 m high. The trunk is sometimes buttressed and has along cylindrical bole, unbranched until near the top.

Shoot from a stake planted in a hedge in Manianga district.

Young shoots have dense star-shaped hairs. Bark is corky and deeply fissured into diamond-shapedpatterns. Leaves are simple, alternate and variable, 15 - 20 cm long, smooth and shiny above buthaving yellow-red hairs below. Flowers are produced in loose red-purple pink heads on stalks 15 - 20cm long. Fruits are borne in groups of woody, yellow-brown, hairy pods exposing 8 grey-blue seeds.

Ecology Found in dense, moist forests, gallery forests and bush fallows. Widespread in tropical Africa,from Guinea to Angola and in Zambia and Tanzania.

Propagation The seeds can be collected and stored for several weeks. The tree can also be grownfrom large cuttings.

Management The tree regenerates easily after being cut down.

Uses The timber is used for house-building, poles, stools and fences. The bark yields a gum which isused by blacksmiths in smelting iron and for repairing utensils. The young leaves are eaten in Ghanaand in Katanga province. Seeds are roasted and eaten whole like peanuts or roasted, pounded andcooked with vegetables such as peas or pumpkins in Tanzania. Fibre from the bark of the trunk andbranches can be used for rope. Bark from the young shoots is used for making cloth in Gabon. Theplant is used medicinally in Africa. The bark and leaves are used to treat coughs and colds, gonorrhea,fever, tapeworms, ulcers, whitlows and snake-bite. The leaves are used to ease childbirth and adecoction of the bark as an emetic and expectorant. Reported to be a bee forage in Manianga district,Bas-Congo and in Gabon.

References Dalziel 1937, Irvine 1961, Ambougou 1991, Pauwels 1993, Malaisse 1997, Burklill 2000,Neuwinger 2000, Ruffo et al. 2002

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Strychnos pungens in flower

Strychnos cocculoides (Strychnaceae)

Common names Kala nkonki, nkonki, bush orange, monkey orange

Description Shrub or small tree to 6 m, branching low down. Twigs and branches have curved spines.Bark is pale grey-brown, thick, corky with deep vertical fissures. Flowers are small and greenish-white.The round fruits, 5 – 12 cm in diameter, are edible (resembling an orange in shape and size), brown ororange, with a tough skin and sweet-tasting pulp.

Ecology Found from Gabon to Transvaal,South Africa in savanna and open forests,throughout the drier parts of Central andSouthern Africa, especially on rocky hillsfrom 0 – 2,000 m altitude.

Propagation The tree can be grown fromseed or root suckers. Seeds are squeezedout of the pulp and then put in water. Theempty seeds and pulp float and can beskimmed off. The seeds should be driedand remain viable for 6 months. Soak incold water for 24 hours to hastengermination. Germination of seed is goodbut slow, reaching 75% after 8 weeks.Root suckers are produced when the rootis damaged.

Management Slow growing. The treecoppices well. Trees are often left in cultivatedland for their fruit.

Uses The fruit pulp is edible and is also usedto prepare a non-alcoholic sweet-sour drink.Bees collect nectar from the flowers of thisand other species of Strychnos in Bas-Congo.Timber is used for firewood and buildingpoles. The wood is white, pliable and toughand is suitable for tool handles. The fruit isused to make a dye, which also providesprotection from insects. The tree is sometimesplanted to form a boundary around home

compounds and as a barrier or support. The bark,leaves, roots and fruit are used medicinally. Thepounded roots are used as a fish poison.

Left : The fruit is bitter until quite ripe

Remarks Strychnos pungens (Nbumi), S. spinosa(Nbumi or Kala nkonki) and S. variabilis are alsopresent in the area.

References Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Wild 1972, Kokwaro 1976, FAO 1983, Pauwels 1993,Beentje 1994, Mbuya et al. 1994, Malaisse 1997, ICRAF 1998, Msanga 1998, Nsimundele 2004

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Stylosanthes guianensis var. pauciflora (Fabaceae)

Common names Stylo, Brazilian lucerne

Description A perennial, erect or sub-erect branching herb from 30 - 120 cm high which becomeswoody with age. Leaves have 3 hairless or slightly hairy oval leaflets, 0.5 to 4 cm long and 0.2 - 1.5 cmwide. Flowers are reddish to orange-yellow in compact groups of up to 40 flowers each. The one-seeded pods are flat, light brown, ending in a tiny spiral beak. The seeds are yellowish brown. The tap-root is vigorous extending to 1 m.

Ecology Originally from South and Central America and introduced into Central Africa around 1947. Theplant withstands drought and temporary waterlogging and should be grown in full sunlight. It preferscoarse-textured soils and will grow in highly acid conditions.

Propagation Seed should be put inboiling water for 10 seconds, preferablyinoculated, broadcast at 3 - 5 kg/haand then lightly raked in. It can begrown with grass or maize in alternaterows but should be sown beforehand asit germinates slowly. Stylo has beenproved to be the best legume toestablish in Imperata infested land.First burn the Imperata and thenscatter seed and superphosphate, ifavailable, over the area. Alternativelythe seed is fed to cattle which are thenallowed to graze young Imperataregrowth while it is palatable, as forexample after burning.

Uses It is a good forage crop with 12 -18% crude protein but sometimes mayhave poor palatability. Bees collect pollen and nectar at the end of the rain season.

Remarks Use cultivars which are resistant to anthracnose disease (C. gloeosporioides).

References Bogdan 1977, Skerman 1977, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Raemaekers 2001

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Symphonia globulifera (Clusiaceae)

Common names Kisongi, nsongi, hog gum tree, doctor's gum, Karamanni wax

Description The tree is very conspicuous in flower. The short horizontal branches, at the top of thetree, are crowded along their whole length with numerous flowers looking like red berries clustered atthe ends of upright shoots.

Ecology Grows beside rivers and in swampy locations in the rain forest from Guinea-Bissau and SierraLeone to western Cameroon and south to Tanzania and Angola. Also widely dispersed in south andcentral tropical America.

Propagation Collect the seed from the ground, immerse in hot water and allow to cool and soakovernight before planting. Sow the seed direct on site, or transplant wild seedlings or sow seed in pots.The seed loses viability quickly. Seedlings develop a long tap-root and are therefore not particularlyeasy to transplant.

Management The tree can be grown as a pure stand, without other species, to protect water sources,swamps and river banks. It can be lopped or pollarded.

Uses The wood is a substitute for mahogany and used to make furniture, boats, house-hold utensilsand paddles. It is resistant to insect and fungal attack. The bark contains a yellow resin which isstrongly adhesive and water resistant called Karamanni wax. This is used for joining wood, caulkingboats, attaching knives to handles and patching calabashes etc. It is also used to protect the feetagainst jiggers. The fruit pulp is used to control intestinal worms in Bas-Congo. The bark is used to treatcoughs in children. The tree is often debarked for medicine, and is therefore becoming scarce. Nsongiedible caterpillars (Rhypopteryx poecilanthes) feed on the leaves and the flowers are reported to bevisited by bees.

Remarks A Kikongo proverb states Kisoongi go kifudidi bituuntu, kisiwu kikyeele = When the kisongiflowers it indicates the start of the dry season.

References Irvine 1961, Uphof 1968, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Keay 1989, Burkill 1994, Katende etal. 2000, Latham 2003, Nsimundele 2004

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A blacksmith with some of the tools he makes for farmers

Synedrella nodiflora (Asteraceae)

Common names Madya manlumba (= rabbit’s food), nodeweed, starwort, synedrella

Description A straggling semi-woody annual herb normally growing to 50 cm high, but may reach 1 m,from a fibrous rootstock. Not aromatic when crushed.

Ecology A common weed, found infarmland, waste places and roadsides. Itgrows throughout the tropics.

Management It is difficult to remove,once established, and even bluntsslashing knives.

Uses Livestock, especially rabbits, eatthe leaves and in Indonesia the youngleaves are also eaten as a vegetable. Adecoction of the leaves is taken as alaxative, to treat heart problems.Various parts are used to treatconjunctivitis, diarrhoea, wounds,oedema, leprosy, hypermenorrhea,ulcers, cicatrization, coughing, eartroubles, mouth diseases and stomachcomplaints. Eating the leaves prior todelivery is reported to ease childbirth,especially for a first-born child.

References Abbiw 1980, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985, Akobundu & 1987, Neuwinger 2000,Konda ku Mbuta (personal communication)

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Nkulu cocoon

Syzygium guineense subsp. guineense (Myrtaceae)

Common names Kikulu, nkulu, waterberry

Description A tree or shrub growing to 20 m high. The bark is smooth when young but becomes blackand rough with age. A red watery sap is produced when cut. Young leaves are reddish-purple butmature leaves are green. The white flowers have a honey-sweet smell attracting many insects. Fruitsare 8 - 12 mm in diameter.

Tree in flower in February near Luzumu

Ecology The tree is widespread in tropical Africa, preferring water courses and swampy areas, but italso grows in well drained soils.

Propagation The tree can be grown from seed. Ripe fruits are pickedor collected from the ground and then soaked in water for 6 hours.Seeds are squeezed out and must be sown immediately. Germination isgood and very fast. Sowing into pots is recommended. The tree alsoproduces suckers which may be transplanted.

Management The tree can be coppiced and pollarded.

Uses Bees collect nectar from the flowers of both species of Syzygiumguineense and from S. jambos (Pommier-rose). The wood is used forfirewood, charcoal and timber (both for furniture and generalconstruction), poles, posts, tool handles and carving. The timber is red,hard and strong and though easily worked and very durable, is liable tosplit. Very ripe fruits are edible and are picked from the tree or collectedfrom the ground. The bark is used for tanning and for making a blackdye. The bark, roots and leaves are used medicinally. It is the foodplant for Nkulu (Mfinda) (see also page 164) and Bubuta ediblecaterpillars in Bas-Congo.

References Irvine 1961, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Portugal-Araújo 1974, FAO 1983, Lobreau-Callen 1988, Pauwels 1993, Beentje1994, Mbuya et al. 1994, Katende et al. 2000, Kibungu Kembelo 1995, ICRAF 1998

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Syzygium guineense flowering in Augusti fl i

Syzygium guineense subsp. macrocarpum (Myrtaceae)

Common names NkisuDescription Normally found as asmall tree or shrub. The maindifference between this species andsubsp. guineense is the large fruits,12 - 30 mm in diameter, which turnpurple when ripe. The leaves areborne on stalks, which may be upto 3.8 cm long.

Ripe fruit is produced in November.Photo taken near Kasangulu

Ecology Widespread in tropicalAfrica. A tree or shrub of thesavanna regions subject to annualfires.

Propagation As for S. guineensesubsp. guineense.

Uses The fruit is edible and hasa good taste. The flowers arereported to be visited by beesand the tree is known as a beeforage in Gabon and the centralhighlands of Angola. Host plantof Bubuta and Nkulu (Nseke)edible caterpillars in Bas-Congoand of Lobobunaea saturnusand Gonimbrasia richelmanniedible caterpillars in Katanga. InBas-Congo the fruits aresometimes fed to edible fruitbats when transporting them tomarket.

References Portugal-Araújo1974, Malaisse & Parent 1980,Lobreau-Callen 1988, Keay1989, Pauwels 1993, KibunguKembelo 1995

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Syzygium jambos (Myrtaceae)

Common names Pommier-rose (Fr.)

Description A shrub or small tree from 7.5 to 10 m tall. The white juicy, aromatic flesh is low in acid,sweet and crisp when ripe.

Ecology Native to the Indo-Malaysian region. Grows well on most soils so long as they are notwaterlogged. Young plants need shade and a moist environment. Established trees are hardy but notvery drought resistant.

Propagation The tree grows easily from seed, providing these are fresh. It can also be grown fromlayers or cuttings. Roots appear after 6 months on layered trees and these come into bearing after 3 - 5years compared with 3 - 7 years for trees grown from seed.

Management The fruit does not store welland bruises easily when transported.

Uses The tree makes a good hedge plant.The rose-scented fruits can be eaten raw butare best cooked. They have a high pectincontent and can be mixed with other morestrongly flavoured fruit to make jam. Theflowers provide good bee forage capable ofgiving high yields of amber coloured honeywith a mild taste. The leaves can be eaten bylivestock. The wood is hard but not durablein the ground and is readily attacked bytermites. However it produces good charcoaland firewood.

References Irvine 1961, FAO 1982, Crane et al 1984, Garner & Chaudhri 1988, Veheij & Coronel 1991,Nakasone & Paull 1998

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Syzygium malaccense (Myrtaceae)

Common names Mazenya, pommier deMalaisie (Fr.), Malay apple

Description Trees grow from 6 to 8 mtall. Stamens are numerous and onfalling form a red carpet below the tree.Fruits are white at first, turning red whenmature, 5 - 7 cm long and 3 - 5 cm wide.The skin is thin and covers a white,sweet, juicy flesh, with a scent of roseand apple. Flowers and fruits are oftenproduced throughout the year.

Left : Syzygium malaccense in acompound at Kasangulu

Ecology Originally from Malaysia.Frequently grown in villages in Bas-Congo. It does not tolerate long periodsof drought or large temperaturefluctuations.

Propagation Easily grown from seed.Best results are obtained by budding onto seedling stock. Space at 8 - 10 m.

Uses The tree is mainly grown for its fruit, but it alsomakes a good shade and ornamental tree. The fruit can beeaten raw, cooked or made into preserves. Heartwood ishard, heavy and difficult to work but is used for furniture. Itmakes a good charcoal. Bees are very much attracted tothe flowers.

Remarks Trees are often attacked by termites.

References FAO 1982, Pauwels 1993

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Photo :Luc Pauwels

Talinum fruticosum (Portulacaceae)

Synonym T. triangulare

Common names Sansa banzenza, guele guele, lipopi (Lingala), grassé (Fr.), waterleaf

Description A perennial herb, 30 - 60 cm. tall, erect or semi-prostrate.

Ecology A common weedthroughout the tropics. Moist,humid conditions encourageoptimum growth anddevelopment. The plant growswell in shade or in cloudyweather. It prefers a welldrained fertile soil but willgrow on infertile soils too.Grows wild in open groundand in forest clearings, but isalso occasionally cultivated.

Propagation Easily grownfrom 10 cm long cuttingswhich are normally planted inthe dry season and should beshaded until established. Thelowest pair of leaves shouldbe removed. Seed can also beused. It is mixed with sandand sown in a well prepared

nursery bed. The seedlings are transplanted when 5 - 8 cm high and spaced at 15 x 15 cm. Watering isrequired daily in the first week.

Management The plant takes 21 - 45 days from sowing to harvest. Harvesting can continue at 1 - 2week intervals for 2 months. Cut the stem just above ground level. Flowers need not be pinched out.The plant has little problem from pests or diseases, though it is an eelworm host.

Uses A leaf vegetable frequently sold in markets. It is cooked as a vegetable, used in soups and saucesand sometimes eaten raw. It is slippery and rich in protein and mineral salts. The plant is often driedout before cooking. Blanching or cooking in plenty of water removes nearly half the soluble oxalic acidcontent, which can otherwise cause stones in the urinary tract. Discard the water before use. The freshleaves have a protein content of 1.9%. The plant also contains Hydrocyanic acid and should only beeaten in small quantities. It is used in the Congo as a laxative. It is also used elsewhere as a fish poison.

References Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Tindall 1983, Dupriez & De Leener 1989, Mbemba &Remacle 1992, Burkill 1997, Martin et al. 1998, Schippers 2002, Nsimundele 2004

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Tephrosia vogelii (Fabaceae)

Common names Bwalu, mbaka, fish poison bean

Description A much branched shrub to4 m. The plant fixes nitrogen and doesnot need prior inoculation. Theconcentration of the poison, Rotenone,varies with individual plants.

Ecology Found throughout tropicalAfrica. It occurs in forest fallow andsecondary forest but is often planted invillages around fields, among bananasand in swampy areas. It is well adaptedto sandy soils.

Propagation Can be grown from freshseed planted direct into the field. Thegermination rate can be up to 80% afterone week. Stored seed should be soakedin hot water before planting.

Management The plant coppices easily.

Uses The pounded leaves are used as afish poison to stupefy fish, which thenremain edible. The plant producesabundant leaf litter having a highnitrogen content. In Zambia the plant isgrown for three years as a fallow cropand results in greatly improved cropyields. In Malawi even after a one yearfallow maize yields were increased by20%. After a two year fallow this rises to

40% (Personal communication - Stephen Carr 2005). In Kenya a 6 month fallow of Tephrosia vogeliiaccumulated high amounts of nitrogen, potash and calcium. Another study in western Kenya found thatsoil erosion was also much reduced under a Tephrosia fallow. The leaves as well as the seeds areeffective as an insecticide against aphids, thrips and stalk borer in maize. 100 g leaves are beaten to apulp and then soaked in 1 litre of water together with 100 g soap. The mixture is left to stand for oneday. The liquid is then strained off and a small amount shaken down the funnel of the maize plant froma stick or sponge when the plant reaches knee height. The application is repeated every 7 - 10 days.The powdered plant material has been found up to 87.5% effective in repelling maize weevil (Sitophiluszeamais) in stored maize. The liquid can also be used to control fleas and mites in the hair and ticks ondogs. Dried leaf powder is also used against ticks. The stems can be used for staking beans and yams,and for firewood. The whole plant can be used as a broom. The leaves are used medicinally.

References Renier 1948, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Allen & Allen 1981, Egli & Kalinganire 1988,Mukoko Matondo 1991, ICRAF 1998, Msanga 1998, Pauwels 1993, Rutunga et al. 1999, Boye & Albrecht2000, Stoll 2002, Ogendo et al. 2003, Nsimundele 2004, Pousset 2004.

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Terminalia catappa (Combretaceae)

Common names Madamé (Lingala), Badamier (Fr.), Indian almond

Description A fast growing deciduous tree, up to 30 m high, having horizontal branches produced indefinite layers. Leaves are large and fall at the end of the rain season. The extensive root system bindsand stabilizes poor, loose soils.

Ecology Grows throughoutWest Africa in the higherrainfall areas. It also toleratessome drought. Often plantedas a shade tree in villages inBas-Congo.

Propagation is by seed.Germination is good but cantake 2 months. Soak seeds for24 hours before planting.Seed retains viability for onlya few months.

Management The tree ismedium to fast growing andcan be pollarded but notcoppiced. Older trees do notsprout easily if cut down toolow.

Uses The seed kernel yieldsbetween 50 - 60% of anedible oil similar to groundnutoil. Though good to eat, thekernel is however difficult toseparate from the hard seedcoat. The flesh of the fruit isalso edible but often fibrous

and not very tasty. A valuable source of firewood in the humid tropics and a good shade tree. Bothleaf and bark yield a black dye. Wood is moderately heavy and strong and used for boat- and house-building and making boxes and plywood. It is very susceptible to attack by termites.

References Burkill 1985, Mbuya et al. 1994, ICRAF 1998

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Terminalia superba (Combretaceae)

Common names Ndimba, limba (commercialname)

Description A tree which grows from 30 to 40m high with a long straight trunk and aspreading open crown. The winged fruits aredistinctive.

Ecology Grows in secondary forest, savannawoodland and farm land where rainfall exceeds1,500 mm and the soil is not waterlogged andcan sometimes be found growing in groupstogether. Local variations affect growth rate. Itgrows best in full sunlight.

Propagation The tree is usually grown fromseed which germinates in from 2 - 3 weeks. Nopre-treatment is required. The seedlings are cutback to stumps after 15 months andtransplanted into the field. They are alsoplanted extensively in lines through scrub orunder very light canopy. Seedling regenerationis good on cleared land. The tree produceslarge amounts of seed and seedlings spring upfreely on abandoned farm land.

Management Trees can grow to 5 m in thesecond year on good soil and compare well with

fast-growing conifers. The tree coppices well.

Uses Timber is light yellowish-brown, strong,medium hard, and splits and works easily. It is usedfor shingles, paddles, door frames, coffins, canoes,boxes and bowls but is not resistant to decay,termites or borers. If a filler is used it is easy tostain and polish. Glues easily but splits when nailed.It makes a good fuel wood. A yellow dye can beobtained from the bark. Bisu (Imbrasia petiveri)and Minsendi edible caterpillars feed on the leaves.

Right : Seedling in a farmer’s treenursery at Sona Bata

Remarks Both sapwood and heart wood areattacked by beetles.

References Leloup 1956, Irvine 1961, Uphof 1968, Burkill 1985, Keay 1989, Pauwels 1993, KibunguKembelo 1995

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Tetrorchidium didymostemon (Euphorbiaceae)

Synonyms T. minus

Common names Nsusa, arbre à savon du Gabon

Description Tree or shrub from 4 to 25 m high with zig-zag branchlets and yellowish-green, glossy,hairless leaves. The slender yellow male flowers are distinctive. Each has 3 conspicuous yellow stamenshaving very characteristic anthers each with 4 lobes giving the effect of 12 minute beads packed in ashallow cup 1 mm across. Abundant white latex is produced when the bark is cut.

Ecology Common in secondary forests from Senegal to Tanzania, and south to Angola.

Uses The leaves are reportedto be eaten as a vegetable inBas-Congo. The leaves are usedto treat swelling, particularly inthe legs. The juice from theleaves is taken for stomachpain. Latex is used to treatthread-worms and leprosy.Poles are used for house-building. Bark is beaten andused as a soap substitute inGabon. Twigs are used aschew-sticks and also sucked forthe sweet sap in the bark. Thebark and leaf sap, twigs, rootbark, pulverised bark, and theash from burnt roots is used totreat oedema, coughing fits,abscesses, boils, rheumatism and muscular pain, measles, colic, genito-urinary infections andconstipation in children. The sap acts as a strong purgative.

References Keay 1989, Peters et al. 1992, Burkill 1994, Pauwels 1993, Neuwinger 2000, Nsimundele2004

279

The whole family help with the peanut harvest at Boko Buansa

Theobroma cacao (Sterculiaceae)

Common names Cacaoyer (Fr.), cocoa

Description A tree growing from 5 - 10 m high.

Ecology Native to Central America andintroduced to West Africa. Frequentlyplanted in villages in Bas-Congo.Requires a well-drained, well-aerated,deep soil with good supplies ofnutrients.

Propagation Planting the seed is theeasiest method of propagation.Seedlings grow best under shade andneed this until well established. Shadecan be gradually reduced to zero in thethird year. Cuttings can also be takenbut leaf area should be reduced andshade provided.

Management The young trees shouldbe well weeded. Pruning shouldproduce an inverted cone with 3 or 4main branches. If grown forcommercial use the pods must beharvested when exactly ripe. This isusually at the end of the rain seasonand lasts for about 3 months. They are

heaped together or put in baskets, covered with banana leaves and allowed to ferment for 4 - 7 days.The pods are then transferred to a box for 2 - 3 days and to a third box for a further 2 to 3 days.

Uses The fruit pulp is eaten fresh before the fruit becomes completely ripe. Some people like it quitehard but others prefer it soft. Commercially the fruit is processed to make a drink and confectionery.

References Purseglove 1968, Pauwels 1993

280

Thevetia peruviana (Apocynaceae)

Synonym T. neriifolia

Common names Chapeau de Napolean, exile tree, yellow oleander

Description A multi-stemmed shrub or small tree growing to 6 m high. Leaves are narrow, 12 - 15long x 0.7 - 1 cm wide, and produced alternately in a spiral. The flowers, 6 cm long, are normally yellowbut may also be white or pink.

Ecology Originally from tropical America and the West Indies but now frequently cultivated throughoutthe tropics and often grown in villages in Bas-Congo. The tree is drought resistant and tolerates mosttypes of soil, though it prefers sandy soils.

Propagation Can be grown from seed or cuttings. Seed can be stored for up to 3 months and has agermination rate of up to 80%.

Management The tree is fast-growing. For a good display of flowers it should be pruned one monthbefore flowering.

Uses The fruit or leaves are crushed and put onfood to poison wild animals e.g. cane rats =nsisi (Kintandu dialect of Kikongo) or nsimbiliki(Lingala), which can then be eaten, though theymust be cleaned out carefully beforehand.Widely grown as an onamental for its yellowflowers which are produced throughout theyear. Makes a good hedge, suppressing weedsin its shade. Latex is present in all parts of theplant. The wood is used to make tool handlesand even building poles. The fruits, andparticularly the kernels, have insecticidalactivity. Medicinally the plant is used as apurgative and an emetic, however all parts ofthe plant are very poisonous.

Remarks Every part of the plant is very poisonous. Children should not play with the fruits.

References Uphof 1968, Burkill 1985, Pauwels 1993, Katende et al. 2000, Bryant 1996

281

Tithonia diversifolia (Asteraceae)

Common names Nkadi nkadi, Mexican sunflower, tree marigold

Description A bushy, much branched perennial growing to a height of 3 m.

Ecology The plant is sometimes abundant along roadsides in Bas-Congo. It is also used as a hedge tosurround village plots. It is able to spread from gardens to cropland, waste places and roadsides.

Propagation Seeds should be planted shallowly under a grass mulch. Cuttings 20 – 30 cm can also beused or clumps can be divided.

Management When used as a hedge, the plant is cut to 1 - 1.5 m high. Otherwise it should be cutback to ground level at the end of the season.

Uses Grown as a hedge plant. If the leaves and stems are dug into the soil it is reported to improvefertility, particularly in combination with an application of rock phosphate, and has been shown toincrease yields of maize and Brassica spp. In Kenya a 6 month fallow of Tithonia diversifoliaaccumulated high amounts of nitrogen, potash and calcium. It has also been used for livestock fodder inKenya. It is reported that if the leaves are boiled in water the liquid can be either painted on to trees orpoured down holes to control termites. Bees collect nectar from the flowers but nectar secretion varieswith altitude and soil type. A light amber honey is produced which granulates quickly.

References Crane et al 1984, Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987, Ambougou 1991, Roothaert et al 1997,ICRAF 1998, Spore 1998 no.75, Rutunga et al. 1999, Latham 2002

282

Treculia africana subsp. africana var. africana (Moraceae)

Common names Nsungi, arbre à pain d'Afrique (Fr.), African breadfruit

Description Tree to 35 m high. Fruits may reach 35 cm diameter and weigh between 10 and 15 kg.

Ecology Primary forests beside waterand in gallery forests from Senegal toAngola and into Uganda andMozambique. Altitude range 0 – 1,200m. Found in high forest and oftenplanted. Also present in Sudan.

Propagation Seeds can either besown in pots or direct. They should beplanted as soon as possible.

Management The tree is fast-growing and suitable for planting asan avenue tree.

Uses The seeds are eaten raw orroasted and are much appreciated.The timber, known as Africanboxwood, is white to yellow-white,

fine-grained and used for furniture,carving, turnery and inlay work. It can alsobe used for paper-making. It is suitable forfirewood and for charcoal-making. Thetree protects the soil by attracting dew,causing the soil to remain moistthroughout the dry season. The fruit isallowed to rot, or is soaked in water, sothat the seeds can be extracted. Theytaste like groundnuts and can be eatenraw, roasted, boiled or fried. They can alsobe ground and added to stews or madeinto soup. Seeds contain 73%carbohydrate, 16% protein and 6% oil.Leaves are used to treat tooth decay.

Left : Seeds extracted from a fallen fruit

Remarks The nutritive value of the seed is particularlygood. The composition of fats is well balanced, the proteincontent is of good value both for infant and adult nutritionand the carbohydrate part is also of good composition.

References Bijttebier 1981, Keay 1989, Pauwels 1993,Katende et al. 2000, Burkill 1997

283

Flowers and unripe fruits

Trema orientalis (Ulmaceae)

Common names Mundia nuni, kidia nuni, kiwandu kimfinda, charcoal tree

Description A short-lived shrub with slender branches, 4 - 5 m high. The asymetric leaves, up to 14cm long, alternate evenly along the branches, the edges being finely toothed all round. Small clusters ofwhite flowers are borne throughout the year in each axil. Fruit is small, fleshy and black when ripe,containing a single black seed.

Ecology Found in secondary forest throughout Asia and tropical Africa and present in Madagascar.Prefers high rainfall areas up to 2,000 m and common in forest and riverine margins where it quicklyinvades clearings and disturbed soils. Here it often produces almost pure stands but may also beassociated with Harungana madagascariensis.

Propagation Can be grown from seedlings or cuttings. Germination rate is about 30% and the seedremains viable for several months.

Management The tree is fast-growing, competing well with weeds. It can be coppiced.

Uses In Bas-Congo, leaves, bark and stem are used totreat dermatitis, mental disorders, dehydration, dentalcaries, asthma and epilepsy. The leaves and fruits arereported to be eaten in Congo. Bisu (Imbrasia petiveri) andMvinsu (I. epimethea) edible caterpillars feed on this plant.The poles are used for building and, though the timber isresistant to termites, it has poor durability. The branchesare used for firewood and charcoal but the heating value islow. The leaves, pods and seeds are suitable as livestockfodder. Bees visit the flowers. The plant fixes nitrogen andcan be used for soil conservation. The shrub has been usedas a shelter crop for young Milicia excelsa, coffee, andcacao plantations and is reputed to indicate good cacao-growing soil. A black dye is obtained from the bark and abrown dye from the leaves. The bark also yields a strong fibre. In Uganda the leaves are used as anantidote for poisoning. The bark and leaves contain Saponin, and have been used for de-worming andas a cough medicine.

References Wild et al 1972, Williamson 1975, NAS 1980, Keay 1989, Pauwels 1993, Katende et al.2000, Burkill 2000, Neuwinger 2000, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Nsimundele 2004

284

Trilepisium madagascariense (Moraceae)

Synonym Bosqueia angolensis, B. phoberos

Common names Nsekeni

Description Tree to 35 m. high. Bole is short and twisted with smooth grey bark. Cuts in the trunkproduce abundant white latex which later turns red to violet in contact with the air. Leaves have a shortstalk and are simple, alternate, tough and leathery, dark shiny-green above, 6 - 14 x 3 - 6 cm, with anarrow tip, 1 - 1.5 cm long. Male and female flowers develop in a bell-shaped receptacle about 1.5 cmlong from which the stamens hang out. Fruit is about 2 cm long turning purple-black when ripe.

Ecology Primary and secondary forests often beside water. From Guinea to Ethiopia, Angola, Natal,Madagascar and the Seychelles.

Propagation The tree can be grown from seed, wild seedlings or cuttings.

Management It can be pruned, coppiced or lopped.

Uses Leaves are coarsely cut and cooked in water, oil and peanut butter and eaten as a vegetable inBas-Congo. The fruit is also edible and the seeds can be eaten after roasting. The wood, thoughperishable in the ground, is used for construction, cabinet-making, knife handles and to make torchesfor lighting in the house. The latex is used for dyeing material and for making indelible ink. The tree hasa number of medicinal uses. Bees are reported to visit the flowers.

References FAC 1948, Renier 1948, Konda et al. 1992, Peters et al. 1992, Bekele-Tesemma 1993,Pauwels 1993, Beentje 1994, Burkill 1997, Neuwinger 2000

285

Plant with fruit in January

Trichoscypha oddonii (Anacardiaceae)

Common name Biyoyo

Description A small tree with a crown ofcomposite leaves at the top of the mainstem. Flowers are born on the trunk. Thefruits are red when ripe.

Right : Tree with immature fruit atKisantu botanic garden in January.

Uses Fruits are edible but sour.

References Daeleman & Pauwels 1983

Tristemma leiocalyx (Melastomataceae)

Common names Nsa masa,masa mansa

Description A soft woodyplant forming a dense mass ofprostrate stems, rooting at thenodes with vertical shoots upto 1 .5 m high. Stem is 4-angled. Leaf up to 10.5 x 5.5cm with a short point, petioleup to 3 cm long. Petals 6-8mm long, white or pink.

Ecology Common in damp places in Bas-Congo. Found in marshyclearings in lowland rain-forest, beside water and in swamp forestin Uganda, Cameroon, D.R. Congo and Sudan usually from 1140to 1320 m altitude.

Uses The fruit is eaten. A tea is made from the leaves which is taken to treat heart palpitations. Thetea is also used to treat gonorrhoea.

References FTEA 1975, Neuwinger 2000

286

Extracting fibre from the stem

Triumfetta cordifolia (Tiliaceae)

Common names Mpungala

Description An erect, perennial shrub to 3 m high, with hairy or sometimes smooth stems.

Ecology A common weed incultivated crops and forest orbush regrowth in wet areas of thetropical forest regions.

Triumfetta cordifoliain flower in August

Propagation By cuttings fromleafy stems. Plant in moist soil.

Management Earthing up,mulching and shade arebeneficial. The stems are cut atharvest leaving one or two budsat the base. Plants can beharvested for many years. Thebark may be stored after peelingfrom the stems.

Uses Stem fibres (lupungala) were at one time animportant item of commerce in Bas-Congo, being usedfor rope, sacking or packaging. The leaves are edible.The bark of the leafy stems contain substances thatgive stews a typically sticky consistency. Thesesubstances are extracted in some countries bysoftening the bark in hot water, and then kneading itin a little clean water. During the kneading processthe sticky agents are released into the water which isthen added to the stew. Reported to be a good beeforage providing nectar and pollen in Bas-Congo. Beesforage during December, July, August and October inGabon.

References Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Akobundu &Agyakwa 1987, Dupriez & De Leener 1989, Ambougou1991, Peters et al. 1992, Raemaekers 2001

287

Urena lobata (Malvaceae)

Common names Pungala, dinkambwala

Description A fibrous woody shrub up to 3 m high.

Ecology A weed of cultivated crops, usually near settlements. It grows in full sunlight usually on fertile,well drained soils and is found throughout the tropics and sub-tropics.

Urena lobata growing near water at Kavwaya

Propagation Grown from seed.

Management The plant can be cut twice per year for fibre production, in which case it is normallygrown as an annual. It requires a fertile soil and, as it exhausts the soil, should be rotated with othercrops.

Uses Occasionally cultivated for its fibre, called “Congo jute”. The fibre is strong, fine, soft and lustrous.It has good spinning properties and can be used for cordage, textiles, carpets, packing materials,upholstery and, mixed with other fibres, for sacking. The plant is resistant to termites and water. Itmakes a strong paper. Various parts of the plant are used medicinally. Young leaves are eaten in Gabonand the plant can be used as a livestock fodder. An important bee forage providing nectar over a longperiod.

References Renier 1948, Morton 1964, Busson 1965, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Akobundu &Agyakwa 1987, Ambougou 1991, Burkill 1997

288

Vernonia amygdalina (Asteraceae)

Common names Nlulu nlulu, mundudindudi, mukarikari, bitterleaf

Description A shrub or tree to 5 m tall.Edible varieties are variable and havelong oval, greyish leaves. Some of thecultivated varieties are almost free ofbitterness.

Ecology Often planted in villages in Bas-Congo. Grows in the savanna or forestmargins, often forming thickets and iswidely distributed in tropical Africa.

Propagation Usually planted fromcuttings but can also be grown fromseed.

Management The habit of the shrubdepends on how it is used. It develops ashrubby habit if the branches are firstlopped for pole production and the stemis then pruned to form a head. A densebushy habit is obtained if the stems arepruned severely on a regular basis tostimulate leaf production.

Uses In Bas-Congo, the leaves arepounded, soaked in water and taken totreat liver infections and for intestinalworms. Crushed leaves are also appliedto skin infections (e.g. scabies). The pithof the stems is known to be an effectivemedicine against worms. The leaves,

which are often very bitter, areeaten as a vegetable in somecountries, though not in Bas-Congo. The bitterness can belessened by pounding and boilingor, with young leaves, by soakingin several changes of water. Theyare added in small amounts tosoup or eaten as spinach. Theshoots can be used to clean theteeth. Bees collect nectar inAugust in Bas-Congo. It is animportant honey source inEthiopia producing a darkaromatic honey. The wood can beused as fuel. It is not attacked bytermites.

References Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Martin & Ruberté1975, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985, Dupriez & De Leener 1989, Mukoko Matondo 1991,Fichtl & Adi 1994, Maundu 1999, Neuwinger 2000, Latham 2002, Schippers 2002, Kibungu Kembelo2003, Pousset 2004

289

Vigna subterranea (Fabaceae)

Synonym Voandzeia subterranea

Common names Nguba nsamba,kinsamba, bimongi, Bambarragroundnut

Description A dense-growingannual herb to 40 cm.

Ecology Bambarra groundnut iscultivated in most of Africa. It willproduce a crop in relatively poor,sandy soils. The plant requiresbright sun, frequent rain and hightemperatures but is however alsodrought tolerant. Excessive rainfallduring fruiting depresses yields.

Propagation Seed should beshelled and planted at a spacing of32 x 20 cm.

Management The crop should beearthed up to promote fruitproduction. From planting toharvest normally takes 4 months.Production can be from 500 –1,000 kg per ha.

Uses The seeds are cooked with maize (sometimes aftersoaking overnight) or alone, mashed, fried and used in astew. Dried seeds can be roasted and ground into flour.Unripe seeds can be eaten fresh, fried or grilled. Nutshave high nutritional value with no toxicity. Ripe seedscan contain from 16 - 21% protein, 4.5 - 6.5 % fat and50 - 60% carbohydrate forming a balanced diet. Eatinglarge amounts however tends to give stomach discomfort.Careful preparation is needed as the seeds can be bitter.The plant nodulates and fixes nitrogen.

References Maundu et al. 1999, SEPASAL 1999

290

Vigna unguiculata (Fabaceae)

Common names nkasa, mbwenge, niébé (Fr.), cowpea

Description A sub-erect bushy or trailing annual.

Ecology A hot weather crop suited to semi-arid regions. It requires a well drained soil, but is badlyaffected by nematodes in sandy soils. Often grown together with cereals.

Propagation Seed retains its viability providing it is protected from insect damage. Where cowpeas ortheir relatives have not been grown before,inoculation with rhizobia gives better yields. 17 -28 kg seed are required per ha.

Management Pests are often a problem. Thegreen pods should be harvested before theyripen and shatter.

Uses Dried seeds are an important food legumein Africa. Normally they are cooked together withvegetables, spices and often palm oil to producea thick bean soup which is then eaten with thestaple food. Protein content is 22 - 25%. Theseed can also be used as a coffee substitute.Leaves and fruits are used as green vegetablesand may also be dried and stored for later use.The plant may be cut back to produce asuccession of new shoots. Fresh immature seedsand the immature seed pods are also sometimeseaten as a vegetable. Leaves can be used forlivestock feed. Fibres from the stems are usedfor tying, making fishing lines, nets, wovenmaterial and clothing.

References Purseglove 1968, Kay 1979, Burkill1995, SEPASAL 1999

291

Vitex doniana (Verbenaceae)

Common names Fiolongo, mfiolongo, prune noire (Fr.), black plum, West African plum.

Description A medium-sized tree, 15 -20m high, with a heavy rounded crown.Leaves 14 - 34 cm long, usually with 5leaflets on stalks 6 - 14 cm long. Flowerssmall, blue or violet, only a few beingopen at a time. Fruit oblong, about 3 cmlong, green when young, turning purplish-black on ripening and containing starchyblack pulp.

Ecology Occurs particularly beside riversand in secondary forests in Bas-Congo andextending from Senegal to Cameroon andinto South Africa. The tree requires a highwater table. It grows on a variety of soils,often alluvial.

Propagation The tree regeneratesnaturally from seed and root suckers. It isthought forest fires induce germinationbecause they help break the hard seedcoat. Remove the skin and pulp fromaround the seed when ripe with a knife.Wash and dry. Soak the seed for 24

hours, changing the water after 12 hours. Germination is good but sporadic. It can also be grown fromcuttings.

Management Mediumgrowth rate. Can begrown in fields andalong boundaries andcan be coppiced.

Uses The black fruit issweet and is usuallyeaten raw. It isoccasionally sold inmarkets. It is a goodsource of vitamins A andB. Leaves may be eatenwhen young or used asa herb in cooking. Theteak like, termiteresistant, whitish to lightbrown timber is used forbuilding boats, housepoles and for makingcrates and furniture. Itcan also be used for firewood and charcoal. The leaves, pods and seeds can be used for fodder. Thebark, leaves and roots are used medicinally and the bark for making a dye. The leaves are used to treatdiarrhoea and dysentery. The fruit is used to improve fertility and to treat anaemia, jaundice, leprosyand dysentery. The young tender leaves are pounded and the juice squeezed into the eyes to treat eyetroubles. Bees visit both flowers and ripe fruit and the tree is a favourite place for hanging beehives inEthiopia.

References Irvine 1961, FAO 1983, Bekele-Tesemma et al. 1993, Pauwels 1993, ICRAF 1998, Msanga1998, SEPASAL 1999

292

Vitex madiensis (Verbenaceae)

Common names Kifilu

Description A small treeor shrub 1.5 – 3 m high.The leaves, comprised of3 stiff leaflets up to 25 cmlong, are fragrant whencrushed. The edge hasshallow rounded teeth.Flowers are pinkish whitewith violet blue lobes. Thefruit is 2.5 cm long, shinygreen at first becomingblack when ripe.

Ecology A common treeof the savanna fromGuinea to Uganda andsouth to Mozambique.

Propagation Collect the fruit whensoft and ripe, dry in the sun andremove the dry pulp. Sow direct intothe field or transplant wild or nurserygrown seedlings.

Management The tree stump sproutsreadily after being cut down.

Right : Flowering twig

Uses The sweet fruits are eaten and are good for quenching thirst. A decoction made from the youngleaves is taken for coughs, colds, diarrhoea and dysentery. The boiled roots are used to treat diabetes

and anaemia in Bas-Congo. Elsewhere in Africa theleaves and shoots, fruit, stem and root bark, areused to treat conjunctivitis, dysentery, diarrhoea,fatigue, headaches, mental illness, respiratorydisease, back pain in women, leprosy, fever andjaundice. Bisu (Imbrasia petiveri) edible caterpillarfeed on the leaves.

References De Wildeman 1934, Mukoko Matondo1991, Pauwels 1993, Katende et al. 2000, Burkill2000, Neuwinger 2000, Latham 2003, Nsimundele2004

293

Voacanga africana (Apocynaceae)

Common names Munkodi nkodi, mukodi kodi

Description A shrub or small tree 2 – 6 m in height, branching low down and with a low spreadingcrown. Leaves are opposite, dark green and glossy above, 7 - 40 x 3 - 20 cm. Flowers cream or brown.Fruits are borne in pairs, slightly wider than long and approximately 5 cm in diameter.

Ecology Grows in the understorey ofsecondary forests, in swampy forests andbeside streams in the savanna. Found fromSenegal to Cameroon and in Uganda andEgypt.

Propagation Pick ripening fruits from thetree. The paired lobes are opened by handto release the pulp and about 20 seeds.Squash the pulp in water gently to releasethe seeds and dry them in the sun. Theycan be stored in a cool place for up to 12months. Soaking the seed overnight mayhasten germination, which is generally goodbut slow, reaching 50% after 4 weeks and90% after 7 weeks.

Management The related speciesVoacanga thouarsii can be coppiced orpollarded.

Right : Voacanga thouarsii in floweron the Bateke plateau in January.

Uses The plant has important medicinal usesand the seeds are exported principally toGermany, where they are used to extract adrug to treat heart diseases and lower bloodpressure. The plant is also a source of a drugto treat cancer. The sap is used to trap birdsin Bas-Congo. It can be mixed with that ofFicus spp. for the same purpose. Bunsambiedible mushroom grow on the dead trunk. Thebark contains fibre which is used in Nigeria formaking yarn. A decoction of the root or bark istaken for heart problems and gonorrhoea andthe plant is also used for treating sores, furuncles, abscesses, fungal infections, river blindness andeczema in the Congo. The bark of both V. africana and V. thouarsii can be used to treat stomach ulcers.

References Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Bouquet 1969, Burkill 1985, Keay 1989, Iwu 1993, Pauwels1993, Katende et al. 2000, Msanga 1998, Nsimundele 2004, Pousset 2004

294

Xanthosoma sagittifolium (Araceae)

Common names Langa, macabo, coco yam, tannia, elephant's ear

Description A perennial herb growing from 1.3 - 2.5 m high from a large corm. The plants generallyappear larger and coarser than taros. Stem is short and leaves are borne on large stalks. Leaves arearrow shaped, from 45 - 90 cm long, have sharp pointed tips and a prominent marginal vein. A corm isproduced at the base of the plant and this produces 10 or more lateral cormels 10 - 25 cm long.

Ecology Originally from tropical America but now grown in Africa, Asia and Polynesia. It grows best intropical conditions with high rainfall and deep, well drained soils which do not become waterlogged.

Propagation Small corms, cormels or the top of the rootstock with one or more buds are used forplanting. They should weigh about 150 gm. Plant at the beginning of the rains, preferably on ridges,with the bud pointing downwards, 7.5 - 10 cm deep. If pieces of the rootstock are used leave the tipabove ground.

Management Harvesting is done when the leaves turn yellow, 9 - 12 months after planting. The cormscan be left in the ground until required. They can be harvested and the parent plant left to continueproducing for up to 6 years.

Uses The main use is for the leaves, particularly the young leaves, which are cooked and eaten as avegetable after removal of the main rib in Bas-Congo. They have a protein content of 2.5% of freshweight. The cormels are edible after boiling or baking.

References Kay 1973, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Tindall 1983, Burkill 1985

295

Dried fruits as sold in the market

Xylopia aethiopica (Annonaceae)

Common names Nsombo, poivrier de Guinée (Fr.), kimba or West African pepper

Description A shrub ortree to 40 m producingclusters of pod like fruitsabout 5 cm long. These arearomatic and pungent.

Ecology Grows in lowlandrain forest and fringingforests in the savannaregion from Senegal toTanzania, and in Congo,Angola and Zambia. It is ashade loving species.

Propagation Collect ripefruits, spread them out onplastic sheeting andseparate the seeds whendry. Soak the seeds for 24hours before planting inpots or direct into the field.

Management The treecan be coppiced or pollarded.

Uses The poles are especially used for house construction in Bas-Congo as the wood is resistant totermite attack. The seeds arepeppery and used as a spice. Theyare also used in the making of gingerbeer and for the treatment ofrheumatism, as a relief for stomach-ache, to ease pain, and to treatmalaria in Bas-Congo. In some areasthey are sold in the markets.Formerly they were exported toEurope. Elsewhere in Africa adecoction of the seeds or bark isused to relieve coughing and to treatbronchitis. The wood is light yellowand fairly heavy. It is used forgeneral carpentry and also formaking charcoal. The ground upfruits (called nkuba nkuba or nkuyankuya) are mixed with cayennepeppers are put, together with kolanuts, to repel weevils. The fruit issometimes put into water to purify it. The flowers are produced in the dry season and are attractive tobees. Nsyangi edible caterpillars feed on the leaves.

References Walker & Sillans 1961, Uphof 1968, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Burkill 1985, Keay1989, Macmillan 1991, Pauwels 1993, Katende et al. 2000, Nsimundele 2004, Pousset 2004

296

Zanthoxylum gilletii (Rutaceae)

Common names Nkonkonkumanga, nungu nsende,African satinwood

Description A deciduous treegrowing to 35 m high with astraight trunk which bearslarge corky thorns. The youngstems have large spines.Leaves are borne in terminalclusters and comprise 6 – 13pairs of leaflets and a terminalone 14 – 30 cm long. Flowersare creamy-white in terminalclusters 20 – 30 cm long. Fruitsare round and red 4 – 6 mm insize and do not split when ripe.Each fruit contains one black,shiny seed. Male and female

flowers are borne on different trees.

Ecology Grows in evergreen forests in West Africa, Sudan,Zambia, Zimbabwe, Congo and Angola. The tree is planted in purestands, individually, or sometimes as a hedge.

Propagation Pick the red-brown fruit from the tree before thecapsules open and dry in the sun for 1 – 2 days. Shake out theseed but do not leave in the sun. The seed can be stored for up to2 months but add ash, as it is susceptible to insect attack.Seedlings need full sunlight and grow well in old farmland.

Management The tree coppices well.

Uses A valuable timber tree though the wood is sometimesdifficult to work. It takes a good polish and finishes well. It isdurable except when in contact with the ground. Used to makepestles and mortars, in house construction, interior carpentry anddoors etc. It bends well when steamed. Bees collect pollen andnectar from the flowers in January. The bark is chewed for therelief of toothache in Bas-Congo. Elsewhere it is swallowed for therelief of stomach pain. The leaves, finely crushed and steeped in

lemon juice, are said to cure snakebites. The bark is used as a pain-killer. The young terminal shoots,without the leaves, are sweetsmelling and are used to flavoursauces. The oil from the seeds isreported to be edible.

References Butaye 1909,Kokwaro 1976, Dupriez & DeLeener 1989, Pauwels 1993,Katende et al. 2000, Palgrave1996, Burkill 1997, Nsimundele2004

297

Zea mays (Poaceae)

Common names Saangu, mais (Fr.), maize

Description A stout annual reaching 3 m.Distinct races are adapted to different areas.

Ecology Will grow in a wide range ofconditions. Essentially a crop of warmcountries with adequate moisture. Growsbest on well drained, well aerated, deep,fertile loams. It is often the first cropplanted after the forest fallow in Bas-Congo.The crop is grown extensively where thebush fallow system is maintained.

Propagation Seed is normally planted withgroundnuts or sweet potatoes and withoutfertilizer in Bas-Congo.

Left : Male flower head – a goodsource of pollen for bees

Management Stalk borers are a majorpest. They can be controlled by tobacco orTephrosia vogelii leaf solution (see pages204 and 274) which is poured down thecentre funnel into the plant.

Uses The production of greenmaize and dried grain areimportant crops in Bas-Congo,providing food in January andFebruary when there is little elseavailable. Bees frequently collectpollen from the male flowersduring the rains and sometimeshoneydew from the leaves. Thelatter may be gathered insufficient quantities to give ahoney flow.

References Howes 1979, Craneet al. 1984, Stoll 2000

298

Zingiber officinale (Zingiberaceae)

Common names Tangawusa, tangawisi, tangawisa, gingembre (Fr.), ginger

Description An erect herbaceousperennial to 1 m high growing from anaromatic rhizome. It is usuallycultivated as an annual beingharvested 9 - 10 months after planting.

Ecology Cultivated in the tropics fromsea level to 1,500 m with an annualrainfall between 1,500 – 2,500 mm. Ittolerates partial shade, though it canbe grown in the open, and can begrown with pigeon peas or interplantedwith tree crops. Soils should be deep,well-drained, friable and rich in humus.Ginger is a heavy feeder and is usuallyamong the first crops grown afterclearing the forest. It does not standwaterlogging.

Propagation Ginger is planted fromfresh, firm pieces of root 2.5 - 5 cm long having at least one sound bud. They can be stored until theysprout. Normally grown in raised beds. Space 20 - 30 cm between plants and plant at a depth of 7 cm.Provide mulch after planting. At planting time the soil must be moist and must not dry out once thesetts are planted. Do not plant ginger in the same land again for at least 3 - 4 years to avoid soil bornepests and diseases. Mulching is helpful.

Management New shoots appear after 10 - 20 days and weeding should be carried out 2 or 3 times,earthing the plants up at the same time. Thecrop matures when the leaves turn yellow.Content of the essential oil, pungency and fibreincrease with age. Harvest carefully to avoiddamaging the rhizomes. For preserved gingerthe crop is harvested before the fibre contentand pungency develop too strongly. Therhizomes are cleaned, soaked in water andscraped to remove the outer skin and then sundried for 4 - 5 days.

Uses The fresh roots are chewed and suckedto relieve thirst and a popular drink is madefrom ginger extract. In Bas-Congo the rhizomes are used, with other plants, to treat coughing,haemorrhoids, abdominal pain and intestinal worms. The root is also taken as an aphrodisiac. The mainuse elsewhere is as a spice or food additive.

References Nair 1980, Burkill 2000, de Guzman & Siemonsma 1999, Kibungu Kembelo 2003

299

Some unidentified plants used as vegetables in Bas-Congo

Bilengu is a forest creeper,probably a Combretaceae,growing in Kisantu botanicgarden.

Kimfwila Possibly a Tylophora sp.(Asclepiadaceae). A wild vegetable from theforest. Prepared as for Gnetum africanum.

Kinkiadi A forest creeper also prepared asfor Gnetum africanum.

300

Luamba A shrub fairly common nearMadimba. The young shoots are eaten.It was found growing on hard clay soilon a steeply sloping site in secondaryforest.

Nkaka A forest creeper which is eaten fresh with nsaki(pounded cassava leaves cooked with palm oil andpeppers). It is a popular vegetable.

Nkubudi or Mukubi PossiblyMicrodesmis puberula. The young

leaves of this tree are eaten

Yamuntu Possibly Byrsocarpus sp.,is especially eaten fresh with salt fish.

301

Some edible wild mushrooms

*Bubwaka bwaka is also found on oil palm trunksand other trees in dense shade. These mushrooms canbe pink or white.

Bufwa ngudi growing on the end of a dead oilpalm trunk in shade.

Bulongo appears between April and December onthe stumps of Hallea stipulosa or Hymenocardia acida

Bunsambi sambi (Polyporus arcularius) growson dead tree trunks (particularly Voacangaafricana) and can be found throughout the year.It is cooked with simsim or seeds of pumpkin orsquash.

302

Photo : Jacques Miaglia

Kaka bu bwaka bwaka The “grandfather” ofBwaka bwaka. On a dead Dacroydes edulis tree.

Lumvumvu (Lentinus cf. squarrosulus Mont.)Grows on dead wood in the forest.

Lutumbula is found in thesavanna at the start of the rains.

Bundolo Grows in shade on the ground among fallen leaves.

*The prefixes Bu and Lu are interchangeable

See Dracaena mannii for Bukutu kutu (Auricularia polytricha orA. auricula-judae) and Elaeis guineensis for Lumiengi(Psathyrella cf. tuberculata)

References Struyf in Gillet & Pâque 1910 p 9, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983

303

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309

Index of edible caterpillar names

Scientific name Kikongo name Page

Acherontia atropus Munsona sona 259Anaphe infracta 59Anaphe panda 59Anaphe reticulata 59Anaphe sp. Nkankiti 18Antheua insignata Nsanga 154Antheua sp. Malomba loka 188Bunaea alcinoe Makedi kedi 107,114,245Cirina forda Ngala 98Cymothoe caenis Nsani 209Gonimbrasia richelmanii 271Imbrasia alopia Minsongo or Malemba 95,107,219Imbrasia anthina Minsuka 38,231Imbrasia eblis Kwesu 11,18,74,181,206Imbrasia epimethea Mvinsu 11,132,151,219,237,238,283Imbrasia melanops Minsendi 172Imbrasia obscura Minkendi 11,216Imbrasia petiveri Bisu 37,43,187,238,283,292Lobobunaea phaedusa Kaba 11,33,99,107,132,153,172,175,238,244Lobobunaea saturnus 271Platysphinx sp. Munsona 189,190,245Rhypopteryx poecilanthes Nsongi 268

310

Index of Kikongo names

Ba di madibu 53Ba di matombe 235Ba di ndingiBa di ngasi

53119

Ba di nkandi 85Ba di nsamba 119Ba di nseki 24Ba di magangu 247Banaba nzazi 191Banda nzazi 191Bawu bawu 70BiloloBimongiBindiondi

258289183

Binsansi 16Binsukula 258BisadiBiteku

112231

Biteku tekuBiwansi

25258

BiyoyoBola

28523

Bola dimputu 103Bondo 247Boso boso 94Bowa dia nsende 26Bubu 129Bubwaka bwaka 301Bufwa ngudi 301Bukutu kutu 116Bulongo 226, 301BulukutuBundolo

168302

Bunguni 257Bunsambi sambiBunzi

30122

Bwalu 70, 275Deso 221Dibata bata 52Dila dila 181Dimbulu 162Dingungu 183Dinkalanga 84Dinkambwala 287Dinsania 161Dinsonia 161Dinsusu susu 208DintataDioko

108178

Dioko di kisimbiDipapayi

3069

Divoka 218Dizulu 207Dongo dongo 8, 93Dyoko 178Fibwiza 59Fiolongo 291Fitidi di nseke 38Fulunta 227Fumu 204Fumu di bakuyu 92Fumu di kiula 92

Fumu di matebo 92Futi 122Fwetete 184Gangu 247Goki 163Goki di mputu 213Guele guele 274Gwandu ya nseke 124Kafi 86Kaka bu bwaka bwaka 302Kala nkonki 266Kalawanti 15Kapidi 224Kasa kindongo 75Kembela 256Kenge 212Kiasa 217Kibidi 65Kibofula 230Kiboto 189Kibuengi 188Kibunsi 22KibunsilaKibwa

22145

Kibwa mpimbidi 77Kidia nuni 283Kidiadi 116Kidianga 100Kidimbi 206Kidimbi ki nseke 206Kienga 245Kifilu 292KifitidiKifubu

3729

Kigala 98Kigete 153Kikadi ki nanasi 29Kikakasi 29Kikalakasa 228Kikula ntedi 128Kikulu 270Kikumbi 125, 164Kikumbi ki nzambi 125Kikwa ki bankita 30Kikwa ki santu Petelo 41Kilemba nzau 138Kilodi 166Kilolo 33Kilomba 232Kiluba 206Kilungu 68, 236Kimana ngansi 50Kimandi susu 257Kimbaki 132Kimbodi 133Kimbodia 133Kimbyolongo 193Kimeso kama 196Kimwindu ki mfinda 59Kimwindu ki nseke 60Kimzindu 59Kindamina 77

311

Kingela 237Kingembu 174Kingembwa 174Kingondi 103Kinkama 115Kinkete 145Kinsamba 258, 289Kinsumba 261Kinsundi 169Kintamba 115Kinzenze 151Kinzonzi 241Kisadi 112Kisakamba 87Kisani 209Kisania 209Kiseka 215Kisima 135Kisoko soko 229Kisongi 268Kititi 244Kitundibila 16Kityokolo 166Kivinsu 210Kiwanda ki mfinda 283Kiwandu ki nseke 124Kiwaya 249Koko 141, 233Kola 88Kongo bololo 196Kula nioka 75Kula ntedi 128Kula ntese 128Kunda mavondu 232Kyangu 105Kyese kyese 248Lala 80Lala di ngani 79Lala dinzenzo 80Lala ma nsaLandani

79165

Langa 91, 294Leka mbwa 184Lemba lemba 61Lemba nzau 138Lipopi 274Longa longa 205Longwa 143Loso 210Lubamba 123Lubota 190Ludimi lumbwa 147Lufwa lundomba 113Luhete 153Lulaka lu ngombi 257Lumantu 171Lumbusu 192Lumiengi 120Lumvumvu 256, 302Lundalandala 73Lusaku saku 106Lusangu sangu 105Lutumbula 302Luyuki 62

Mabulu 162Macabo 294Madya manlumba 269Makaku matatuMakungu

83183

Malukutu 168Mamba 134Manga zi nsende 263Manganga 247Mansiese 173MansunguMasa mansa

110285

Matabulu 68Matekwa tekwa 231Mawumuna 163Mazenya 273Mbaka 275Mbala 157Mbamba 123Mbembo 25Mbendi mbendiMbidi

9065

Mbika kalu 160Mbika malenge 102Mbika nsudi 101Mbika ntetu 78Mbolongu 260Mbondi 243Mbota 190Mbuba 200Mbulunkutu 168Mbuma makaku 90Mbundu ngombe 32Mbungu mbungu 161Mbwenge 189, 290Mbwenge mputuMfiolongo

254291

Mfuma 72Mfumbwa 141Mfungu 31Mfungu mfungu 31Minsansi 16Mobe 35Mpanga makunsi 30Mpenga 111Mpete 153Mpeya 194Mpukumpuku 36Mpuluka 158, 239Mpungala 286Mubamfu 134Mubango mbango 99Mugete 153Muindu 59MukaMukuku

123242

Mukulumu 134Mulembo 93Mulu 18Mumpala 82Mumpese mpese 203Mundenge 35Mundia nuniMundiondia

283193

312

Mundudi dudi 288Mungyenge 262Munkeni 95Munkodi kodi 293Munkuiza 95Munsambi nsambi 174Munsanga 154Munse 242Muntoma tomaMuntomina

9696

Muntusu 200MupembaMusaka sakaMusoso

15170258

Mvete 153Mvulumuna 118Mvumbi vumbi 264Mvunguta 157Mwandu mwandu 124MwengetiNanasi

18829

Nbangu nbangu 99Ndamba 185Ndiadi mbulu 116Ndimba 277NdulunsiNdunguNdungu za fiotiNdungu zi mafofolo

118686867

Ndungu zi makutulu 68Ndungu zi matubulu 68Ndungu zi ntende 68Ndungu zi nzo 17Ngadiadi 136Ngadiadia 136Ngadidi 136Ngai ngai 148, 150Ngala 198Ngansi 216Ngembo 111Ngenguba 9Ngete 153Ngondi longo 257Nguba 39Nguba mputu 211Nguba nguela 211Nguba nsamba 289Ngwengo 25NgyokaNiasibola

19823

Nkadi nkadi 281Nkama nsunda 251Nkamba 186NkambalaNkandi mputu

18685

Nkasa 290Nkasa zi madeso 66Nkasu 27, 88Nke kiasa 217Nkeka 259Nkenge kiasa 217Nkengi 172N’kenketi 15Nkisu 271

Nkofi 54, 55Nkofi ntotula 56Nkondo 13Nkondo mfinda 265Nkonki 266Nkonko kumanga 296Nkuba nkuba 295Nkuku bangulu 25Nkulu 270Nkumbi 164Nkungambwa 231Nkungu teke 74Nkungulu teke 74Nkweso 180Nlongu 143Nlulu nlulu 288Nmanga 176Nsa bwaki 148Nsa masa 285NsafuNsaki kausu

107180

Nsaku nsaku 106Nsambu 215Nsanda 130Nsanu 170Nseka 215Nseka mfusila 215Nsekeni 284Nsendi mpanga 109Nsendi mwanga 109Nsenga 199Nsiamuna 145Nsiensie 121Nsiesa 121Nsiesi mfinda 121Nsiki 195Nsolokoto 50Nsombo 295Nsombo nseka 215Nsoni 202Nsongi 268Nsunda 251Nsungi 282Nsusa 126, 278Ntata nkedinga 96Nteke 51NtekoNtendi

23168

Ntoka 189Ntubungu 193Ntundulu 16Ntunu 144Nungu nsende 296Nvondongolo 114Nyensi 172Nyibu 226Nzeke nzeke 126Nzete ki nsimbi 30Nzila nzila 246Paka paka 44Payi payi 69Pete pete 153Pungala 287Sadi 112

313

Saku 99Sangu 297Sansa banzenza 274Sela 20SesaSinda

74104

Sinda di mputu 104Singa singa 225Soko 111Taka ngolaTangawisaTangawisi

48298298

Tangawusa 298Teta bowa 73Tidi 222Tinti 244Titi 244Titi mbwela 244To 111Tofa tofa 157Tombe 235Tumpu di nkombo 246Tutu 47Wandu 64Wangila 255Wangila matebo 255Wenge 189Yense 172Zaladinkanka 37

314

Index of common names

Abalé 219Acacia 10Aerial yam 111African breadfruit 181African cucumber 192African elemi 65African fan palm 53African greenheart 225African linden 143African nutmeg 232African satinwood 296African teak 186African tragacanth 265African winged bean 228Air plant 62Amarante 25Ananas 29Anatto tree 51Apple mint 185Arachide 39Arbre à ail 249Arbre à calebasses 97Arbre à pain 41Arbre à pain d’Afrique 282Arbre à pain indigène 200Arbre à savon duGabon

278

Arbre corail 125Arbre de bonheur 76Armoise Chinoise 40Arrowroot 182Asthma weed 128Attier 34Aubergine 260Avocado pear 218Avocatier 218Badamier 278Balai doux 248Balsam pear 192Bambarra groundnut 289Bamboo 47Bambou 47Banana 198Baobab 13Barbadine 214Baselle 48Baumier 208Bell pepper 67Ben ailé 197Billyweb sweetia 12Bitter leaf 288Black plum 291Bois d’or 190Bois noir 189Bombardier 152Bottle gourd 160Boundary tree 203Bracken 231Brazilian lucerne 267Breadfruit 41Brimstone tree 195Brown mustard 55

Bush orange 266Bush tea 168Bush tea bush 155Bush yam 112Butter bean 220Button grass 191Cacaoyer 279Cajou 27Calabash 160Calabash tree 97Calebasse 160Camel’s foot tree 223Canne à sucre 242Cannellier de Ceylon 76Canterbury bells 62Carambola 44Carambolier 44Carrot tree 264Cashew nut 27Cassava 178Casse du Siam 253Castor oil 239Cat’s whiskers 82Céara 180Ceara rubber 180Célosie 73Ceylon cinnamon 76Célosie 73Ceylon cinnamon 76Chapeau deMonseigneur

49

Chapeau de Napoléon 280Chayote 250Chêne argenté 142Chénopode vermifuge 75Chinese albizia 19Chinese cabbage 57Chistmas bush 22Chou de Chine 57Chou vert 55, 56Chouchou 250Christophine 250Ciboule 23Citronelle 104Citronnier 79Coco yam 294Cocoa 279Coconut 85Cocotier 85Coffee, robusta 86Cola 88Colatier 88Concombre amer 101Confiture 131Cork-wood tree 237Corossol 32Corossol épineux 32Courge 102Cowpea 290Dartier 70Doctor’s gum 268Drumstick tree 197

315

Eagle fern 231Egg plant 260Elemier d’Afrique 65Elephant’s ear 294Epinard 54Epinard Indien 48Epinard sauvage 222Éponge végétale 170Ethiopian mustard 54Exile tree 280False nutmeg 232False roselle 148False rubber tree 132False rubber tree 151Fausse tomate 259Faux muscadier 194Faux muscadier 232Fever plant 208Field mint 185Fish poison bean 275Fleabane 92Forest anchomanes 30Forest fever-berry 100Forest yam 112French bean 221Fromager 72Gambian tea bush 168Garden egg 258Gardenia mâle 138Gboma egg plant 259Gingembre 298Ginger 298Gmelina 140Golden dewdrop 117Gombo 8Goyavier 227Granadille 213Grassé 274Greater yam 110Gros baume 155Groundnut 39Guava 227Guavadilla 213Guinea hemp 149Gynandro 82Haricot de Lima 220Haricot vert 221Hog gum tree 268Hog plum 262Hogweed 52Holarrhene 151Hornsbill calabash 174Horseradish tree 197Hot pepper 68Ice-cream bean tree 156Igname de brousse 112Indian almond 276Indian mustard 55Indian plum 131Jack bean 66Jackfruit 43Jacquier 43Japanese bunchingonion

23

Jew’s mallow 93Jonc vulgaire 106Kale 56Kapok 72Karamanni wax 268Kenaf 149Lagos spinach 73Langue de femme 21Lantana 165Laurier d’Afrique 138Lemon 79Lemon grass 104Lima bean 220Limba 277Loofah 170Lucky bean 9Madagascar bean 220Madagascar periwinkle 71Madamé 276Mais 297Maize 297Malay apple 273Malnommée 128Mango 176Mangosteen 137Mangoustanier 137Manguier 176Maninguette 17Manioc 178Marante 182Mbila esobe 31Menthe 185Mexican sunflower 281Monkey orange 266Monkey’s dinner bell 152Moutard de Chine 55Moutard indigène 55Mulberry, giant yellow 200Mushrooms, wild edible 116, 120,226,

238, 243, 301,302

Neem 46Neflier de Costa Rica 49Nénuphar 205Niébe 290Nim 46Noyer d’Amerique 211Oil bean tree 216Oil palm 119Okra 8Orange, sweet 80Oranger doux 80Ordeal tree 98Oseille Chinois 240Oseille indigène 149Pakchoi 58Palmier à huile 119Papayer 69Parasol tree 265Parasolier 199Patate douce 157Pawpaw 69Pear, African 107Pepper 224

316

Pervenche deMadagascar

71

Physic nut 158Pied de boeuf 223Pigeon berry 117Pigeon pea 64Pignon d’Inde 158Pili pili 68Piment 67Piment capsique 68Pineapple 29Pink tassle berry 37Plantain bananas 198Poilus 201Pointe noire 57Pois sabre 66Pois sucré 156Pois-cajan 64Poivre 224Poivre de Guinée 17Poivrier de Guinée 295Pole bean 221Pomme cannelle 34Pomme cythere 263Pommier de Malaisie 273Pommier-rose 272Pop-gun tree 264Potato yam 111Prune noire 291Prunier d’Inde 131Queensland hemp 256Ramboutan 201Rambutan 201Rattan 123Red-hot poker tree 125Resurrection plant 62Rhodesian rubber tree 114Rice 210Ricin 239Ringworm bush 70Riz 210Rocouyer 51Rônier 53Safoutier 107Safran des Indes 103Sand box tree 152Scarlet eggplant 258Sesame 255Siamese cassia 253Siamese tree senna 253Sickle bush 109Silk cotton 72Silk rubber 132Silk tree 19Simsim 255Soja 139Soursop 32Soya bean 139Spanish needles 50Squash 102Star fruit 44Stinkwood tree 219Stylo 267Sugar apple 34

Sugar bean 220Sugarcane 242Sukuma wiki 56Sunflower 146Swamp arum 166Sweet Annie 40Sweet basil 207Sweet broom weed 248Sweet pepper 67Sweet potato 157Sweet wormwood 40Sweetsop 34Sword bean 66Tabac 204Tannia 294Taro 91Tilleul d’Afrique 143Tobacco 204Tomate 171Tomate amère 258Tomato 171Tournesol 146Tree basil 208Tree cassava 180Tree marigold 281Turmeric 103Umbrella tree 199Vegetable pear 250Violet tree 251Water leaf 274Water lily 205Water yam 110Waterberry 270Watermelon 78Welsh onion 23West African plum 291White rubber vine 163Wild custard apple 33Wireweed 256Woman’s tongue tree 21Woodland Croton 100Yellow cassia 254Yellow oleander 280

317

Index of scientific names

Abelmoschus esculentus 8Abrus precatorius 9Acacia auriculiformisAcioa lujae

10, 187168

Acosmium panamense 12Adansonia digitata 13Adenia lobata 15Aframomum alboviolaceum 16Aframomum angustifolium 16, 95Aframomum melegueta 17, 194Albizia adianthifolia var. adianthifolia 18Albizia chinensis 19Albizia ferruginea 20Albizia lebbeck 21Albizia stipulata 19Alchornea cordifolia 22, 88Allium fistulosum 23Aloe congolensis 24Aloe ferox 24Aloe vera 24Amaranthus cruentus 25, 61Amaranthus lividus 25Amaranthus spinosus 26Anacardium occidentale 27Ananas comosus 29Anchomanes difformis 30Anisophyllea quangensis 31Annona muricata 32, 34Annona senegalensis subsp. oulotricha 33Annona squamosa 34Anonidium manniiAnthocleista liebrechtsiana

3535

Anthocleista schweinfurthii 36Antidesma meiocarpum 37Antidesma membranaceum 37Antidesma venosum 38Arachis hypogea 39Artemisia annua 40Artocarpus altilis 41Artocarpus communis 41Artocarpus heterophyllus 43Artocarpus incisa 41Auricularia auricula-judae 116Auricularia polytricha 116Averrhoa carambola 44Azadirachta indica 46Baccaurea staudtii 173Baillonella toxisperma 236

Bauhinia thonningii 223Bambusa vulgaris 47Basella alba 48Bellucia axinanthera 49Bellucia pentamera 49Bidens pilosa 50Bixa orellana 51Boerhavia diffusa 52Bombacopsis glabra 211Borassus aethiopum 53Bosqueia angolensis 285Bosqueia phoberos 285Brassica carinata 54, 55Brassica chinensis 57Brassica integrifolia var. carinata 54Brassica juncea 55Brassica oleracea 56Brassica rapa 57Bridelia ferruginea 60Bridelia micrantha 59Brillantaisia owariensis 61Bryophyllum pinnatum 62Buchholzia macrophylla 63Buchholzia tholloniana 63Byrsocarpus sp. 301Cajanus cajan 64Canarium schweinfurthii 65Canavalia ensiformis 66, 210Canavalia gladiata 66Capsicum annuum 67Capsicum frutescens 63, 68Carica papaya 69Cassia alata 70Cassia florida 254Cassia siamea 254Catharanthus roseus 71Ceiba pentandra 72Celosia argentea 25, 73Celosia trigyna 73Cercopetalum dasyanthum 217Chaetocarpus afrianus 74Chamaesyce hirta 128Chenopodium ambrosioides 75Chlorocodon whitei 193Chlorophora excelsa 186Chromolaena odorata 6, 10, 22Chrysophyllum lacourtianum 134Cinnamomum verum 76

318

Cissus aralioides 77Cissus rubignosa 77Citrullus lanatus 78Citrus limon 79Citrus sinensis 80Cleome gynandra 82Clerodendrum formicarum 83Clerodendrum rutidosperma 82Clitandra arnoldianaClitandra cymulosa

8484, 95

Cocos nucifera 85Coffea canephora 86Cogniauxia podolaena 87Cola acuminata 88Colletoecema dewevrei 90Colocasia esculenta 91Conyza floribunda 92Conyza sumatrensis 92Corchorus olitorius 93Costus afer 95Costus lucanusianus 84, 94Costus phyllocephalus 95Crassocephalum bojeri 258Crassocephalum bumbense 258Crassocephalum crepidoides 258Crassocephalum rubens 258Crassocephalum vitellinum 258Craterispermum schweinfurthii 96Crescentia acuminata 97Crescentia arborea 97Crescentia cujete 97Crossopteryx febrifuga 98Crossopteryx kotschyana 98Croton mubango 99, 194Croton sylvaticus 100Cryptolepis oblongifolia 118Cucumeropsis edulis 101Cucumeropsis mannii 101Cucurbita maxima 102Curcuma domestica 103Curcuma longa 103Cymbopogon citratus 104Cymbopogon densiflorus 105Cynometra alexandri 173Cyperus articulatus 106Cyrtosperma senegalense 167Dacryodes edulis 107, 185, 303Desmodium gangeticum 210Desmodium lasiocarpum 108Desmodium velutinum 108

Dichrostachys cinereasubsp. platycarpa 109, 124

Dioscorea alata 110Dioscorea bulbifera 111Dioscorea cayenensis var. praehensilis 112Dioscorea praehensilis 112Diospyros heterotricha 113Diplorhynchus condylocarpon 114Dorstenia psilurus 115Dracaena mannii 116Duranta erecta 117Duranta repens 117Ectadiopsis oblongifolia 118Elaeis guineensis 119Entada abyssinica 121Entada rheedei 122Eremospatha haullevilleana 2, 45, 123Erigeron floribundus 92Eriosema cajanoides 124Eriosema psoraleoides 124Erythrina abyssinica 125Erythrina tomentosa 125Erythrococca oleracea 126Eucalyptus spp. 127Euphorbia hirta 128Ficus bubu 129Ficus hochstetteri 130Ficus lutea 129Ficus persicifolia 130Ficus thonningii 130Flacourtia jangomas 131Funtumia africana 132Funtumia latifolia 132Gaertnera paniculata 133Gambeya lacourtiana 134Garcinia buchananii 135Garcinia huillensis 135Garcinia kola 136, 194Garcinia mangostana 137Gardenia ternifolia subsp. jovis-

tonantis var. jovis-tonatis138

Gilbertiodendron dewevrei 173Glycine max 139Gmelina arborea 140Gnetum africanum 38, 141, 300Grevillea robusta 142Gynandropsis gynandra 82Gynandropsis pentaphylla 82Hallea stipulosa 143, 302Harrisonia abyssinica 230

319

Harungana madagascariensis 144Heinsia crinita 145Heinsia pulchella 145Helianthus annuus 146Helichrysum mechowianum 147Hibiscus acetosella 148Hibiscus cannabinus 149Hibiscus eetveldianus 148Hibiscus mechowii 150Hibiscus sabdariffa 149Holarrhena floribunda 151Hura crepitans 152Hymenocardia acida 153, 302Hymenocardia ulmoides 154Hyptis suaveolens 155Imperata cylindrica 10, 51, 140, 202, 268Inga edulis 156Ipomoea aquatica 157Ipomoea batatas 157Jatropha curcas 158Kalanchoe pinnata 62Lagenaria siceraria 160Landolphia camptoloba 161Landolphia heudelotii 14Landolphia humilis 161Landolphia lanceolata 162Landolphia owariensis 163Lannea antiscorbutica 164Lannea welwitschii 228Lantana camara 165Lasimorpha senegalensis 167Lentinus cf. squarrosulus 303Lippia adoensis 168Lippia grandifolia 168Lippia multiflora 168Loeseneriella clematoides 169Luffa cylindrica 170Lycopersicon esculentum 171Macaranga monandra 172Maclura excelsa 186Maesobotrya staudtii 173Maesopsis eminii 174Mangifera indica 176Manihot esculenta 178, 180Manihot glaziovii 180Manihot utilissima 178Manotes expansa 181Manotes pruinosa 181Maranta arundinaceaMaranthes glabra

182168

Megaphrynium macrostachyum 183Melinis minutiflora 184Mentha arvensis 185Mentha suaveolens 185Microdesmis puberula 299Milicia excelsa 6, 186, 190, 284Millettia eetveldeana 188Millettia laurentii 189Millettia versicolor 6, 190Mitracarpus hirtus 191Mitracarpus villosus 191Mitragyna stipulosa 143Momordica charantia 192Mondia ecornuta 193Mondia whitei 193Monodora angolensis 194Monodora myristica 99, 194Morinda citrifolia 196Morinda confusa 196Morinda lucida 195Morinda morindoides 196Moringa oleifera 197Musa spp. 198Musanga cecropioides 199Myrianthus arboreus 200Nauclea stipulosa 143Nephelium lappaceum 201Newbouldia laevis 203Nicotiana tabacum 204Nymphaea lotus 61, 205Nymphaea maculata 205Nymphaea nouchalii 205Ochna afzelii 206Ochna barteri 206Ochna welwitschii 206Ocimum americanum 207Ocimum basilicum 207Ocimum gratissimum 208Oncoba welwitschii 30, 209Oryza sativa 210Pachira glabra 211Pandanus candelabrum 212Passiflora edulis f. flavicarpa 213Passiflora quadrangularis 214Pentaclethra eetveldeana 6, 122, 172, 215Pentaclethra macrophylla 6, 122, 215, 216Pentadiplandra brazzeana 194, 217Persea americana 218Petersianthus macropcarpus 219Phaseolus lunatus 220

320

Phaseolus vulgaris 221Phyllanthus muellerianus 230Phytolacca dodecandra 222Piliostigma thonningii 223Piper guineense 224Piper nigrum 194, 224Piptadenia africana 225Piptadeniastrum africanum 225Polyporus arcularius 302Psathyrella cf. tuberculata 119Pseudospondias microcarpa 226 Psidium guajavaPsidium guineense

227227

Psophocarpus scandens 228Psorospermum febrifugum 229Psychotria calva 230Psychotria kisantuensis 230Pteris aquilina 231Pteridium aquilinum 231Pycnanthus angolensis 232Raphia gentiliana 233Raphia sp. 235Rauvolfia vomitoria 236Rhipsalis baccifera 30Ricinodendron heudelotii 237Ricinus communis 239Rumex maderensis 240Rumex usambarensis 240Rungia congoensis 241Saccharum officinarum 242Salacia elegans var. pynaertii 243Salacia pynaertii 169, 243Sapium cornutum 244Sarcocephalus latifolius 245Sarcophrynium arnoldianum 183Schwenkia americana 246Sclerosperma mannii 247Scoparia dulcis 248Scorodophloeus zenkeri 173, 249Sechium edule 250Securidaca longepedunculata 194, 251Senna alata 70Senna siamea 253Senna spectabilis 254Sesamum alatum 255Sesamum orientale 255Sesamum radiatum 255Sida rhombifolia 256Solanecio angulatus 257Solanum aethiopicum 258

Solanum esculentum 260Solanum guineense 261Solanum macrocarpon 259Solanum melongena 260Solanum melanocerasum 261Solanum scabrum 261Spondias cytherea 263Spondias mombin 262Steganotaenia araliacea 264Sterculia tragacantha 265Strychnos cocculoides 266Stylosanthes guianensis 267Symphonia globulifera 268Synedrella nodiflora 269Syzygium guineense

subsp. guineense270

Syzygium guineensesubsp. macrocarpum

271

Syzygium jambos 270, 272Syzygium malaccense 273Talinum fruticosum 274Talinum triangulare 274Tapinanthus poggei 61Tephrosia vogelii 275Terminalia catappa 276Terminalia superba 277Tetrorchidium didymostemon 278Tetrorchidium minus 278Theobroma cacao 279Thevetia neriifolia 280Thevetia peruviana 280Tithonia diversifolia 281Treculia africana subsp. africana var.

africana282

Trema orientalis 283Trichoscypha oddonii 285Trilepisium madagascariense 284Tristemma leiocalyx 285Triumfetta cordifolia 286Tylophora sp. 299Urena lobata 287Vernonia amygdalina 288Vigna subterranea 289Vigna unguiculata 290Vitex doniana 291Vitex madiensis 291Voacanga africana 293, 301Voacanga thouarsii 293Voandzeia subterranea 289Xanthosoma sagittifolium 294

321

Xylopia aethiopica 194, 295Zanthoxylum gilletii 296Zea mays 297Zingiber officinale 298