Washington Agriculture

Washington Agriculture

Julie Malone

Water and Food Sustainability

November 12, 2011

Image by http://geology.com/state-map/washington.shtml

http://geology.com/state-map/washington.shtml



Washington

Farmers and ranchers provide environmental stewardship to 15 million acres of the state’s lands.

Agriculture is the cornerstone of Washington’s economy in both rural communities and metropolitan areas. Agriculture is woven into the fabric of

Washington State’s heritage and has been an important cultural institution in Washington since the earliest days of territorial settlement. Farmers and

ranchers provide environmental stewardship to 15 million acres of the state’s lands.

Washington Agriculture

Agriculture contributes extensively to Washington’s economy and society. It generates a rich diversity of food, fiber, forage, and fuel for the state, nation, and the world. It generates income and

employment on 33,000 farms in all 39 counties. It underpins a large food processing industry and supports many supply and marketing services in machinery, transportation, packaging, and more.

Agriculture is the pillar of many rural communities, generating tax revenues for roads, schools and other services; injecting new technologies; and providing leadership in organizations (Washington

State Department of Agriculture 2011).

Image of Yakima_field.jpg (hay fields in Eastern WA); washington_apple_380.jpg (WA state fruit); cropcircle_1.jpg (Washington State’s Trust lands are leased out, giving opportunities to private

farmers and ranchers, orchardists, grape growers, row crop farmers and others).

Water Source in Washington

Rainy day in WA

Mt. Rainier

Tractor working the field in Eastern WA

Water is a critical ingredient of agricultural production. While all water originates from rain or snowfall, it becomes available for human uses through many different intermediaries including rivers and lakes, wells and aquifers, and dams and other artificial storage systems. In general, agriculture that must depend on the natural cycle of precipitation is limited to the crops or pasture that can flourish in those natural conditions. For example, cool season legumes in Western Washington and grain in Eastern Washington. There is nothing that the producer can do to alter the volume or timing of this precipitation. In contrast, water drawn by users from wells, aquifers, dams, or storage catchments can be controlled in volume and timing to suit the needs of a wide variety of crops. However, that same water is also desirable for numerous non-farm uses such as individual consumption and other municipal use, power generation, industrial uses, tribal needs, environmental goals, and transportation (Washington State Department of Agriculture 2011, 55).

Water Source in Washington

Washington’s creeks, rivers, lakes, and reservoirs Washington Rivers Shown on the Map: Chehalis River, Columbia River, Cowlitz River, Entiat River, Hangman Creek, Klicktat River, Lewis River, Lower Crab Creek, Methow River, Naches River, Nisqually River, Nooksack River, Okanongan River, Palouse River, Pend Oreille River, Puyallup River, Quinault River, Rock Creek, Sanpoil River, Skagit River, Skykomish River, Snake River, Spokane River, Toppenish Creek, Touchet River, Tucannon River, Union Flat Creek, Wenatchee River and Yakima River. Washington Lakes Shown on the Map: Banks Lake, Franklin D. Roosevelt Lake, Lake Chelan, Lake Crescent, Lake Sacajawea, Lake Wallula, Lake Washington, Moses Lake, Ozette Lake, Potholes Reservoir and Ross Lake (Geology 2011). Image by http://geology.com/lakes-rivers-water/washington.shtml

Washington Aquifers

Washington State depends on groundwater for irrigation (34%). The above map shows the Washington aquifers. There are three principal aquifers: Columbia River basalt, glacial drift, and terrace and valley-fill. The Columbia River basalt aquifer has lava flows and interbeds of sand and gravel between the flows. In the plateau near Pasco, some of the aquifer is more than 6,000 feet thick. Water storage occurs largely in fractures, rubble, and sand and gravel interbeds. Some wells produce 3,000 to 6,000 gpm and are very good irrigation supplies. The glacial drift type of aquifer arises from glacial outwash and the more permeable materials within glacial till. It has mostly unconsolidated sand and gravel, but also has silt, clay, and somewhat consolidated till (hardpan). The highly variable aquifer material results in variable yieldsusually less than 700 gpm in the Puget Sound lowlands. This aquifer type provides most of the domestic, public, and industrial water in the Puget Sound region and Spokane Valley. In the Columbia Plateau region, the glacial drift aquifer primarily fills single family domestic needs; the underlying basalt meets the greater demands for municipal, industrial, and irrigation use. Wells in thick layers of extremely permeable sand or gravel yield up to 10,000 gpm (Hermanson 1995).

Washington Aquifers

The terrace and valley-fill type of aquifer has mostly sand and gravel, providing yields of only a few gpm, which is enough for single family domestic use. But near Vancouver, industrial supplies from the aquifer reach 4,500 gpm (Hermanson 1995).

Washington Precipitation

Coast and “The Cascades”

Seattle-Tacoma, Aberdeen, mid-higher Cascades

Eastern Washington

West East

Precipitation level separates Washington’s soil

As shown above, Western Washington receives more precipitation than Eastern Washington due to North and High Cascade Range (known as “The Cascades”). West of the mountains offers more trees and greenery; East of the High Cascades is more farmland, shrubbery landscapes, and hotter climate. Average annual precipitation is higher along the coast and up in the Cascades. The Seattle-Tacoma area receives moderate amount of precipitation; Yakima, Ellensburg, Wenatchee, Spokane, and inland areas receive minimum amount of precipitation. Agriculture seems odd in Washington considering most of the population growth is in the West where it rains more; however, farming is mostly done on the East side where it has a drier climate (Washington State Department of Agriculture 2011). Image by http://www.nationalatlas.gov/printable/images/pdf/precip/pageprecip_wa3.pdf

Washington Precipitation

As the economy of Washington has developed, the number of claimants for the state’s water resources from all sources has continued to grow. In some cases the perception of both agricultural and nonagricultural water users is that demand may have already outstripped available supplies. While access to water is particularly contentious in the state’s desert areas, the growth in demand has increased the cost of access to new sources of water throughout the state. Within the current structure of state water code, it has become more difficult for new producers to acquire existing water rights and for farms to expand operations (Washington State Department of Agriculture 2011).

Washington Drought

The only areas affected by drought is the Tacoma and Olympia area. Image: http://waterwatch.usgs.gov/new/index.php?r=wa&m=dryw&w=dryw%252Cmap

Water Rights

Water laws and rights are different for the State of Washington. Water is a public resource, which is owned by all the people of the state in common. When you acquire a water right, you do not acquire ownership of the water, rather you acquire a right to use water according to the terms and conditions of your specific water right. In general there are two types of water rights: surface water rights and groundwater rights. If you have the right to divert water from a river, stream, lake, or spring, you have a surface water right. If you have the right to pump water from a well, you have a groundwater right (Washington Rivers Conservancy 2011).

Water Rights

When the water codes were adopted in 1917 for surface water and 1945 for groundwater, things changed dramatically. Since those dates, in order to establish a water right you must file an application with Ecology and obtain a permit to develop the water right. Once you have put the water to full beneficial use, the water right is considered to be “perfected” and Ecology will issue a water right certificate for the quantity of water put to beneficial use and the other elements as shown on the permit. If you currently have a water right permit, you must put the water to beneficial use and obtain a certificate from Ecology. If you have a certificate from Ecology, you have a water right, as long as you continue to use it (Washington Rivers Conservancy 2011).

Water Rights

First in Time, First in Right

Governed by Western Water Law

Use It or Lose It Principle

Property Owned by Farmer

Administered by WA State Dept of Ecology

Farms were among the earliest users of water in the state and many current water rights on farms derive from those early rights. Water ownership is governed by Western Water Law (first in time, first in right) (Washington State Department of Agriculture 2011). Water rights are a property owned by the farmer or other land owner and are administered by the Washington State Department of Ecology. A key element of this water law is that failure to use all the water available in a water right in at least one year out of five results in the permanent loss of that unused part, the “use it or lose it” principle. Farmers feel under threat that their water rights may be reduced, encroached upon, or lost under rules that have gradually been imposed upon them. Moreover, disincentives for conservation are cited by every type of FOF participant. They describe various ways that the inflexibility of current laws leads to inefficient use of water and prevents economic transfers of water both within agriculture and between agricultural and non-agricultural uses (Washington State Department of Agriculture 2011).

Washington Irrigation

Washington agriculture produces multiple products, five commodity groups, tree fruit, grains, milk, potatoes, and cattle, are of special importance. They typically account for about 70 percent of the value of state production (Washington State Department of Agriculture 2011, 31). Image by Washington Rivers Conservancy 2011

Irrigation • Drip Irrigation, also known as

trickle or micro-irrigation

• Common for Vegetable Farmers

• Advantage of Drip v Overhead Sprinkler Systems

• Installation

Drip irrigation, also called trickle or micro-irrigation, is the most efficient method of irrigating by applying water slowly and directly to the roots of plants. While sprinkler systems are around 75-85% efficient, drip systems typically are 90% or higher. In the Pacific Northwest it is common for vegetable farmers to use a solid set overhead sprinkler irrigation system while fruit growers use drip or trickle irrigation systems. Advantages of drip irrigation systems as compared to overhead sprinkler systems include reduced water use, reduced soil erosion, reduced fertilizer and pesticide runoff potentials, decreased disease, decreased water loss to evaporation, and decreased weed growth. The installation of an efficient drip irrigation system begins with a good design that includes information regarding soil type, crop needs, water pressure, and appropriate components to be used in the system. It is advantageous to consult with or have an irrigation engineer design the irrigation system. Consultants should have knowledge regarding Federal, State, and County regulations and ordinances for your area. Web resources are listed below to provide suggestions however should not be considered all-inclusive (Washington State University 2011). Image from http://www.irrigationtutorials.com/dripguide.htm.

Irrigation

• Proper irrigation water management is critical to the success of any irrigation system. Scheduling when and how much to irrigate is critical in order to achieve the full benefit of drip irrigation. Maintenance of filters, soil moisture monitoring, and control of metal deposits, algae and aquatic plants are requirements for optimum success. Web resources are listed below to provide suggestions.

• Installing a backflow device is a component of irrigation systems that are regulated under the Federal, State, and County ordinances and regulations. Backflow or anti- siphoning devices prevent contamination of chemicals in drinking water that may occur during irrigation.

• The Federal Safe Drinking Water Act and the State of Washington have passed rules and regulations that deals with backflow device requirements and monitoring of such devices. To ensure compliance with Federal, State, and County regulations and ordinances, design and installation of irrigation systems is best overseen by an irrigation design specialist (Washington State University 2011).

Drip Irrigation

Irrigation with Wastewater

Wastewater treatment refers to the process of removing pollutants from water previously employed for industrial, agricultural, or municipal uses. The techniques used to remove the pollutants present in wastewater can be broken into biological, chemical, physical and energetic. These different techniques are applied through the many stages of wastewater treatment.

A more complex design of a home drip system. Image from http://www.irrigationtutorials.com/dripguide.htm


After wastewater receives primary and sometimes secondary treatment in a community treatment plant or individual onsite treatment system, additional treatment steps often are required prior to irrigation to reduce the amount of suspended solids and organisms in the wastewater. Both can pose a threat to public health and clog systems. Microorganisms, such as bacteria, can collect or multiply and create slime that clogs systems. Pretreatment also minimizes odors in wastewater, so there is less potential for creating a public nuisance and attracting animals that can spread diseases.

Different degrees of pretreatment are required for the wastewater depending on how it will be used and the intended method of irrigation. For example, standards are more rigorous for surface irrigation methods, such as spray irrigation, and when irrigating food or feed crops or land intended for public use. Biological pretreatment to remove organic matter from the wastewater is followed by filtration, to remove small particles from the wastewater, and disinfection. Subsurface drip irrigation systems also employ filters mainly to protect against system clogging. Additional treatment may be necessary to protect the receiving environment and may include secondary treatment plus disinfection. This adds to the cost of building, operating, and maintaining systems, which should be considered when determining whether irrigation is a practical wastewater disposal option (Pipeline 1999).


Spray irrigation is an efficient way to nourish plants and apply reclaimed wastewater to land. Some spray systems are very similar to potable-water sprinkler systems used to irrigate lawns. Others are specifically designed for agricultural applications.

While there are many possible spray system designs, they all work by distributing treated wastewater across the soil surface.

Systems should be designed by qualified professionals who have specific experience working with irrigation systems (Pipeline 1999).

Tillage

• Continued Investments in Energy Efficiency

• No-till, Direct-seed, and Strip-till

• Reductions in “Conventional” Tillage (Moldboard Plow)

There are numerous commercially available tools and practices that can be employed by Washington farmers today to reduce energy use. Producers in virtually every area of the state have tried and used various technologies with success (technical and financial). Rising energy prices are spurring new interest in energy efficiency technology. Continued investments in improving energy efficiency provide the most substantial opportunity for near-term mitigation of increasing energy costs and should likely be included as high priorities for investment (Washington State University 2011).

Tillage

• Continued Investments in Energy Efficiency

• No-till, Direct-seed, and Strip-till

• Reductions in “Conventional” Tillage (Moldboard Plow)

Use of soil conservation tillage technology (no-till, direct-seed, and strip-till) can provide substantial savings in liquid fuel energy use. Reductions in use of “conventional” tillage (moldboard plow) in the dryland region are spreading, but significant opportunities for additional technology option remain, particularly in the high-rainfall dryland and irrigated regions. The energy savings of these changes are extremely significant, with producers reporting between 35 and 70% savings on fuel (and wear and tear on machinery). Historically, these energy savings have not overcome the capital costs of purchasing no-till equipment (analogous to buying fuel efficient cars) or the learning curve necessary for the transition of farming systems, but higher prices are shrinking that gap. Continued research on technology and cropping systems will be necessary to support additional shifts toward conservation tillage (Washington State University 2011).

Soil Erosion

Washington State had erosion control practices instituted since the late 1970s, which has reduced erosion from cropland in the Palouse River Basin by at least 10 percent. If monitoring continues to show a decrease in the amount of suspended sediment transported by the Palouse River, then erosion control practices are also helping to improve surface-water quality. Since the Palouse River Basin was first farmed in the late 1800s, soil erosion resulting from runoff water has been an ongoing problem, and became particularly acute in the early 1900s when steep lands once used for hay and pasture were converted to grain production. It is estimated that 40 percent of the rich Palouse soils have been lost to erosion. A U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) study reported that from 1939 through 1977, the average annual rate of soil erosion in the Palouse River Basin was 9.2 tons per acre (tons/acre) of available cropland, or about 14 tons/acre of cultivated cropland. The study concluded that without erosion control practices, the average annual rate of erosion would increase to 14 tons/acre as more cropland was put into production. Innovative farmers and other agriculture professionals have been developing ways to reduce soil erosion in the Palouse River Basin since the 1930s. The first soil conservation district in Washington State was organized by a group of farmers at Palouse in 1940 (Ebbert 1998).

Soil Erosion

• 1972

• Public Law 92-500

• 1979

• 1985 Food Security Act

In 1972, Public Law 92-500 mandated a water-quality management plan for dryland agriculture. The final plan, adopted by the Washington State Department of Ecology in 1979, recommended best management practices to control soil erosion and reduce runoff of nutrients and agricultural chemicals from cropland. Many farmers voluntarily implemented erosion control practices that were appropriate for the slopes, soil types, and climatic conditions of their fields. These practices have reduced erosion by about 1.7 million tons annually, which represents about a 10 percent reduction in the annual rate of erosion when compared with erosion controls applied to the 1.2 million acres of cropland in the Palouse River Basin. Since the passage of the Food Security Act in 1985, farmers have been required to apply conservation measures in order to receive USDA program benefits. As attention is focused on the effects of farming on natural resources, farmers will be asked to apply measures to satisfy natural resource standards as well. Long-term monitoring of discharge and suspended sediment, such as the USGS does at the Palouse River at Hooper, can help document trends resulting from the application of erosion control and other management practices (Ebbert 1998).

Obstacles to Food Production

• 20 Year Old Processing Plants

• Excessive Processing

• Mass Production

• Decline in Berry Production

Many fruit and vegetable processing plants use freezing or canning techniques to process the crops. These plants are often over 20 years old and the oldest, least modern and most inefficient plants have been major casualties during the recent plant closure period. Plant closures were necessary because there was excessive processing capacity in Washington and other Northwest states. Fruit and vegetable processors have also found that mass production of commodity-style, undifferentiated products necessitates that they follow a low price business model. This is not viable for most Washington processors since they focus on value-added products that meet current and changing customer preferences. There is a premium for flexibility in producing the desired forms and volumes customers want while also adopting lean manufacturing practices. Western Washington fruit processing is dominated by berry fruits, including raspberries, blueberries and strawberries. Strawberry production has declined such that most of this crop is now sold as fresh in-season fruit. Small and medium size plants are dominant processors of raspberries and blueberries. This is mostly a function of vertical integration where larger growers handle the processing of their own crops and may supplement their processing volume with purchased fruit from other growers. Efforts are under way in Northwest Washington to establish new processing facilities that will be controlled by growers but this effort is in its infancy (Washington State Department of Agriculture. 2011).



Vern’s Moses Lake Meats, in Moses Lake, Washington

Meat Processing Plant


• The principal water related need from a food processing perspective is additional water storage. This promotes the water needs for environmental protection and municipal demands during low water periods. Washington State government has been proactive in addressing water storage issues and there will undoubtedly be many chances in the future where agricultural interests can partner with the State and other water users for more effective water resource planning.

• In regards to wastewater treatment at food processing plants, it is vital for processing industry viability that land application of wastewater continues in the future. There are excellent partnership opportunities for the industry, universities and State government to conduct research and development that determines safe and cost-effective land application methods (Washington State Department of Agriculture. 2011).

Genetically-Modified Crops

• In 2010, WA State Government pushed for GM crops and that Washington state cereal breeding company, InterGrain, has joined with Monsanto, which has acquired a 19.9 % minority interest. Initially the collaboration will support conventional breeding techniques.

• In the longer term, InterGrain has always planned to utilize GM traits in wheat as soon as they become available and will give the greatest benefits to WA growers in the future.

• The business arrangement with Monsanto will enable InterGrain to bring the latest and best traits to WA and Australia for the overall benefit of grain growers (Grogan 2010).

Research on GMO Crops Are there any published research papers discussing the scientific pros/cons of GMO crops in Washington?

Researchers took a poll of consumers opinions and thoughts about GMO crops. Consumers expressed very strong concerns about the environmental risks of GMO; however, these are the same consumers that question organic food (Reed 2008).

In 2009, farmers growing GMO sugar beets in Washington State refused to map out where they were growing the engineered crops. These farmers said they were afraid of ecoterrorism and burned crops (Ganzel 2009).

Conservation Programs

Conservation programs received increased funding in the new Farm Bill, and the Country of Origin Labels (COOL) for perishables is expanded and initiated. The conservation provisions in the 2008 Farm Bill will affect farmers for years to come. The new provisions build on the conservation gains made by landowners over the past decade. They simplify existing programs and create new programs to address high priority goals. Specific emphasis in the Farm Bill is also placed on assistance to organic and specialty crop producers, as well as beginning and socially disadvantaged farmers. Producers who fall under these emphasis areas, along with conventional farmers, can take advantage of technical and financial assistance to help them address resource problems on their land. This could include issues like integrated pest management, precision agriculture, irrigation efficiency, erosion control and water quality (Washington State Department of Agriculture 2011).

Improve Sustainability • No Tillage or Limited

• Locate Grants to Keep Small Farms Active

• Organic Fungicides and Oils

• Projects

Climate Change Due to the lack of precipitation in Washington, farmers need to increase or promote either no-till or limited till to maximize soil usage in between growing seasons. Population Growth America was built on farmers and entrepreneurs. In order to compete with larger and corporate owned farms, Washington State farmers will extra funds to keep up with increasing farm production expenses and a growing population. Much like the rest of the country, Washington's farming community is dominated by large 2,000+ acre farms, accounting for roughly two thirds of the state's total farm acreage. The mid-size farm has apparently been shrinking during this period but there also find significant growth in the number of small farms, those under 50 acres. The number of these small farms has actually grown from about 14,500 in 1969 to 25,000 in 2007 while the number of mid-size farm owners has been stable, though their average acreage per farm has declined somewhat (Black Diamond Now 2010). Washington State has been hit by viruses on fruit. In the Pacific Northwest region, an emerging complex of virus diseases, raspberry leaf mottle virus (RLMV), a closterovirus in raspberries that has caused symptoms of crumbly fruit, resulting in lowered fruit quality, crop loss and shortened life of the field. Organic fungicides and oil will need to replace pesticides that cause bodily harm and death of other natural food (SARE 2010). Image of blackdiamondnow.org.

Improve Sustainability

The average farm in Washington State has been shrinking in size. However, the number of small farms/farmers is growing possibly due to grapes and the wine industry. The total harvest value of

crops in the state is dominated by the big commodities.

On the farm production value chart, field crops consist largely of wheat, potatoes and hay virtually all grown on larger farms east of the mountains. Livestock in Washington state is principally dairy

from the west side.

On the livestock total value chart, aquaculture is on a par with chicken in Washington; in the $10's of millions. Eggs are significantly larger and growing (Black Diamond Now 2010).

Improve Sustainability

Edmonds Community College in Monroe Washington is working on a project called, "Waste to Worms to Eggs: Converting Institutional Food Waste into Livestock Feed Using Intensive Vermiculture Practice." This project will demonstrate that food waste can be converted into high protein feed for chickens and organic fertilizer through intensive vermiculture practices. The project will convert food waste from the 780 bed Washington State Reformatory Unit of the Monroe Correctional Complex in Monroe, Washington. The idea for the project is to help save water by converting existing food waste instead of growing new food for the chickens (SARE 2011).

Improve Sustainability Washington State University in Prosser, WA is working on a project called, "Native Habitat Restoration, Sustainable integrated pest management (IPM) and Beneficial Insect Conservation in Washington Viticulture." Washington has evolved into a premier region for quality wine grape production. While a number of insect pests can seriously harm grapes, considerable progress has been made in developing low-impact (IPM) strategies that can increase the role of conservation biological control (CBC). This grant will try to enhance IPM and CBC by restoring patches of native habitat and using native perennials as ground covers. The idea is to create a farm landscape that mimics the habitat that existed before the vineyard with the goal of attracting beneficial insects that prey on troublesome pests as well as pollinator bees and butterflies. The impact will be evaluated and monitored in four demonstration vineyards and compared with nearby vineyards managed in a more conventional fashion. The anticipated outcome will be an innovative habitat restoration model and marketing opportunity for Washington vineyards. Results will be distributed through an extension bulletin, fact sheets, insect identification sheets, websites and scientific publications (SARE 2010).

Future Agricultural Process Conduct a state-wide assessment and prioritize projects for

investment readiness; identify and apply for appropriate funding.

Change relinquishment statute to reward irrigation efficiencies and other best practices without removing water from agricultural land.

Develop watershed and other local level water resource management programs to continue water conservation, drainage, transfers, and irrigation efficiencies.

Upgrade and improve the antiquated water distribution, drainage and irrigation infrastructure.

Continue current efforts to identify, evaluate, and develop increased water availability including storage capacity, flexibility, and reuse.

(Washington State Department of Agriculture 2011)

► Mustard Cover Crops

► “Green Manure”

► Record Yields

► Shrinking Profit

Innovation of Crops

State potato growers are beginning to use mustard cover crops to suppress pests, improve soil quality and save money, thanks to SARE-funded research and education efforts at Washington State University. The practice of using mustard as a “green manure,” growing the crop for about two months and working it into the soil before planting potatoes was employed on 23,000 acres in 2007, up from 1,800 in 1999. Although Washington’s potato growers have been seeing record yields in recent years, profit margins are shrinking, partly due to rising production costs. Mustard-based green manure has the potential to provide environmental benefits while cutting operating costs in a variety of areas, including the use of water, fertilizers and pesticides. Mustard naturally contains compounds that behave like fumigants when the plant is incorporated into the soil. Researchers estimate that producers can save $41 per acre when they use mustard green manure as a replacement for the synthetic fumigant metam sodium. Mustard green manure’s benefits also include improvements in nutrient cycling and water infiltration, which can help producers use less water and money on fertilizers (SARE 2010).

Cooperation Between Farms

The Farm at 21 Acres

Just north of the Seattle city center, Growing Washington is partnering with another local non-profit, 21 Acres, and Washington State University to operate a new farm where community education is

the focus. The 21 Acres site is the current home to community gardens, will be the new home of the Woodinville Farmers’ Market, and with many more amazing projects taking shape, it is already an

amazing place to be. By administering an operating market farm in the heart and the Growing Washington is going to be managing an exemplary workspace that is a profitable farm, a site for

education, as well as a fun place for community members to connect with agriculture.

Image from http://www.growingwashington.org/21acres_farm.php

References

• Black Diamond Now. 2010. Washington state ag trends. http://www.blackdiamondnow.org/2010/07/washington-state-ag-trends.html (accessed November 11, 2011).

• Ebbert, James C. 1998. Soil erosion in the Palouse River Basin: indications of improvement. USGS.

http://wa.water.usgs.gov/pubs/fs/fs069-98/ (accessed November 10, 2011).

• Ganzel, Bill. 2009. The GMO backlash. Wessels Living History Farm. http://www.livinghistoryfarm.org/farminginthe70s/crops_14.html (accessed November 11, 2011).

• Geology. 2011. Washington lakes, rivers, and water resources. http://geology.com/lakes-rivers-

water/washington.shtml (accessed November 11, 2011).

• Grogan, Janet. 2010. WA government partners with Monanto. GMWatch. http://www.gmwatch.org/latest-listing/1-news-items/12445-wa-government-partners-with-monsanto (accessed November 10, 2011).

• Hermanson, Ronald. 1995. Washington groundwater: a vital resource. Washington State University. http://cru.cahe.wsu.edu/cepublications/eb1622/eb1622.html (accessed November 10, 2011).

• Pipeline. 1999. Spray and drip irrigation for wastewater reuse and disposal. National Small Flows Clearinghouse, Winter 1999 10, 1.

http://geology.com/lakes-rivers-water/washington.shtml





References

• State of Washington Department of Ecology. 2011. Background - hydrogeology of Washington State. http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/eap/groundwater/survey.html (accessed November 10, 2011).

• Reed, M. 2008. Sustainable farmland management: transdisciplinary approaches. London: MPG Books.

• Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education (SARE). 2010. Late season and overwintering management of the large raspberry aphid. http://www.westernsare.org/Projects/Funded-Projects-by-Year/2012-Graduate-Student-Projects (accessed November 11, 2011).

• Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education (SARE). 2010. Native habitat restoration, sustainable IPM and beneficial insect conservation in Washington viticulture. http://www.westernsare.org/Projects/Funded-Projects-by-Year/2010-Projects#wa (accessed November 11, 2011).

• Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education (SARE). 2010. Washington. http://www.westernsare.org/ (accessed November 11, 2011).

References

• Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education (SARE). 2011. Waste to worms to eggs: converting institutional food waste into livestock feed using intensive vermiculture practice. http://www.westernsare.org/Projects/Funded-Projects-by-Year/2011-Projects (accessed November 11, 2011).

• Washington Rivers Conservancy. 2011. Landowner’s guide to Washington water rights. http://warivers.org/wrc_handbook.pdf (accessed November 10, 2011).

• Washington State Department of Agriculture. 2011. Future of farming. Washington Agriculture Strategic Plan 2020 and Beyond. http://agr.wa.gov/fof/docs/FoFStrategicPlan.pdf (accessed November 10, 2011).

• Washington State Department of Agriculture. 2011. Future of farming in Washington: energy. http://agr.wa.gov/fof/docs/Energy.pdf (accessed November 10, 2011).

• Washington State University. 2011. Drip irrigation. http://smallfarms.wsu.edu/crops/irrigation/ (accessed November 10, 2011).

Documents

Washington Agriculture