Introduction

(( Charon taraf mrigtrishna se ghiri tupti marubhumi mein jeevan ki, ek jeevant sanskriti ki neev rakhte samay is samaj ne pani se sambandhit choU se choti baat ko dekha parkha hoga. Pani ke mamley mein har vipreet paristithi mein usne jeevan ki reet khojne ka praytna kiya aur mrigtrishna ko jhuthlate huey jagah - jagah tarah -tarah ke praytna kiye. "

-Anupam Mishra

(Translation: This society surrounded by mirage and heating sands from all the sides, must have kept every small and significant fact about the water in mind while laying the foundations of a vibrant social system. It has defied all the adverse conditions in matter of water, to live and find the traditions (riti) of life and have done diverse ~fforts at different places to let the miragefail.

Such are the people of this land, who have lived through the ages in harmony

with nature, utilizing every drop of water, making careful arrangements so not

to spill even a single drop. The society itself was taking care of water

management, without depending upon any outer source. Such community-based

efforts have again come to fore when a short stint with the processes of modem

developments has failed. The society has awakened, initiating the old traditions

and culture again with its own members, to keep the vibrancy of its

colorfulness.

This study aims at locating the shift in the approaches to conserve the

natural resources like water from the State-centric to people's centric, through

Introduction

reviving the traditions and cultural traits, carried over ages by the local people.

There have been new developments in this area in Rajasthan, where for about

last two decades; the civil society is engaged in the efforts to revive traditions

through people's initiatives. This study has primarily focused on three efforts

which are unique if put together in the perspective of shifting paradigms of

development with initiatives from the civil society. The first effort of Tarun

Bharat Sangh of Rajendra Singh is Gandhian in nature, promoting self-reliance

and people's participation. The second effort of Jal Bhagirathi Foundation of

Maharaja Gaj Singh is similar to that of Rajendra Singh, but has unique element

of integration of traditional authority and charisma with democratic ethos of

development. The third effort of Rajasthan Patrika is the story of Media's role

of a social catalyst, which is usually read in theory books about the media but

not found in today's media environment, heavy with the air of the market and

consumensm.

But these three efforts have one point III common - reviving the

traditional methods of water conservation with the involvement of common

people. They are emphasizing the role and significance of traditions and culture

of considering water to be a gift of God and utilizing it with rational and

wisdom. The main questions of focus of this study have been: What are those so

talked about traditions and cultures, which have made this society survive for

such a long period? What is their status now? How are they using these

methods? What are their methods? What is their impact? Are they successful?

Will this blend of three different tools with common goal make a dent on the

common consciousness? How significant are the traditional methods of water

conservation in contemporary socio-political and economic settings? What are

the alterations they have made to the traditional methods? What is the role of

women in these efforts? What is the role of existing institutions of caste and

kinship in these efforts?

The study has taken into consideration the fact that, earlier there has

been consciousness about the environment and the natural resources in the

traditional societies. As Anupam Mishra has suggested in another of his works,

Radiant Raindrops of Rajasthan, "It is thanks to the local society and

2

Introduction

the public to get the air of the so-called modernity and development. This

attitude of the rulers, to an extent saved the tradition and culture of the region

from getting affected from the processes like westernization, which covertly

helped society to keep them intact. But after the independence, with the

modernization and technological advances, the society also came under

influence of the processes, which followed it like, urbanization, industrialization

and others. They made the society to whither away these traditions and cultural

traits, knowingly and unknowingly.

The State of Rajasthan is the largest state in the country covering an area

of 3.42 lakh square kilometers, which is more than 10% of the total

geographical area of the country. About 5% of the total population of the

country resides in the State and it has more than 15.7 million hectares of land

suitable for agriculture. The State of Rajasthan is one of the driest states of the

country and the total surface water resources in the State are only about 1 % of

the total surface water resources of the country. The surface water resources in

the state are mainly confined to south and southeastern part of the State. The

rivers of the state are rain fed and identified by 14 river basins. There is a large

area in north-western part of the State, having no defined drainage basin of its

own and is designated as 'outside basin'. It is dependent on the Rabi-Beas­

Sutlej waters. The rainfall in the state is not only scarce but has highly uneven

distribution both in time and space.

The ground water also plays an important role especially in agriculture

and drinking water supply. The situation of ground water exploitation is also not

satisfactory as in areas where surface irrigation is provided there is a tendency

of not using ground water for agriculture, which creates problem of water table

rise and even water logging. On the contrary, in large areas of the State, ground

water is being over exploited and the water table in some areas is going down

every year at an alarming rate.

In matter of water management and conservation, people started relying

upon the State for their water supplies and maintenance of the resources, which

was earlier a function of the community. This dependence on the other made

their lives happy for a few years or decades, but then the attitude of the public

4

Introduction

and the State changed and so the conditions. Water became a big issue and there

was nobody to solve it. A few years ago, some experiments started about the

conservation and management of water resources.

The first one was the experiment of Waterman Rajendra Singh in the

Mewat region, which covers the districts of Alwar, Sawai Madhopur and Jaipur.

His organization Tarun Bharat Sangh started taking care of the traditional

Johads, to harvest the rainwater with people's initiative and continuous efforts

in the region. Rajendra Singh got famous Magsaysay award for this effort.

Impressed from the work done by Rajendra Singh, Maharaja Gaj Singh

of Jodhpur invited him to give direction to the community to mitigate the water

crisis in his erstwhile state ofMarwar, which covers around seven districts. He

founded Jal Bhagirathi Foundation in Jodhpur with inspiration and help from

Raj endra Singh.

In year 2005, Rajasthan Patrika, a leading Hindi Daily in Rajasthan,

started a similar campaign in small towns and cities in Rajasthan. The

difference is that while the first two were mainly focusing on the rural areas and

needs of the villages for agriculture and drinking water, Rajasthan Patrika

focused on the urban and semi - urban spheres. The traditional water structures

like talabs (tanks or ponds), baories, jhalras and kunds in the urban settings

were going dead and out of use after the arrival of taps in the homes and people

started forgetting them. They were becoming garbage dumps for the

surrounding communities. Rajasthan Patrika started publishing articles on their

wrath and pathetic condition and to sensitize the common public about their

significance and the need to conserve and save them along with the concerned

authorities. But it didn't limit itself to the lip service and intellectual activism, it

also started public campaigns to clean them and put them back to use. It

mobilized the school children, different associations of the professionals like

Journalist associations, Teacher's association, Traders associations and others.

It has generated a huge momentum in these towns and cities to desilt and clean

these structures. It has generated consciousness about the importance and

significance of these structures in these times of crises.

5

Introduction

argument. He has explored the strengths and weaknesses of their accounts in

relation to two aspects of environmental politics: the creation of institutional

alternatives to contemporary capitalism; and the role of democratic theory and

democratic institutions in creating a more environmentally sustainable society.

Milton, Key (1996) Environmentalism and Cultural Theory, London:

Routledge.

The book argues that the cultural theory can contribute to an understanding of

environmental issues depending on the idea that culture plays an important role

in human-environment relations. Milton develops this idea, first by explaining

what anthropologists mean by culture and cultural theory, and then by

considering how anthropologists have related the concept of culture to human

ecology. Here, he establishes a working definition of 'environmentalism' and

discuss its status as a 'CUltural' phenomenon. He presents an analysis of existing

social-scientific studies on environmentalism and compares perspectives on the

environment from a range of cultural contexts, including both industrial and

non-industrial societies. The comparison is centered on a popular

environmentalist 'myth', the assertion that non-industrial societies possess a

degree of ecological wisdom which has been lost in the process of industrial

development.

Milton wants to argue with this book that anthropology has a long way

to go in establishing its role in environmental discourse, and in convincing other

participants of the value of that role. The arguments presented in this book have

implications for three main areas of interest. First, within anthropology, the

exploration of ways in which the discipline might contribute to the

environmental discourse has generated ideas which have consequences both for

cultural theory in general and for the analysis of contemporary human culture.

Second, the identification of a role for anthropology brings into focus its

relationship with other social sciences and raises questions about the

development of interdisciplinary approaches. Finally, there is the potential

influence of cultural analysis on environmental discourse itself; the messages

anthropology holds for environmentalism.

7

Introduction

Pepper, David (1996) Modem Environmentalism: An Introduction, London:

Routledge.

Pepper presents a comprehensive introduction to environmentalism, the history

of Western attitudes to nature and environment, and how these ideas relate to

modem environmental ideologies. Examining key environmental 'ideas within

their social and historical context, he outlines in this book, the radical

environmentalist approaches to valuing nature, to economics, Third World

developments, technology, eco-feminism and social change.

The author surveys pre-modem ideas about nature and humankind's

relationship to it, the developments in science during the Enlightenment and the

roots of radical environmentalism in nineteenth- and twentieth- century

movements. The main influences include Malthus, Darwin and Haeckel, utopian

socialism, romanticism, and organic and holistic system thinkers. Science is

placed at the heart of the nature-society debate, as the major constituent of our

cultural filter. The book explains how postmodern ideas of subjectivity and the

breakdown of scientific authority have developed, and scientific 'truths' about

nature have become divorced from their social and ideological context. Pepper

offers a comprehensive understanding of environmentalism and the

environment debate, and of different approaches to establish the desired

ecological society.

Guha, Ramchandra (2000) Environmentalism: A Global History, Delhi:

Oxford University Press.

It details the major trends, ideas, campaigns, and thinkers within the

environmental movement worldwide. The author distinguishes between the first

wave of environmentalism-the initial response to the onset of industrialization­

and a second wave, when a largely intellectual response was given shape and

force by a groundswell of popular support. These two waves are separated by an

'age of ecological innocence', the period immediately followed the Second

World War, when environmental concerns retreated to the margins of public

discourse.

As a comparative history of the environmental movement, he picks up

examples from all over the globe. Among the thinkers its profiles are John

8

Introduction

Muir, Mahatma Gandhi, Rachel Carson and Octavia Hill; among the

movements, the Chipko Andolan and the German Greens. It documents the flow

of ideas across cultures, the ways in which environmental movement in one

country has been invigorated or transformed by infusions from outside. It

interprets the different directions taken by different national traditions, and also

explains why in certain contexts (such as former Socialist Bloc) the green

movement is marked only by its absence.

Guha's focus is on environmentalism in modem age, but he delineates

and explores in depth a multiplicity of approaches to those issues, with

particular emphasis on the often variant currents of the latter half of the

twentieth century. Ideas about the environment and movements aimed at

focusing attention on the causes of its degradation and the ways to protect it are

set in the different socioeconomic and political contexts which gave rise to

them. He seeks to identify the commonalities and differences in environmental

thinking and activism through case studies drawn from the experience of areas

as diverse as the United States, The former Soviet Union, China, India, Africa

and Brazil. He candidly assesses the strengths and shortcomings of each of

these strands of environmentalism as well as their contributions to the

coalescence of a global environmental consciousness.

Baviskar, Amita (1995) In The Belly of the River: Tribal Conflicts Over

Development in the Narmada Valley, Delhi: Oxford University Press.

The book begins with a brief look at the Indian experience of development and

its impact on poverty and the environment and examines the ways in which this

experience has been understood by Ecological Marxists. It examines the

SUbjugation of adivasis to the increasing extractive and executive powers of

non-local, bureaucratic structure which predates colonialism. It describes that

despite the poverty of their resource base, people have created a production

system remarkable in its diversity and self sufficiency, utilizing different

aspects of the land, forest and the river to the fullest. It explains how such

resource use is enabled by co-operation, structured around the patriarchal clan, a

kin group bound by norms of reciprocity and mutual aid.

9

Introduction

In the later part of the book, Baviskar explains the processes of

transformation of adivasi life through political collective action. It describes the

ways in which the consciousness of the adivasi community is transformed, from

the pursuit of honor to action against the state, fighting to secure access to the

land and the forest. It also examines the relationship between the adivasis and

the activists who have facilitated their organization, and critically evaluates the

experience of collective action trying to resist the state and, at the same time,

make it more accountable to the adivasi community. It also depicts the

complexity of the issues which unite adivasis with other political constituencies,

situated in different social spaces, and spread across the world, showing how the

different ideological streams of environmentalism come together in practice.

It draws the themes of environmental practice and adivasi consciousness

into general theory of development and resistance. It analyses contradictions in

the way in which the lives of adivasis are represented by intellectuals who speak

'on their behalf, and the problems and possibilities engendered in the process

of coming together to formulate a critique of development. It also proposes a

perspective on adivasi environmentalism which respects people's understanding

of what they are fighting for, a perspective that builds upon their strengths while

remaining conscious of their vulnerabilities.

Sheth, Praveen (1995) Environmentalism: Politics, Ecology and Development,

Jaipur: Rawat Publications.

Sheth studies politics of environment in India as rooted in its rich ecological

traditions but rudely distorted in practice. He has adopted a political science

approach to study the patterns and problems of eco-development. With the use

of rich and contemporary data, he has brought in the complex interplay of

various forces like the state, pollution control boards, forest departments,

industrial interests, tribals, women and eco-advocacy groups and reconstructs

the emerging discourse on participative and sustainable development. His

analysis of the role of political authorities, the judiciary as a 'green guardian'

and the graphic review of a wide range of ecological movements describes the

ongoing discourse on eco-democracy and development alternatives.

10

Introduction

The book probes in the conflicts of compelling interests and values, to

assess the role of new actors like the courts and movements which are trying to

create and expand the space where an eco-prudent political system is likely to

emerge. It also traces how the nature and role of Indian state are slowly being

transfonned to make it a 'strong-soft' state from a mere 'soft' state, and

perhaps, help its graduation as an 'eco-development' state. It argues that

cultural traditions and thought have provided ideological underpinning and

legitimacy to the present environmental movement in India. It leads us to

discern that our ecological perspective, issues and movements do not have to

depend on the environmental views and experiences of the West. The

cosmological view of the Vedic, Upanishad and Puranic traditions and literary

imagination enriched by fascinating symbols and idioms of the relationship of

people with nature have provided the main mode of communication in the

movements and struggles. It is the grassroots struggle mainly participated by the

local communities and eco-advocacy groups for environmental rights which

have made the history and politics of environment in India truly Indian.

Mishra, Anupam (1993) Aaj Bhi Khare Hain Talab, (Hindi), Delhi: Gandhi

Peace Foundation.

This is a remarkable work on the history of talabs (ponds / tanks) in different

parts of the country. It also describes the traditional methods of construction of

talabs. It locates the social significance of water in Indian mythology and

scriptures. The social pride honor attached with the construction of talabs is

described with the stories and folktales in different regions of the country. It is a

well research work and includes most of the states and regions of the country.

Anupam Mishra has shown that the practice of castes being engaged in

the construction of talabs have been abolished with the time. The traditional

wisdom of these castes and their significance in the survival of a society has

been demonstrated with great respect, they deserve in human society. The

anthropological quest for the origin of such castes and the structures they have

made is remarkable for Hindi writing. This is research work, academic in its

spirit, but well presented even for the common people. This work is true on

11

Introduction

Gandhian ethics; it gives credit to each and every resource and person it has

used. Best thing about it is that it doesn't hold the copyrights of the work,

making it more and more accessible for those who need it. It will be the basis of

this study in finding out the roots of the traditions of water conservation and the

people who have carried them through the ages.

Along with these, the study has taken into account numerous articles in

Rajasthan Patrika and other Hindi dailies in the State. The researcher has also

taken into account the oral traditions in the state, which describes the history of

a particular cultural trait, like some puja associated with a particular tree or

animal in the local communities. The researcher has been to the Charan Shodh

Sans than and other such institutions, which are engaged in the research on the

local people, their traditions, their deities, their scripture and other such issues.

The State Archives have also been checked for details and information on some

spec(jic aspect coming across in the course of research.

Research Questions

• What are the methods and tools used by these organizations to revive the

tradition and culture?

• What is the significance of water in the traditions and cultural practices

of the people of the region?

• What is the role of caste, kinship and family in these efforts for revival?

• How this people-centric approach is different from the State-centric

approach?

• What is the specific role of women and their significance III these

processes?

• What is the role of traditional institutions like caste panchayats, kinship

organizations and others like temple committees in these efforts?

• What is the role of modem media in strengthening these efforts and how

can it initiate such processes by itself?

12

Introduction

Aims and Objectives

• To establish the uniqueness of the integrated processes and other efforts

to revive the traditions and culture of water conservation in Rajasthan.

• To find out the role of the traditional institutions like caste panchayats

and kinship organization in these processes of revi ving the traditions and

culture.

• To locate the place of women in these initiatives in respect of the nature

and feminism debate.

• To seek the role of the media and other modem means In these

processes.

• To establish the significance of religious practices and symbols and the

role of culture in natural resources conservation.

Universe of Study

This study has focused on three regions of Rajasthan: Mewat, Marwar

and Dhundhad. The three organizations which are studied, work in different

areas. Tarun Bharat Sangh works in the Eastern part of the State in the districts

of Alwar, Sawai Madhopur and Jaipur. The reasearcher has observed the works

ofTBS in many districts and nearing areas in the Sariska Forests. Jal Bhagirathi

Foundation works in Western part of the State in more than seven districts with

its base at Jodhpur. The researcher has undertaken studies in Jodhpur (Rural)

district and in some parts of Barmer and Pali district. Rajasthan Patrika has

many editions in the state. It is running the campaigns in many small towns. The

researcher was involved in the campaigns in Ajmer and Jaipur cities. Fieldwork

for the study was spanned for over two summers in the areas described above.

Research Methodology

This is an empirical study based on fieldwork. Participant observation is the

main method to find out the ways and methods these organizations are using to

revive these traditions and culture of water conservation. The researcher worked

as volunteer for all three organizations in their campaigns for participant

observation.

13

Introduction

Data was collected on the status of traditional methods of water

conservation before and after the efforts of these organizations. The

methodology of the organizations was also studied to know the distinctions

between the traditional methods and the alterations made to these methods

while adopting them.

The study takes into account the narrations of the older generation of

these communities to find out the traditional ways, their significance and the

role of these communities in keeping them alive. Old texts in Hindi, in English

(like gazetteer, government reports, etc.) and in local dialects have also been

used. The state has rich tradition of oral history, which has been used in this

study in form of stories of from the elders and some caste-specific story tellers

like charans and bhaats. Certain local research institutions and individuals

engaged in research on local dialects, traditions and cultural aspects in different

parts of the State have also been consulted for the secondary sources.

Fieldwork

The rationale behind the participant observation is that work, philosophy and

day-to-day activities of these organisations involve the traditions and culture of

the region which are the ways of life of the communities. This cannot be

understood fully without living these experiences. Fieldwork was spread over a

time of more than two years in different phases from May 2005 to August 2007.

Researcher volunteered for many of the campaigns of these organisations. He

has been involved with TBS in different roles and capacities even before the

study, but he visited the villages and the organisation headquarters during the

summer of 2005. Amrutam Jalam Abhiyan was observed since its inception in

Ajmer and Jaipur. Researcher has participated in its campaigns in Ajmer and

Jaipur in years 2006 and 2007 without disclosing that he is observing it for

research purposes. It was revealed later to the staff of Rajasthan Patrika when

access to library and data for the work in different regions was needed. Jal

Bhagirathi Foundation was officially visited for the first time in the year 2006-

07 but the researcher was observing its work in parts of Barmer and Pali even

before that, though without declaring that. These Sites were revisited later in the

final phase of field work.

14

Introduction

Chapterisation

Introduction

This chapter locates the background of the study in contemporary social

research. The introduction of the State, of the districts under study and the

organizations has been detailed. The details of the traditions and culture under

observation have also been detailed with their historical references and

significance.

Chapter-l

Water Management through People's Participation

Theoretical Underpinnings

This chapter describes the theoretical basis of the study. It has started with the

enquiry into the nature-society relationship in the classical and modem social

theory. Then it has described the theoretical basis of traditions and culture of

water conservation. It has also looked into the Indian epics and others scriptures

for the theoretical basis of near-to-nature way of life. Gandhian philosophy,

theories dealing with tradition and modernity and the theories of media-society

relations have also been analyzed. In the later part of this chapter these theories

have been analysed with specific reference to Rajasthan and the case studies.

Chapter- 2

Tarun Bharat Sangh:

Enquiry the Gandhian Way

This chapter accounts the history, development and success of Tarun Bharat

Sangh (TBS). It details the methods and techniques used by TBS for people's

mobilization and revival of the tradition. It also tries to analyze the impact of

the works ofTBS through case studies and detailed surveys of the villages.

Chapter- 3

Jal Bhagirathi Foundation:

Tradition meets Modernity

This chapter accounts the origin and methodology of Jal Bhagirathi Foundation

(JBF). It examines the claims of work undertaken by the Foundation in the

desert districts of Rajasthan. The revival of the traditional methods with

applications of modem means of conservation and democratic polity has been

described in this chapter.

15

Introduction

Chapter- 4

Rajasthan Patrika:

Media as a Social Catalyst

This chapter presents the details of the Amrutum Jalam campaign of Rajasthan

Patrika initiated in the urban and semi-urban districts and towns of Rajasthan

and their impact on the water crises in those places. It also takes into account

the media and society theories.

Conclusion

This chapter summarizes the integration of these three efforts and the impact

they have made. It shows the results of integrated processes of reviving the

traditions and culture of water conservation in the state. It also presents a

critique of the efforts of the development agencies engaged in resolving the

water crises in the state.

16

Introduction

References

Baviskar, Amita (1995), In the Belly of River: Tribal Conflicts Over Development in the Narmada Valley, Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Goldblatt, David (1996), Social Theory and the Environment, London: Polity Press.

Guha, Ramchandra (2000), Environmentalism: A Global History, New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Milton, Key (1996), Environmentalism and Cultural Theory, London: Routledge.

Mishra, Anupam (1993), Aaj Bhi Khare Hain Talab, New Delhi: Paryavaran Kaksh, Gandhi Peace Foundation.

Mishra, Anupam (2001), The Radiant Rindrops of Rajasthan, New Delhi: Research Foundation for Science, Technology and Ecology.

Pepper, David (1996), Modern Environmentalism: An Introduction, London: Routledge.

Sheth, Praveen (1995), Environmentalism: Politics, Ecology and Development, Jaipur, New Delhi: Rawat Publications.

17