Gender Stereotypes in Selected Fairy Tales: Implications for

Teaching Reading in the Foundation Phase in South Africa

Madoda Cekiso

University of North-West, Potchefstroom Campus, P/B x 6001,Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa

Telephone: 018 299 4749, Fax: 086 7776 642, E-mail: madoda.cekiso@nwu.ac.za

KEYWORDS Gender. Stereotypes. Gender Equality. Critical Reader. Foundation Phase. Critical Literacy

ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to investigate gender stereotypes in fairy tales in order to raise awareness of genderissues in learning and teaching, especially in the reading process. A purposive sample of two English and two IsiXhosa fairytales were selected for intensive analysis among the popular fairy tales. The discourse analysis was used to analyze and deconstructthe texts with regard to how female and male characters were portrayed. The results indicated that both genders were frequentlypresented in stereotypical terms. The females were portrayed as submissive and dependent on men to rescue them. On the otherhand, boys were portrayed as having power, bravery, strength and wit. This has implication for teaching reading in the FoundationPhase as this portrayal is stereotypical and not likely to be an accurate representation of many women today in the New SouthAfrica.

INTRODUCTION

The issue of gender equality and womensempowerment has been raised and discussed inmany forums. For example, it was among theissues discussed in the European Unions (UN)strategy for sustainable development adopted in2006, one of the United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)(2005, 2006, 2007) priorities, discussed in theFourth World Conference on Women in Beijing(1995) and many other forums. Discussions inthese forums have resulted in the existence ofcomprehensive frameworks that laid the foun-dation of equal treatment and equal opportuni-ties between men and women. In South Africa,for example, there have been a number of legis-lative procedures in place to uphold the right ofwomen and girls, such as Promotion of Equal-ity and Prevention of Unfair Discrimination Act(2000), the Employment Equity Act (1998), theDomestic Violence Act (1998) and the Consti-tution of South Africa (1996). In the discussionsabout gender equality in the above mentionedorganizations and many other forums, a con-sensus was reached that textbooks can be usedas a vehicle for gender equality in meeting thegoals of Education For All (EFA) (UNESCO2009). UNESCO further points out those text-books are a basic vehicle of socialization, con-veying knowledge and values. Thus, textbookswere viewed as key tools for achieving interna-tional goals relating to Education for All, gen-der equality and education for human rights and

peace. However, textbooks have been the objectof debate and controversy. Numerous studiesreveal that gender stereotypes exist in the text-books, especially in childrens literature (Louie2012; Rayaprol 2010; European Womens Lobby2008; Kuo 2005). This is a cause for concern astextbooks are supposed to uphold the values ofthe Constitution of South Africa. Adding to thecrucial role played by textbooks, Cherlad (2006)points out that children learn the values andbeliefs of their culture through the transmissionof stories and tales produced by childrens lit-erature. Therefore, the current study seeks toexplore if the information contained in the En-glish and IsiXhosa fairy tales is a true reflec-tion of the Constitution of South Africa towardsgender equality. This concern is echoed byCherland (2006) when she states that the livesof women are changing in our society, and it isimportant to mirror this change in childrensliterature as well.

According to Lazar (1993), childrens litera-ture, in addition to being one of the favouratechoices for reading among learners as they growup, is commonly used in the context of readingpractices in English Second Language class-rooms. As it has already been pointed out thatgender stereotypes exist in childrens literature,especially fairy tales, Fox (1993) warns teach-ers to be sensitive to their teaching materials orthey will easily fall into accepting everythingliterature presents without questioning it. Inaddition, Kuo (2005) points out that in a demo-cratic and anti-bias classroom, teachers need to

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be extremely aware of the fact that dominantreading practices will make students accustomedto the texts and as a result identify themselveswith the characters in many stories. Accordingto Crowle (no date), many of the social stereo-types and cultural symbols that children learnover time come from the books they read. There-fore, if the textbooks contain information thatis gender bias, that could lead to the perpetua-tion of gender stereotypes subconsciouslythrough textbooks. In order to avoid such situa-tion, Kuo (2005: 2) points out that teachersshould help learners develop critical thinkingthrough learning processes such as readingagainst the grain, in which teachers equiplearners with a certain stance that deliberatelychallenges the text and helps learners uncoverthe gender inequalities present in the text. Inaddition, Louie (2001) states that coping withgender stereotyping in textbooks requires in-creasing awareness of gender issues on the partof authors and teachers.

According to Louie (2001), studies on gen-der stereotypes in childrens literature appearedas a consequence of the womens movement inthe early 1970s. Kasner (2004) defines genderstereotypes as characterizations involving per-sonality attributes, physical traits, ambitions,occupations, and life styles ascribed to an indi-vidual, because of his or her sex. Kasner fur-ther points out that gender bias exists in thecontent language and illustrations of a largenumber of childrens fairy tales. According toRayaprol (2012), sex is a biological fact andgender is a social construct. Therefore, boys andgirls do not have any natural psychological orsocial differences, but it is society that makesthem learn gender roles. According to EuropeanWomens Lobby (2008), gender roles are shapedand imposed through a variety of social influ-ences. For example, European Womens Lobbypoints out that the first and one of the strongestinfluences on a persons perceived gender roleis his or her parents. European Womens Lobbyfurther point out that parents are the first teach-ers and some parents still hold traditional defi-nitions of maleness and femaleness and whatkind of activities are appropriate for each. Gen-der roles are also reinforced by school in thataccess to formal primary, secondary and thirdlevel education and the content of the curricu-lum as taught to girls and to boys is a majorinfluencing factor on gender differences, choices

and access to rights European Womens Lobby(EWL) (2008). In addition, Rayaprol (2012)states that school continues to reinforce genderstereotypes by offering home science to girls andsports to boys. Media is also cited as reinforc-ing traditional attitudes and behaviour, includ-ing in advertisement and childrens programmes(EWL 2008). Crowle (no date) points out thatstereotypes are learned behaviours and comefrom many avenues like parents, family mem-bers, the media, school, the general public andthe books children learn.

Gender is portrayed in many ways in fairytales. According to Kasner (2004), in fairy tales,boys are typically adventurous; rescuers; fight-ers and capable; symbolize ingenuity and per-severance. On the other hand, female charac-ters are represented as victims; seldom triumphif not beautiful; passive; submissive and depen-dant to male figures. Kasner further points outthat stereotype in fairy tales set children up forunreal expectations and girls to believe falsehopes and not to empower themselves. Kasneris of the opinion that in many fairy tales, bothboys and girls are often presented in stereotypi-cal terms and stereotypes in literature can qui-etly condition children to accept the way theysee the world; thus, reinforcing gender images.Louie (2012) states that fairy tales play a majorrole in reinforcing gender stereotypes as well astransmitting societys expectations to children.Louie further points out that, in fairy tales, girlsare taught to be sweet, nave, passive and self-sacrificing, whereas boys are encouraged to bestrong, adventurous and self-sufficient heroesand saviors. Kasner (2004) points out that whenchildren are exposed to fairy tales they may be-lieve the stereotypical roles of male and femaleto be true. Thus, the manner in which gender isrepresented in the fairy tales may have a sig-nificant impact on childrens attitudes and per-ceptions of gender appropriate behavior withinsociety. Louie (2012) states that beauty ideal infairy tales is viewed as an oppressive, patriar-chal practice that objectifies, devalues and sub-ordinates women. This may lead to the miscon-ception by the majority of teenage girls thatbeing attractive is more important than beingconsidered intelligent, which ultimately reflectsin their academic achievement (Louie 2012). Inaddition, Cherland (2006) points out that themessages portrayed in childrens literature mayhinder their self-esteem and may limit their per-

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ception of their own abilities in life. Cherlandfurther points out that by the age of three, chil-dren are able to distinguish between themselvesand the other sex and the stereotypes formedearly in a childs life will tend to stay with themfor the remainder of their years.

The literature has shown that gender stereo-types continue to exist in childrens literature(Louie 2012; Ruterana 2012; Cherland 2006;Kuo 2005). Subsequently, many studies havefocused on the strategies to cope with genderstereotypes in reading (Dionne 2010; WesternAustralian Minister for Education 2006; Kuo2005). Dione (2010) points out that developingcritical literacy skills is a major challenge forteachers who are preparing learners for a worldsaturated with information. Dione further statesthat a major part of the challenge is to showlearners how text, in all its forms, carries subtlemessages regarding relationships of power, of-ten justifying social inequalities. The literaturesuggest that by integrating critical literacy intodaily classroom activities, teachers can helplearners understand how texts are constructedand how authors are able to influence their un-derstanding of the world (Dione 2010; Cherland2006; Kuo 2005). Dione (2010) defines criticalliteracy as a lens, or overlay, for viewing textsthat becomes a regular part of classroom prac-tice. Dione further points out that this processhelps the reader to identify the power relations,inequalities and injustices texts may contain.According to Western Australian Minister ofEducation (2006), to be critically literate, learn-ers need to know how context affects the inter-pretation of language. Western Australian Min-ister of Education further points out that hav-ing an understanding of situational and socio-cultural contexts equips a reader with the fun-damental knowledge to deconstruct, analyse andinterrogate texts. Therefore, the current studyseeks to explore the gender stereotypes in theEnglish and IsiXhosa fairy tales so that teach-ers can be aware of the existence of stereotypesin their teaching resources, like fairy tales. Suchawareness may help teachers stimulate learnersto analyze different fairy tales and other booksand construct new meanings out of them. Inother words this may assist the learners to in-teract with the text critically. Having such a skillmay assist learners, especially in the Founda-tion Phase to be aware of gender stereotypes inthe textbooks and become critical readers. The

purpose of this study is therefore to address thefollowing questions:1. Are females and males represented equally

in the selected fairy tales?2. How do the selected fairy tales portray the

role of females and males?3. Is the perception of females in the selected

fairy tales a true reflection of female posi-tions in the real world?

4. Is the perception of males in the selectedfairy tales a true reflection of male positionsin the real world?

METHODS

Instruments

The instruments used in this study consistedof two English and two IsiXhosa fairy tales thatwere purposively selected among the list ofpopular fairy tales in both languages. The En-glish fairy tales were Cinderella (3 pages) andSnow White and the Seven Dwarfs (7 pages).The versions read for both tales were written byJacob and Wilhelm (1812) (The Grimm Broth-ers). The IsiXhosa fairy tales were Untongana-yentsimbi (7 pages) and Unonqana (3pages).Both IsiXhosa fairy tales were written by Sigewuand Madolo (2011).

Procedure

Each fairy tale was individually read and thecharacters analyzed. The major focus was onthe representation or visibility of male and fe-male characters, gender-linked activities andportrayal of gender in the text compared to thereal world. The language and the theme of thetext were also taken into consideration. Thesefairy tales were viewed as narratives and wereanalysed and deconstructed. This approach (dis-course analysis), the narratives are analysed andplaced in context. The research is thereforequalitative in nature.

RESULTS

Depiction of Gender Stereotypes inIsiXhosa Fairy Tales

Untonganayentsimbi (Iron-rod)

This fairy tale is about bravery. Bhuzalusibamanages to save his sister (Untonganayentsimbi)

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against the ogres who want to eat her. Throughhis bravery and wit, Bhuzalusiba manages todefeat hundreds of ogres alone. Bhuzalusiba putshimself in danger in order to save his sister.

The title of this fairy tale is Untongayent-simbi. Anyone reading this fairy tale would ex-pect Untongayentsimbi to take the centre stage.Instead the major focus is on her brother,Bhuzalusiba whose bravery becomes the majorfocus of the fairy tale. Untongayentsimbi is seenas helpless, she cannot defend herself againstthe ogres. She waits for her brother to save her.This fairy tale portrays gender stereotype thatfemales are defenseless and that males are braveand can take risk in order to save a helplessfemale. Children, especially Foundation Phaselearners may take this as real and apply it intheir communities.

Unonqana (No English Translation)

This fairy tale is about the bravery of a womancalled Unonqana. Through her bravery the ogresare afraid of her. Once they recognize her voicethey run away. But at home she is abused by herhusband. The husband does not want to takeinstructions or advice from her. The husbandundermines her. Although young readers mayidentify themselves with Unonqana, through herbravery, the element of being bullied by her hus-band may give a negative picture. Male learn-ers may think that abusing a woman is normal.On the other hand young female readers maythink that getting married is not a good idea.

Depiction of Gender Stereotypes inEnglish Fairy Tales

Cinderella

In this fairy tale Cinderella lives with herstepmother and stepsisters after her fathersdeath. She is abused by the stepmother and herdaughters. Cinderella is portrayed as weak andpassive because she does not challenge the step-mother and her daughters although the housebelongs to her. As a result, her family membersthink that she is inferior to them. Cinderellawaits to be rescued by a prince who marries herand she is able to live happily ever after. Thisfairy tale portrays women as people who cannotdefend themselves. Thus, they wait for a malefigure to rescue them. Moreover, the females in

this fairy tale are associated with the house work.Cinderella does all the house work and does notworry herself about the outside world. Beautyalso plays a prominent role in this fairy tale. Ifyou are beautiful you get married to a handsomeprince.

Snow-White and the Seven Dwarfs

In this fairy tale the main character is Snow-White. She is a princess but is told that to be agood girl she must obey what she is told to do.This includes cooking and cleaning. As she grewup she became more beautiful than her step-mother, and this annoyed the stepmother. Thestepmother instructed the huntsman to killSnow-White. Snow-White was saved by theseven dwarfs who asked her to cook for them.They warned her not to let anyone into the house.Snow-White did not obey the instruction andone day she opened the door and let in thewoman who was knocking at the door. She wasnot aware that the woman was a queen whowanted her dead. The queen killed Snow-Whitebut the seven dwarfs managed to bring her backto life. This fairy tale teaches the females to obeythe instructions from the males and failure toobey may have consequences. This shows thatfemales cannot think for themselves but shouldobey and take advice from the men.

DISCUSSION

The present study sought to examine genderstereotypes in the selected fairy tales in order tosuggest ways teachers can cope with the read-ing material that portrays gender imbalance. Thenarratives of the four fairy tales reflect a num-ber of features that reflect gender stereotypes.These include feminine beauty ideal. The find-ings from this study support the previous stud-ies that feminine beauty dominates in fairy tales(Louie 2012; Kasner 2004). In the current studyin both English fairy tales the theme of femi-nine beauty dominates. The old queen in Snow-White is prepared to kill anyone more beautifulthan her. The princes in both English fairy talesare looking for beautiful wives and both fairytales have evil stepmothers. According to Kasner(2004), beauty in fairy tales seems to be the keyfactor for girls compared to power, strength, andwit as key factors for boys. Kasner further pointsout that by admonishing feminine beauty over

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anything else only set children up for unrealexpectations where girls will think that beingbeautiful means everything in life. In addition,Hoffert (2002) points out that in most fairy talesthe heroine is portrayed as ideal good girl, un-equivocally beautiful, kind and compassionate,does not complain or get angry and naive. Thismay lead to girls not empowering themselvesthrough their own strengths and intellects. Inaddition this may instill in more attractive younggirls that they should and can use looks to gothrough life or instill that they are more valu-able or vanity due to their looks.

The study revealed that both genders are fre-quently presented in stereotypical terms. In theIsiXhosa fairy tale, Bhuzalusiba puts himself indanger in order to protect his sister against thehundreds of ogres. This may have influence onthe young male reader who would like to de-fend a female no matter how dangerous the situ-ation is. On the other hand the female charac-ters represented by Untonganayentsimbi areportrayed as weak and helpless. When they findthemselves in a dangerous situation they can-not escape on their own but wait for a male torescue them. This is gender stereotype as femalestoday do not and are not expected to behave inthis fashion. The results of this study also sup-port the previous studies that the duties carriedout by men and females are different. Many stud-ies revealed that in fairy tales females are por-trayed as house wives who perform all the du-ties related to the house while men go out andorganize food for living (Louie 2012; Dionne2010). In all the four fairy tales in the currentstudy, females are seen as house wives. In Snow-White and the seven dwarfs, an agreement ismade between her and the dwarfs that they willkeep her safe if she does cooking and cleaningfor them. Therefore, a woman, according to fairytales is supposed to be responsible for every-thing in the kitchen and man is a protector andis one who will be right at the end. In the cur-rent study this is confirmed by the fact thatSnow-White has been warned by the dwarfs,who represent men not to open the door butcould not listen. Thus, the womans failure toobey the mans instructions may have painfulconsequences for the female. This is a genderstereotype and if not corrected during the read-ing process, especially in the Foundation Phase,male learners may think that it is their right toinstruct females and expect females to be sub-missive.

Implications for Teaching Reading inthe Foundation Phase

There are a number of practical implicationson the above findings and discussion. This studyrevealed that gender stereotypes exist in the se-lected texts. Therefore teachers are advised tobe sensitive to their teaching sources or theymight easily fall into a passive acceptance ofeverything literature presents to them. In addi-tion, Rayaprol (2010) points out that gender biasis also taught implicitly through the resourceschosen for classroom use. In order to avoid this,teachers need to be aware of gender issues andneed to be aware of the gender bias embeddedin many educational materials and texts andneed to take steps to combat this bias. Thisawareness will put teachers in a better positionto sensitize the learners to the disadvantages ofgender stereotypes in the reading process aslearners in the Foundation Phase identify them-selves with certain characters in the fairy tales.In order to address this, teachers should helpthe learners to develop critical thinking so thatthey are able to challenge the text. In addition,teachers need to help the learners differentiatebetween the world of fairy tales and the realworld in which they live. The literature revealsthat this could be achieved by engaging learn-ers in the discussion where they compare thestatus and role of males and females in the textand in the real world (their communities). Thisgives opportunity for the teacher and learnersto uncover gender inequalities present in the textand also come up with solutions on how theyshould be addressed. In other words, teachersshould help the learners reconstruct the text andindicate how they could present it in a mannerthat takes into consideration gender equality. Inaddition, teachers need to create a learning en-vironment that is free of gender stereotyping ininstructional organization, interactions and ac-tivities and using gender free language in orderto maximize learners achievement and growth.

Another practical implication of this studyis that teachers should motivate learners to readdifferent types of materials. Weiner (1992) pointsout that motivation influences individualschoices of which activities to do, level of en-gagement in them and degree of persistence atthem. Therefore, it is important for the teachersto encourage the learners not to label a certaintype of reading material as being relevant only

GENDER STEREOTYPES IN SELECTED FAIRY TALES 205

for females or for males. This stereotypicalthinking should be dealt with so that the learn-ers are encouraged to read a wide range ofgenres, irrespective of sex. It is also importantfor teachers to treat males and females equallyin the classroom as this will provide equal op-portunities for both sexes to participate in classand take on leadership roles.

CONCLUSION

It was indicated in the introduction that thetextbooks were viewed as a vehicle for genderequality in meeting the goals of EFA. However,the current status of childrens literature, espe-cially, the fairy tales, reveals the existence ofgender stereotypes. This is supported by litera-ture and the results of the current study. Thismay send a wrong message to the young read-ers, especially in the Foundation Phase. In or-der to solve this problem, teachers interventionis recommended. Teachers are encouraged toproduce good out of what is bad. This could beachieved if teachers can help learners becomecritical readers.

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