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Case Law: Bolton v Stone

Statute Law: Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

Treaties: ECHR: HRA 1998

Custom: Consuetudo est altera lex: A custom has the force of law.

Conventions: Established rules

Each has a specific role to play in society

Statute Law

Statutes are Acts of Parliament (What the MP's do at Westminster)

………………………………………….. (supremacy of Parliament)

Glorious Revolution 1688 – King giving power to Parliament

Statutes override inconsistent Common Law

………………The EU has primacy over inconsistent domestic law following ECA 1972 s.2.CustomVarious regions / industries have own customs.E.g – Baker's dozen = 13 not 12E.g – rights of fishermen to dry nets on private landThese rights have grown over many years – where there was no effective parliament or source of national law.

…………………….

Rules established

E.g. – PM must come from the Commons not the Lords

E.g. – MP's not allowed to deliberately mislead to Parliament – must resign

E.g. – MP's not allowed to call another MP a liar

LEGISLATION: What is it ?

One of the main sources of law

Made by Parliament

Statute law is based on the will of parliament and subsequently interpreted by judges

LEGISLATION: What is it ?

Of increasing importance

Increasingly delegated

Subject to EU direction and Human Rights Legislation

Enables ‘quick’ changes of direction

Potentially more authoritative?

LEGISLATION: ……………………………

Ability to influence development via consultationAdapt to meet requirements and early

identification of opportunities and threats

…………………………………….. arising from implementation through– Awareness of ambit– Recognition of alternative courses of action– Ability to understand and interpret

LEGISLATION: ……………………..

Creates new areas of law

– Where none exists

– Where common law inadequate to develop

– Where required by EC law

LEGISLATION: Why use it ?

Rationalize or amend existing provision

– Abolish common law or statutory rule

– Amend or consolidate common law or statutory rule

LEGISLATION: ………………………….

Proposals: Contained in range of Consultation Papers and informed commentaries and responses

Reports, Green papers, White papersImplementation

Available from public/private and free/subscription services providing actual text and informed commentaries

LEGISLATION: ……………….

Form

– Public Acts

– Private Acts

– Enabling Legislation [delegated legislation]

Function

– Consolidating

– Codifying

– Amending

LEGISLATION: ……………………..

Preparatory formal/informal consultationParliamentary Process

First Reading, Second readingCommittee Stage Report stageThird reading

House of Lords: Royal Assent NB Bill usually lost if not completed all stages before end of Parliamentary session but see recent reforms

Legislation is one of the three main sources of law

The Parliamentary process - aims?

………………………………………………….

Consultation & Notification via:

Green Paper, White Paper, Manifesto, Queens Speech

THE PASSAGE OF A PUBLIC BILL (introduced by the Govt into the House of Commons)

First Reading (Bills may be introduced into either House but Bills with financial implications or those deemed controversial will be introduced in the Commons by a Minister).

The First Reading gives notice - no questions or debate are entertained at this stage.

The Bill is then printed.

SECOND READING

The general principles behind the legislation will be debated and if necessary a vote will be taken.

COMMITTEE STAGE

After the second reading the Bill will be passed to a committee to consider the Bill clause by clause. The committee has wide powers to make amendments, view documents and call witnesses (i.e. ministers) if deemed appropriate.

REPORT STAGE

The committee will report back to the House highlighting any amendments which may have been made.

THIRD READING

The Bill is considered in its revised form (if applicable). Note however that any debate is restricted to the revised contents of the Bill. The general principles are not debated again.

OTHER HOUSE: In the other House the Bill will follow a similar procedure (some differences do exist).

ROYAL ASSENT: A pure formality (see the Royal Assent Act 1967). This is reflected by the fact that Royal Assent was last refused in 1707.

EFFECTIVE FROM?1) The date of Royal Assent or 2) Some specified date in the future or 3) When determined by a designated person

LEGISLATION: Delegated Legislation

Legislation made by some person or body to whom parliament has delegated its general law making powers.

Types

– Orders in Council

– Statutory Instruments

– Bylaws

– Court Rules Committees

– Professional regulations

LEGISLATION: Delegated Legislation

………………………..– Speed thereby permitting?– Expertise– Flexibility– Local Knowledge

Disadvantages– Lack of media coverage– Potential abuse of power– May be deemed unconstitutional– Cumbersome

LEGISLATION: Delegated Legislation

………………..– Parliamentary

• Power may be removed• Parliamentary Committees• Ministerial responsibility

– ……………….• Doctrine of ultra vires

LEGISLATION: Interpretation Rules

Legislation being written is at risk of differing interpretation as generality of application achieved at expense of detailed clarity

Judges charged with ……………………… of the will of Parliament

LEGISLATION: Interpretation Rules

Rules of Interpretation adopted– Literal rule– Golden Rule– Mischief Rule

Plus additional …………………– Intrinsic and extrinsic information– Presumptions

LEGISLATION: EC Legislation

Community law depending on nature and source may have – Direct effect without need for member state

enactment – Indirect effect through specific enactment into

internal lawFour Sources

– Internal Treaties and Protocols– International Agreements– Secondary Legislation– Decisions of the European Court of Justice

LEGISLATION: Human Rights Legislation

The Human Rights Act 1998 incorporates the European Convention on Human Rights into UK law

LEGISLATION: Human Rights LegislationThe Convention Rights are

– Right to life– Prohibition of torture– Prohibition of slavery and forced labour– Right to liberty and security– Right to a fair trial– No punishment without lawful authority– Right to respect for private and family life– Freedom of thought, conscience and religion– Freedom of expression– Freedom of assembly and association– Right to marry– Prohibition against discrimination– Protection of property– Right to education– Right to free elections

Statutory interpretation

………………………………

………………………………

………………………………

The literal rule

The literal rule gives the words in question their

………………………………………………..

An example can be seen in the case of London and North Eastern Railway Co v Berriman (1946). This case involved a widow claiming compensation for her husband, who had died at work. He was killed while oiling points on a railway line.

The literal rule

The Fatal Accidents Act 1864 stated that there should be a lookout when workers were 'relaying' or 'repairing' the track. The court interpreted the words 'relaying' and 'repairing' literally and concluded that oiling was maintenance, not relaying or repairing.

……….………………………

…………………………

It results in a quick decision because the meaning can be found in a dictionary or other source. It respects parliamentary supremacy because a judge's function is to apply the words of Parliament and not to make law. It is also advantageous when the words under discussion are clear, lacking ambiguity or broadness.It can produce absurd outcomes, create injustice and result in outcomes that do not match parliamentary intentions.

The golden rule

The golden rule is a variation on the literal rule. The golden rule can be used in two ways: The narrow and the wide approach.

The narrow approach occurs when a word has multiple meanings. The judge selects one meaning that best fits the situation. This approach is illustrated in the case of R v Allen (1872).

…………………………

This case involved the word 'marry'. The court noted that there were two primary meanings of this word. The first involved a legal commitment to another person and the second meant being involved in a ceremony. It was noted by the judges that the first meaning would create a loophole - since the second marriage would be void, it would be impossible to commit bigamy in a criminal sense. Therefore, the court was prepared to read 'marry' as 'to go through a ceremony of marriage'.

Golden Wide

The wide approach is adopted when the meaning of a word would result in a

…………………………………………….

Golden Wide: Re Sigsworth (1935).

A son had murdered his mother. She had not made a will so, as the next of kin, he would inherit the estate. The wording of the Act in question was clear and if the courts applied the literal rule the son would inherit the estate. However, the courts were not prepared to allow this to happen, so the wider approach of the golden rule was adopted.

……………………………

The origins of the mischief rule can be traced back to Heydon's Case (1584). This rule looks at the law before the Act was passed and at what the Act was intended to amend. The judges interpret this Act to cover any defect.

The mischief rule

This situation is illustrated in Smith v Hughes (1960). This case involved the Street Offences Act 1959, which made it an offence for a prostitute to solicit or loiter in a street or public place for the purposes of prostitution.

The mischief rule

The court had to consider appeals by six women. They had all been charged under the Act, but they argued they were not guilty because they were not in a street.

The mischief ruleThey were inside a house and had been attracting attention by tapping on windows or shouting out. The court used the mischief rule and it was noted that the Act was designed to clear up prostitution in the streets so people could walk along the street without being molested. Therefore, although the prostitutes were not actually in the street, the Act was interpreted to include the activity they were engaged in.

………………………..

Hansard is an external aid, a record of what has been said in Parliament. Whether this aid should be used has caused judicial debate. Lord Denning in Davis v Johnson (1979) discussed the benefits of using Hansard, but in this case judges in the House of Lords thought it would result in greater confusion and not give the judge a clearer insight into the Act.

………………………..

In Pepper v Hart (1993) the House of Lords overruled Davis and allowed Hansard to be used in certain situations:

Hansardif the legislation is ambiguous or obscure or leads to anabsurdity

if the material relied on consists of one or more statements by a minister or promoter of the bill, together with such other parliamentary material as is necessary to understand such statements and their effect

if the statements relied on are clear

……………………………

Rules of language have developed to help in the interpretation of statutes. They allow judges to look at other words in the Act in order to make the meaning clear.

There are three rules of language:

(1) Ejusdem generisThis rule is used when there is a list of words in the statute followed by a general word - the general word is taken to include only things of the same kind. This rule was used in Powell v Kempton Park Racecourse (1889). The defendant had been operating an outside betting place. The Act stated 'house, office, room or other place of betting'. The court therefore had to define if 'other place' would cover the defendant's situation. As the terms in the list all referred to indoor places, it was decided that 'other place' also referred to an indoor place.

(2) Expressio unius est exclusio alterius

This rule is used when the express mention of one thing implies the exclusion of another. An example can be seen in Tempest v Kilner (1846). This considered the Statute of Frauds Act 1677, which noted that a contract for the sale of 'goods, wares and merchandise of £10 or more' needed to be evidenced in writing. This case concerned stocks and shares and, because they were not expressly mentioned in the list, they were excluded.

(3) Noscitur a sociis

This rule is used by looking at the words of the relevant section or other sections of the Act. It is sometimes described as

……………………………………………..

…………

…………..……………(1875) LR 10 QB 594.

All houses kept open at night for “public refreshment, resort and entertainment” had to be licensed. The defendant argued that his café did not need a licence because he did not provide entertainment. The court held that “entertainment” did not mean musical entertainment but the reception and accommodation of people, so the defendant was guilty.