Managerial Impacts of Automation

Information technology has pervaded our work and home lives in the last decade. One cannot do anything without it touching some aspect of our life - going shopping, telephoning interstate, doing the banking, or borrowing a book, etc. It has changed and continues to change the world our parents knew.

The rapid spread of information technology in our society is due to its ability to store, analyze, record and transmit information accurately, speedily and in large quantities. Therefore it is not surprising that organizations whose operations are information intensive, like libraries, have tried to incorporate information technology in their systems

Major world libraries have installed online public access catalogues (OPACs) since the late 1960s. The ability to search online databases half a world away has also been available to libraries since the mid-1970s; and during the 1980s libraries introduced microcomputers and compact disk technology.

The development of fourth and fifth generation computers in the mid-1980s and the subsequent availability of better, more flexible and easier to use software, has meant that automation of nearly all aspects of library systems is now possible. Integrated turnkey automated library systems are now available at a reasonable cost for even the smallest library to implement.

Zuboff (1988) describes this dichotomy as the ability of information technology to informor automate the workplace. The capacity of information technology to generate vast amounts of information about the underlying processes of production and administration, allows employers to inform their work force so that employees can do their jobs better.

However, information technology also allows the employer to automate the workplace by: 

 using technology to replace human effort, skill, and knowledge to perform a process at lower cost

emphasizing the machine's intelligence placing controls over the access of the

organization's knowledge base using the technology as a fail-safe mechanism

to monitor and increase certainty and control over production and the organizational functions

The automation has the greatest impact on staff in the lower levels of the organization where the work is routine; and less impact at the top where authority and decision making are concentrated 

THE IMPACT OF AUTOMATION

a reduction in repetitive work and tedious procedures

 an increase in skill level possibly higher job satisfaction an increase in the variety of tasks greater flexibility

Positive effects of automation are: 

The impact of automation on employees, especially lower level employees, can result in:  the degradation of the quality of working life;the decline in interpersonal communication and client relations;an increase of employee stress, depersonalization, and boredom; job-satisfaction; the loss of control over the pace of one's work and

organizational functions; lower self-esteem and staff morale.

The impact of the automated system on the librarians was completely the opposite to that of the support staff. 

they had acquired new skills from automation which supplemented their skills in the library

Automation had replaced a number of tedious and repetitious tasks and increased the variety, challenge and interest in their work

CLIENT RELATIONS

A great fear for most library staff when implementing an automated system is the decline in interpersonal and client relations. Support staff particularly fear that client relations will suffer because of the system picking up more infringements, making them seem stricter.

Support staff reported that staff-client relations had declined, but not because of the system picking up more infringements. Instead the system has made it easier to deal with patron infringements, not more difficult.

Support staff identified the following factors as contributing to the decline in client relations:

The need to concentrate on the screen, The height of the circulation desk, staff not being allowed by management to

help with anything more than general directional queries,

lack of privilege level, staff not dealing with as many borrowers'

enquires, the users being able to place HOLDS

themselves, and system breakdowns.

 JOB SATISFACTION

Self-esteem is the favorable opinion or approval of one's self that leads to feelings of self-confidence, worth, strength, capability, and of being useful, valuable, and necessary to the organization. Self-esteem was measured by asking staff how they felt about their position in the organization and the work they performed.

MORALE

Morale is a pervading sense of cheerfulness, confidence, excitement, etc. within the work environment. Staff morale seems to be a function of management policy, the quality of working life and job satisfaction. Therefore it will clearly vary in different work situations. Morale was measured by asking staff about perceived changes in the working environment.

Communication

Staff must be kept informed of the progress of the implementation process in order to avoid feelings of alienation and powerlessness over the change process.

Training

Besides the initial training staff receive in the use of the system, they also need access to appropriate levels of training as and when required. Failure to provide ongoing training may result in lack of interest, frustration and inability of staff to realize the full potential of the system to meet their or the users' needs.

The provision of quality and timely support to staff who are having difficulties with the system, allows staff to feel confident that they can use the system to its full potential. If support is not forth-coming, staff tend to feel they have little or no control over the system. This can lead to frustration and stress as staff doubt their ability to cope with the system.

Support

Cycle of library operations automation

OPERATIONS AND REPORTING

One effect of automation on the operations and reporting structure of libraries is the blurring of traditional lines of responsibility and authority. The reporting function of automated library systems is usually thought of in terms of operations management.

Most automated systems in libraries generate a variety of statistical reports that can and used in planning library operations.

One of the primary objectives of Management Information Systems (MIS) is to more adequately put resources, such as computers, and staff together in order to achieve better productivity

The most typical examples of the type of reports that are possible are those generated as a part of automated circulation systems.

STAFFING Staffing is literally the alpha and the omega-the beginning and the end-of all automation projects but probably receives the least amount of attention.

The primary reason for this problem is that library automation project teams are usually made up of librarians. Professional librarians are primarily managers.

Ergo, librarians tend to concentrate on the management aspects of the automation process rather than on how the process will affect line personnel.

For example, when a large library is in the process of bringing up an automated circulation system, the librarians in charge of the process tend to focus on the cost of the system and the types of reports that the system can generate, because that is where the system will interact with their normal job duties.

The positive effects of automation on staff can be characterized as:

Automation can be designed to reduce repetitive work.Automation can be used to upgrade the skills of employees. Employees can be freed to use more time on decision-making, planning, and supervision of other employees. Automation can increase the variety of tasks conducted by the employee and provide flexibility in the times when those tasks are carried out.

The negative effects of automation on staffing can be characterized as:

Automation can be used to “deskill” jobs. That is, automation can be used to lower position skill requirements by filling them with dull, repetitive duties of another sort.

Automation can eliminate jobs or force the complete retraining of personnel for different duties.

Automation can reduce the level and the quality of interpersonal communication.

Much of the planning process in libraries has traditionally occurred only at the middle manager level; by design or choice, relatively few upper-level administrators (e.g., directors) or line personnel (e.g., paraprofessional staff) become associated with planning the system.

Unfortunately, these two organizational levels will have a proportionately greater impact on the success of automation than will middle managers. Upper-level administrative participation is important because they control project funding and support. Paraprofessional participation is important because they will be doing a large share of the staff interaction with the system.

There is no stronger consensus in the literature of automation than the view that adequate planning is essential to the overall success of automation implementation. However, much of the planning process in libraries has traditionally occurred only at the middle manager level; by design or choice, relatively few upper level administrators (e.g., directors) or line personnel (e.g., paraprofessional staff) become associated with planning the system.

PLANNING

One of the more popular topics in the literature of library and information science, in computing, and in management science is “human factors engineering.” “Human factors engineering,” or its more popular synonym “ergonomics,” is the generic term which describes the study of any aspect of human-machine interaction.

Computing and Human Factors

The purpose of ergonomic research is to explore the effect of physiological factors on employees who utilize computerized systems or other forms of equipment. As library employees are increasingly exposed to automation, physiological considerations will have a direct effect on continuing gains in staff productivity.

The basic recurring problem described in many types of organizations-and one could certainly include libraries in this listing-is that the primary emphasis has been on the purchase of technological machinery rather than adapting the machinery to fit the employee and the operational circumstances

The following include some of the more basic hardware ergonomic considerations:

Seating. The chair should be adjustable in terms of height, back support, and armrests.

Noise. Employees should be protected from recurring sources of loud noise associated with automation (e.g., impact printers). The ambient noise level should not exceed 55 decibels.

Tables. The table that supports the microcomputer should be adjust- able in terms of height and should be large enough to hold both the computer equipment and other work material.

Computers. Various accessories should be added to the basic micro- computer configuration that would allow adjustment of the video display terminal (VDT) in terms of height and angle. The purchase of an inexpensive glare screen for the VDT can significantly reduce eye strain. The keyboard should also be height adjustable.

Lighting. The VDT should be placed at a 90 degree angle to room windows to reduce glare. The general room lighting should provide 500-600 lux of indirect illumination.

Other. Many employees who spent a significant amount of time working with computers find other devices of great value. These items include footrests and the ability to change the color on VDT screens