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© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere
Facets of Academics
Prof. D. M. Dhamdhere
CSE Department, IIT [email protected]
All original content © 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere
© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere
Facets of Academics
1. The educational process
2. Defining knowledge
3. How should we learn?
4. Cognitive load theory
5. Cognitive theory of multimedia learning
6. Metacognition
7. Critical thinking
8. Tools for knowledge representation and thinking
9. Active Learning
10.Learning Styles
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© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere
TheEducational
Process
Value the educational process
… not just the degree
?
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© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere
The Educational Process
• What is education? What are its goals?– Socrates
• Education is the kindling of a flame, not the filling of a vessel– Martin Luther King Jr.
• Intelligence plus character---that is the goal of true education– C. S. Lewis
• Education without values, as useful as it is, seems rather to make man a more clever devil
– Carl Rogers• The only person who is educated is the one who has learned
how to learn and change
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The Educational Process
• Goals of the educational process (source: Dictionary.com)
– Impart knowledge– Develop the powers of reasoning & judgment– Prepare intellectually for a mature life
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Defining knowledge
• The word “knowledge” of common parlance has several connotations
• See what famous persons have said about knowledge:– Albert Einstein
• Information is not knowledge• Any fool can know. The point is to understand
– T. S. Eliot• Where is all the knowledge we lost with information?
– Alfred Tennyson• Knowledge comes, but wisdom lingers
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Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy ofLearning Domains
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Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy of Learning Domains
• Keywords (verbs) of categories of the Cognitive Domain
Category Verbs describing activities in category
Creating Combine, design, generate Evaluating Appraise, assess, justify
Analyzing Compare, contrast, separate …
Applying Compute, construct, predict …
Understanding Comprehend, explain, summarize …
Remembering Define, describe, identify
• Different verbs can be used to describe Internet activities, e.g., bookmarking, annotating.
Complexity
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How Should We Learn?
• Vygotsky– Language and social interaction are fundamental means of
education– Learning occurs just above a learner’s current competence level
• Ausubel– Learners associate new knowledge with existing concepts in
their mental structures
• Wittrock– Make students responsible for building relations between new
subject-matter and own knowledge
• Merrill– Provide cognitive structure for prior and new knowledge
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How Do We Learn?
• There are several theories of learning• We describe Gagne’s learning theory
– Gagne defined a “learning outcome” as change in behaviour of a learner due to a learning experience
• Learning behaviour is determined by state of learning of a learner
• Instructor provides stimulii that result in changes in the state of learning
• A learner shows “improved bahaviour” after learning
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Gagne’s Theory of Learning
Internalconditions External
Condition(stimulus)
Response is a change in internal conditions
Stimulus-response associations (realize learning)
New Behaviourof learner
OldBehaviourof learner
Learningoutcome
Learner’s mind
Learner before learning
Learner after learning
Events of instruction
Create Cause
Representprior learning
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© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere
Gagne’s Theory of Learning
• Three of the five categories of learning outcomes
Verbal information(“Knowing that”: Declarative knowledge)
-Recall of organized bodies of knowledge-Learning outcome: Ability to meaningfully reconstruct and state in sentences
Intellectual skills(“Knowing how to”: Procedural knowledge)
-Nos, language, concepts about environment-Learning outcome: Applying simple rules to a class of situations
Cognitive strategies(Techniques of thinking, analyzing, solving)
-Executive control processes: when and how to use intellectual skills & decl. knowledge-Learning outcome: Problem solving, learning, thinking
Complexity Verbs: Arrange, identify, recognize, recall
Classify, identify, select, apply, schedule
Argue, assess, compare, predict
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Cognitive Load Theory (CLT)
• Cognitive load theory characterizes the mental effort involved in learning activities
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Cognitive Load Theory
• Cognitive load theory integrates our knowledge of cognitive structures and instructional design principles
• Human cognitive architecture has a long-term memory, a working memory, and short-term sensory memories– Most human cognitive activity is determined by information held
in long-term memory• This information has been learnt in order to cognitively adapt
to the environment; it is in the form of schemas• Learning is defined as alteration in the long-term memory
– Cognitive information is actually processed in working memory• It results in formation of schemas
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Cognitive Load Theory
Figure from Novak, 2006
Stores knowledgein the form of schemas
Schema categorizes multiple information elements as a single element(e.g., objects & relationships)
Can store only 7±2 elements for only a few seconds
Schemas must be formed and transferred toLong-term memory
Used duringCognitive activity Use may be
automatic
Non-schema datais searched randomly
In absence ofknowledge, processing is by trial-and-error
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Cognitive Load Theory
• Understanding occurs when all relevant info items can be processed simultaneously in working memory (WM)– If number of information items required exceeds the size of
working memory• Schemas must be formed; it reduces the number of items • Forming schemas by trial-and-error consumes time; it delays
understanding• Imperfect understanding occurs if schemas cannot be
formed in time
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Cognitive Theory ofMultimedia Learning
• Cognitive load has three components– Intrinsic cognitive load is the cognitive load due to natural
complexity of information processing in a subject– Germane cognitive load is caused by schema formation while
learning– Extraneous cognitive load is caused by the manner in which
information is presented to a learner. For example,• Problem solving causes large extraneous load because it
causes heavy load on working memory that interferes with schema forming
• Means-ends analysis causes large extraneous load
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Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning
Spoken words
Pictures
Written words
Integration of verbal and pictorial models with each other & with prior knowledge
Also calledpropositional model
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Design of Multimedia Instruction
• Combining text and pictures– Their manner of presentation should facilitate integration – It can happen if text and pictures are
• Semantically related (coherence condition)• Presented closely together (contiguity condition)
– Temporal contiguity : At the same time– Spatial contiguity : Visually close to one another
Lack of spatial contiguity causes split-attention condition, which increases the cognitive effort
Printed words appearing close to a picture reduce thesplit-attention effect
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Design of Multimedia Instruction
• Cognitive Load Reduction in MMI (Mayer, Moreno, 2003)
– Three kinds of cognitive demands• Essential processing
– Making sense of the presented material• Incidental processing
– Not essential, but required by the design of learning task, e.g., processing background music, animation, etc.
• Representational processing– Processes aimed at holding a mental representation in
working memory over a period of time, e.g., in case of split-attention
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Metacognition*
• Metacognition is “thinking about thinking”, i.e., thinking about one’s own thinking processes such as– Study skills– Memory capabilities– Ability to monitor learning
Source: Wikipedia
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Metacognition
• Metacognition has 2 components:1. Metacognitive knowledge: Knowledge about cognitive
processes, which can be used to control cognitive processes. Flavell (1979) divided it into 3 kinds of knowledge
Knowledge about Person variables
- Knowledge of how humans learn and process info- Knowledge about one’s own learning process
Knowledge aboutTask variables
- Knowledge about nature of task and its processing demands
Metacognitive strategies- Sequential processes used by a person to control cognitive activities- Knowledge about when and where to use them
2. Metacognitive regulation: Use M. knowledge to reach cognitive goal
Declarativeknowledge
Proceduralknowledge
Conditionalknowledge
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Metacognition
• Metacognitive regulation: Contains 3 skills– Planning: Appropriate selection of strategies and correct
allocation of resources– Monitoring: Be aware of one’s comprehensive and task
performance– Evaluating: Appraise the final product of a task and efficiency of
its performance. Re-evaluate strategies if needed
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Powers ofReasoning and Judgment
• Rene Descartes– I think; therefore I am
• Confucius– He who learns but does not think, is lost!
• Thomas A Edison– Five percent of the people think; ten percent of the people think
they think; and the other eighty-five percent would rather die than think
• Stephen King– The thought process can never be complete without articulation
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How Should We Think?
• We should use purposeful and reflective judgment in deciding what to believe and what to do in response to– Observations– Experience– Verbal or written expressions– Arguments
• It is called critical thinking
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Critical Thinking
• Example: How to obtain answer to a question by using web resources?– Analyze the information available from multiple sources– Validate the information from each source, rejecting
unreliable/illogical information– Correlate information from various sources to make a cohesive
whole• Take care of differences in terminology used in various
sources– Express the answer effectively
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Critical Thinking
• A critical thinker*– Raises vital questions and problems, formulating them clearly
and precisely– Gathers and assesses relevant information– Comes to well-reasoned conclusions and solutions– Thinks open-mindedly about alternatives – Communicates effectively with others in figuring out solutions to
complex problems; without being unduly influenced by others
• A critical thinker examines and improves own thinking– It is a portable skill; it helps in all aspects of life
*Source: Wikipedia
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Tools forRepresenting Knowledge and Thinking
• Many issues can be tackled effectively if knowledge can be represented– Planning a course or curriculum – Checking whether a learner has prerequisites or prior learning– Detecting misconceptions in a learner’s mind – Evaluating whether learning has occurred in a course
• Represent knowledge before and after a course and compare
• Two widely used tools are– Concept Maps– Vee Diagrams
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Concept Map
Figure from Novak, 2006
Concept map for “Why seasons occur”
A free online concept mapping tool:A free online concept mapping tool:IHMC CmapTools http://cmap.ihmc.usIHMC CmapTools http://cmap.ihmc.us
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© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere
Vee Diagram
• The Vee diagram is based on the view that “knowledge is constructed” and not “discovered”– Construction of new knowledge begins with our observations of
events or objects through the concepts we already possess– We make records of our observations and use them while
constructing knowledge
• Thus, concepts, events or objects, and observations are key elements of knowledge construction
• A focus question determines the scope of the inquiry
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Vee Diagram
Giveninfo
Methodsguided bystatedprinciples
Priorknowledge
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Path 1 enables thinking based on events/objects in focusPath 2 enables construction of an answer
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© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere
Active Learning
• Quotes related to active learning– Benjamin Franklin
• Tell me and I forget, teach me and I may remember, involve me and I learn
– Phil Collins• In learning you will teach, and in teaching you will learn
– Will Rogers• A man only learns in two ways, one by reading, and the other
by association with smarter people
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© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere
Active Learning
• In active learning, learners are responsible for their own learning. – Typically, they are expected to achieve learning by actively
participating it learning activities– It requires learners to have a background in the topic
• Some active learning techniques– Think-pair-share: Learners first work in pairs, and then share
their results with the class– Learning by teaching: Learners take turns teaching to one
another– Collaborative learning groups
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Active Learning
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Source: Internet
© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere
Learning Styles
• The learning style of a learner indicates how the learner prefers to receive and process information
• There are several dimensions to the learning style*– Perception: What type of information is preferred by a learner?– Input: Which external channel (visual / audio) is preferred for
receiving information?– Organization: What kind of organization of material (facts /
principles) is preferred?– Processing: How does the learner prefer to process information?– Understanding: How does the learner progress toward
understanding?
* Felder and Silverman, Engg Edu 1988
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Learning Styles
What is your style?
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Learning Styles
• Perception: Sensing and Intuitive learners– Sensing learners like observing, gathering data through senses
• Sensing learners like facts, data, and experimentation– Intuitive learners like speculation, imagination, hunches
• Intuitive learners prefer principles and theories• They like symbols and can translate them into their meanings
• Input: Visual and auditory learners– Visual learners remember best what they see
• Pictures, diagrams, films, demonstrations– Auditory learners remember sounds, words– Most persons are visual learners
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Learning Styles
• Organization: Inductive learners proceed from data to generalities; deductive learners go in opposite direction– Inductive style is the natural human learning style– Deductive style is natural teaching style for technical subjects
• Processing: Active and reflective learners– Active learners work well in group– Reflective learners work better by themselves or in pairs
• Understanding: Sequential and global learners– Sequential learners can learn material as it is presented– Global learners understand in fits and starts– Sequential learners: good in analysis, global learners: synthesis
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