Nigeria is a megastate Its importance is derived from its large population, oil reserves, and centrality to the study of Africa

Nigeria embodies the much of the variety of African political experience.

Nigeria embodies of the variety of African political experience.◦varied heritage

◦colonial rule

◦Achievement of independence

◦Political parties = ethnic cleavages

◦Social welfare state/responsibility

◦Pattern of violence and military dominance

Provides useful insights into the challenges of developing nations

Major challenges facing Nigeria◦Maintaining the balance of civil/military

relations◦Managing ethnic diversity◦Transitioning from autocratic/military rule to

democracy◦Exploiting natural resources for public good◦Determining role of religion in politics

Population: 140 million Territory: 356,668 sq. miles Year of Independence:

1960 Year of Current

Constitution: 1979 Constitution still partially in force; draft 1995 Constitution published and revised in 1999 (the 1999 Constitution)

Head of State: President Goodluck Jonathan

Head of Government: President Goodluck Jonathan

Language: English (official), Hausa,Yoruba, Igbo, (and 250 other ethnic groups)

Religion:◦ Muslim: 50%◦ Christian: 40%◦ Indigenous beliefs: 10%

System of Government: Presidential System Distribution of Power: Federal System Electoral System: Single Member District Plurality Constitution: Constitution of 1999 Legislature: Bicameral—Senate and House of Rep. Current Head of State: President Goodluck Jonathan Head of Government: President Goodluck Jonathan Current Ruling Party: People’s Democratic Party (PDP)

Major Political Parties: People’s Democratic Party (PDP) All Nigeria People’s Party (ANPP), Action Congress (AC)

No Cross Cutting Cleavages◦Ethnic, Regional, and Religious Coincide

No National Identity! Nigeria is only 50 years old Country created because of colonialism

Parliamentary system failed…why? Presidential system is working…why?

Nigeria’s “National Question”

“National Question” = the differing opinions about how political power should be distributed and how the government should be structured.

In Nigeria differences are more distinct and run deeper than other countries

Since independence in 1960, neither its leaders nor its citizens agree on the basics of who should rule and how

Questions about whether Nigeria should remain one nation

Regional disagreements & hostilities Problems traditionally solved by military force and

authoritarianism

Constitutionalism First constitution written in 1914 Eight constitutions between 1914 and 1995 Current constitution written in 1999

Acceptance of “constitutionalism” and the rule of law as a guiding set of principles has eluded Nigeria

Military and civilian leaders have felt free to disobey and suspend constitutional principles or change constitutions not to their liking

Without constitutionalism the “National Question” has been much harder to answer

Legitimacy Nigeria is a relatively young country, achieving

independence in 1960, this makes establishing legitimate government more difficult◦ Fragmentation – tendency to fall apart along ethnic, regional,

and/or religious lines.

◦ Contradictory Influence of the Past – British colonial “rule of law” vs. Military rule/Personalized authority

◦ Corruption – both military and civilian rule tainted with corruption. Citizens question the payment of taxes that are deposited in personal bank accounts

General Ibrahim Babangida (1985-1993)

General Sani Abacha (1993-1998)

Political Cleavages Ethnicity – Nigeria has between 250-400 ethnic groups, Huasa-

Fulani, Igbo, and Yoruba dominant. Three groups have very little in common and speak different languages

Religion – Islam, Christianity, and native/animist religions.

Region – follow along ethnic and religious lines

Urban vs. Rural Differences – most political organizing, interest groups, and political protest takes place in cities

Social Class – deep divisions among social classes. Wealth of elites stems from access to Nigeria’s resources. Maintained their power by appealing to religious and ethnic identities. Wealthy elite find it difficult to give up wealth associated with access to state treasury, educated elite would like to see adoption of democratic principles.

The importance of ethnicity, religion, and region in the political life of Nigerians cannot be underestimated.

Most contentious political issues influence and/or are influenced by these three identities.

Biafran Civil War 1967-1970◦Explicit ethnic overtones◦Eastern Igbo attempted to secede from

the country

Ethnicity Region Religion

Hausa-Fulani North Muslim

YorubaCentral (West)

Both

Igbo South (East) Christian

Ethnic Identity◦ Hausa-Fulani

Mostly northern half of Nigeria Predominately Muslim Legacy of emirates Indirect colonial rule Subsistence farming, rural, generally

undeveloped villages

◦ Yoruba Southwestern Nigeria Lagos—former capital Oba and lineage chiefs and the British Fragmenting effect of multiple ethnic identities

◦ Igbo (lbo) Southeastern part of Nigeria—OIL RICH REGION

(tried to secede) Predominantly Christian (both Roman-Catholic

and Protestants) Responsive to western culture—Western

educated Developed for market agriculture

Nigeria’s Largest Ethnic Groups

Sharia in Nigeria The source of political authority in the

Northern states, NOT Southern states (the Hausa-Fulani and Kanuri people are predominantly Muslim)

Has caused conflict in the drafting of all three of Nigeria’s constitutions

Includes separate codes of conduct for men and women

Northern states have their own Islamic courts, where defendants represent themselves

Women are NOT allowed to vote under Islamic law in Nigeria

HIV/AIDS in Nigeria

Modern political culture is characterized by ethnic diversity and conflict, corruption, and a politically active military

◦ Patron-Clientelism ◦ State control yet active civil society◦ Tension between modernity and tradition◦ Religious conflict◦ Ethnic diversity◦ Geographic influences

Political Culture

Nigerians generally identify themselves first and foremost by their ethnic group, not as Nigerian

Few sources of Nigerian Nationalism

Nigerians who fought for the British in WWII Nigerians who studied in U.K. and U.S. The Military Today

Democratic Norms and Values◦ Alternated between democratic and military

rule

◦ Had both parliamentary and presidential system (federal/presidential system seems to work better in countries with such diversity)

◦ Maintaining stable democracy is challenge

◦ Most Nigerians believe that democracy is the best form of government, but they tend to distrust their elected leaders

Democratic Norms and Values◦ Cycle of Rule:

1. Democracy2. Military rule with promise to return to democracy3. Majority party would pass policies very easily and

“funnel” resources of the state to its own ethnic group.

4. This would lead to frustration, hostility, and frequently a coup by one or more opposing parties or ethnic groups.

◦ The Presidential system has been somewhat more successful due to separation of powers

◦ Most of the educated people of Nigeria hold democratic values and have faith in the political process

Political Role of Women◦ Position of women varies immensely

◦ Igbo and Yoruba allow women to hold jobs and elected office.

◦ Hausa-Fulani restrict role of women (Islam) and have low rates of literacy and education and jobs

◦ In general Nigerian women vote in similar numbers as men but are underrepresented in government.

Political Corruption◦ A pervasive problem--all governments claim they will make

change, but don’t (can’t)

◦ “Corruption has taken over the engine of government in Nigeria. It’s what runs everything.” -- Nuhu Ribadu, “corruption fighter”

Patron-Clientelism “prebendalism”

the practice of exchanging political and economic favors among patrons and clients… a practice that invites corruption

the patron (political leader) builds loyalty among his clients (lesser elites) by granting them favors that are denied to others… creating “loyalty pyramids”

Nigerian example: in exchange for political support, a Nigerian president may grant a portion of oil revenues to his client

society at-large does not benefit from these favors, generally the political elite do

In Nigeria, patrons are linked to clients by ethnicity and religion

Types of Corruption in Nigeria

Political corruption◦ Corruption at the highest levels of political authority

◦ Distorts institutions of government by greed of officials (especially local and state officials)

◦ Since 1960, ~ $400 billion has disappeared from the Nigerian treasury, lining the pockets of many

Bureaucratic corruption◦ Lower levels of corruption encountered on a daily level in places like hospitals,

schools, local licensing offices, etc.

Electoral corruption◦ Purchase of votes with money

◦ Promises of political favors;

◦ Interference in elections; intimidation at the polls

Curbing Corruption? Chairman of Nigeria’s Economic and

Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC) from 2003-2007; appointed by President Obasanjo, who had run on an anti-corruption campaign

sent prominent businessmen and high-level government officials, including his own boss, to jail

took on Nigeria’s powerful governors, known for treating their states like personal fiefdoms, lining their pockets with federal money meant to serve the peoples’ needs

made a lot of powerful enemies during his tenure, while becoming a national hero to many Nigerians; the Nigerian press named him “Man of the Year”

many foreign companies operating in Nigeria, including American-based companies like KBR and Halliburton, have been fined millions of dollars

Nuhu Ribadu“Nigerian corruption fighter”

Curbing Corruption? dismissed from his job by President

Yar’Adua in 2007

survived several assassination attempts and has worked for a Washington, D.C.- based think-tank for the last few years, The Center for Global Development

ran for president (and lost) in the 2011 elections representing the Action Congress Party

recently appointed by Goodluck Jonathan as the chair of a new 21-member oil watchdog taskforce; will monitor crude oil production and exports and track revenues paid to the government

Nuhu Ribadu“Nigerian corruption fighter”

Corruption Levels2011 CPI scores from Transparency International

UK 7.8

Russia 2.4

China 3.6

Mexico 3.0

Iran 2.7

Nigeria 2.4

Key Transition Year of 1999:◦ Nigeria returned to formal civilian rule

when Olusegun Obasanjo was elected president.

Test of Current Government: ◦ How can a potentially wealthy country fail

to provide basic human needs, education, potable water, reliable transportation and communications, and engage in politics without corruption?

Still ranked as one of the poorest and most corrupt countries in the world

To survive, or, more optimistically, flourish, Nigeria’s elected leaders face a myriad of economic and political challenges that will require a gradual and deliberate transformation bold enough to champion real change, but mindful that the military has the potential to return to power if given the opportunity.

The future of Nigeria hangs on this precarious balance

◦Ethnic/Religious Tensions◦Civil/Military Relations◦Regional Instability◦Corruption◦Financial transparency◦Poverty alleviation◦Quality health care◦Population Growth◦Education◦Oil extraction◦HIV/AIDS◦DEBT!

Population Growth◦ 45% of Nigeria is under 15 years of

age.◦ Children considered a valuable

resource in agricultural societies◦ Population is growing rapidly =

negative impact on economic growth◦ Shifting from rural to urban = smaller

portion of labor force available for food production = drop in food production per capita

Agricultural Production & Sale of Commodities◦ Colonialism had a huge

impact on Nigerian economy

◦ British forced the production and export of certain goods

◦ Peasant farmers pushed to grow and export goods chosen by the British

◦ Nigeria became dependant on exports of commodities such as palm oil and cocoa

◦ Nigeria is now a net importer of food!

Urbanization◦ Quickly becoming urban society◦ Urban infrastructure is strained as a result

Petroleum◦ The curse of oil!◦ Nigeria has relied on oil to finance imports and

large scale development projects, thus fluctuations in markets control the ability of Nigeria to pay its debts

◦ This has caused high rates of inflation◦ The location of the oil and the distribution of

benefits have had political consequences, most notably in Biafra

◦ Biafra Igbo population frustrated with central

government for not distributing a greater share of oil wealth-thus their attempt to secede

Oil was main cause for Biafran Civil War 1967-1970

Dist. Natural resources: Political Effects◦ Eastern region of country holds oil reserves◦ National government view: national resource◦ Eastern citizens (Igbo) have yet reaped full benefits of their treasure◦ Direct cause of Biafra Independence movement: secession◦ Individuals who own oil in east tend to be non-Igbo minorities◦ Environmental degradation: east pays price while handing over most

of the benefits.◦ MEND (Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta)

The International Environment◦ Biggest problem: debt it owes Western creditors◦ Oil curse caused this◦ Government spends a high percentage of national budget

repaying debt—at the expense of social programs.

MOSOPMovement for the Survival of the Ogoni People

Non-violent movement founded in 1990 to bring attention to the environmental degradation in Ogoniland (NE Niger Delta)

Promotes self-determination and democracy for the Ogoni people

Opposes foreign oil companies extracting wealth from their homeland

The Nigerian government has responded with military force to break up protests and demonstrations

In 1995, under the Abacha regime, nine MOSOP leaders were convicted on “incite of murder” charges and hanged in an effort to silence their vocal opposition to foreign oil companies

Ken Saro Wiwa,executed in 1995

MENDMovement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta

Largest militant group active in the Niger Delta region

Advocates violence as a means of resistance to what they consider enslavement of the people of the Niger Delta region and the theft of their natural resources

Expose the exploitation of natural resources and the people of the region by public-private partnerships (Nigerian government and major oil companies—Shell, Chevron, etc.)

Tactics include bombing of pipelines, property destruction, sabotage of oil production equipment, and the kidnapping of foreign oil company employees

In a January 2006 email, MEND warned the oil industry:

"It must be clear that the Nigerian government cannot protect your workers or assets. Leave our land while you can or die in it.... Our aim is to totally destroy the capacity of the Nigerian government to export oil."

MENDMovement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta

There are many policies that the current government is struggling with, including, corruption, debt, ethnic and religious conflict, HIV/AIDS, bureaucracy retraining

Nigeria’s public policies greatly affected by world community◦ World Bank “Structural Adjustment Program” or SAP

Generally favors privatization and free trade

◦ International Monetary Fund

◦ Both have been active in attempts to restructure Nigeria’s debt Nigeria depends on its income from oil

◦ Oil revenue income has been source of political corruption

◦ Oil revenues down, corruption and mismanagement prevent state from being able to pay teachers and civil servants

◦ OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries)

◦ NNOC (Nigerian National Oil Corporation)

Standard of living has not improved in recent years

Oil revenue has had little impact on GDP Nigeria spends large portion of budget on

military◦ Has enabled them to maintain a high profile in the region

Increased number of children in schools Poor performance on providing basic health care Income gap between rich and poor increased “national cake”: Federal gov. spends between

two-thirds three fourths

Nigeria’s Political Traditions can be divided into three specific eras:

◦Pre-Colonial Era (800-1860)

◦Colonial Era (1860-1960)

◦Independence Era (1960-now)

Political Traditions

Pre-Colonial Era (800-1860)

Early Influence of Islam

Trade Connections

Kinship-based Politics

Complex Political Identities

Democratic Impulses

Political Traditions

Colonial Era (1860-1960)

Authoritarian Rule

Interventionist State

Individualism

Christianity

Intensification of Ethnic Politics

Political Traditions

Independence Era (1960-now)

Parliamentary-Style Government Replaced by Presidential System

Intensification of Ethnic Conflict

Military Rule

Personalized Rule and Corruption

Federalism

Dependence on Oil

Political Traditions

Nigerian Independence◦ October 1, 1960

Two year honeymoon period Conflict: tore apart the ruling coalition in the Western

region National census

◦ 1965 law and order broke down in Western Region over election-related fraud and violence

◦ Military ended the First Republic in a January 1966 coup

◦ Is there a role for obas and emirs in modern Nigeria?

Northerners have dominated the leadership of the country under military and civilian rule.

Military power◦ Educated Igbo's have held leadership positions

Role of Nigerian universities Civil service No recruitment of “strangers” Federal character of appointments of

military personnel Ethnic politics still dominate

Parliamentary vs. Presidential◦Fusion of power vs. separation of power

◦British established a parliamentary system like their own

◦First Republic followed this pattern◦However, because parliamentary rule tends to yield easy results for the majority party and because stakes of losing are so high, parliamentary government led to massive conflict and ultimately failed

Third Republic of 1993 Constitution of 1999

◦ From 1983 to 1999, politics in Nigeria consisted of a succession of military regimes that planned a return to democracy

◦ Abubakar handed over power to a civilian regime outlined by a constitution in 1999

◦ This is the structure of government that has existed since then.

Federalism◦ Three level federalism: Federal, State and City◦ The number of states has changed three time—from

3 to 19 to 30 to 36

◦Constitution of 1999 Calls for independently elected president Dual chamber of national assembly at the federal

level 3 Senators from each of 36 states, plus one from

Abuja Representatives determined by population All legislators elected to four year terms

◦KEY POINT! Nigerian pluralism; lack of trust by subcultures No institutional structure can overcome this

roadblock.

◦Judiciary: Constitution of 1999 Supreme Court Court of Appeal State and Federal High Courts Ten northern states maintain shari’a law courts

Overlapping system of judiciary has caused conflict

Executive branch of government has been the most powerful

Current system is a federal system closely modeled after the U.S. presidential system

History◦ First Republic: British Parliamentary

System

◦ Second Republic: American Presidential System

◦ Third and Fourth: Revived Presidential Model

May 2010 – present Goodluck Jonathan President

2010

Goodluck Jonathan,Current President

Popularly elected to four-year term with maximum of two terms

Head of Government Commander-in-Chief of armed forces Head of State Appoints government ministers (confirmed by

Senate)—must come from all 36 states Federal Executive Council: Ensures laws are

properly implemented President and ministers not allowed to serve in

National Assembly

National Assembly◦ Bicameral with Senate and House of

Representatives◦ Popularly Elected◦ All bills must pass both houses and be signed

by President◦Senate

109 members: 3 from each state and one from Abuja

◦House of Representatives 360 members

Responsible for the interpretation of laws in accordance with the constitution.

Supreme Court (highest in the land) Court of Appeal (federal and state) Federal High Court (federal and state)

Shari’a Court of Appeal:◦Abuja and state courts

Governor who is popularly elected State House of Assembly

◦Unicameral◦Comprised of popularly elected

representatives from local government areas

◦The number of members in each state assembly is comprised of three times the number of seats in the federal House of Representatives

You cannot study Nigerian politics without recognizing the importance of the military in all aspects of political life.

A mix of ethnic groups Well disciplined, organized, with the ability to

make decisions efficiently and effectively One of only sources of national unity Armed forces also seen as more

representative than political parties and other institutions of government that are subject to ethnic-based patronage.

HOWEVER, ethnic cleavages are the backdrop to military/authoritarian rule

As with many “developing nations”, the bureaucracy has been the source of employment for large numbers of people not engaged in trade or agriculture.

Major source of corruption due to political instability, lack of accountability, and massive cash from oil production.

Bureaucracy has maintained its power throughout military and civilian rule

The first political parties in Nigeria were, for the most part, ethnically based.

Little is done to reach out beyond ethnic power base◦Impact: ethnicizing and regionalizing

the national political process, turning politics into a zero-sum game of winners and losers

Nigeria has an active civil society Two main sources:

◦ Organized Interest Groups and “Clientelism” Many formal associations have an ethnic base,

but there are numerous informal associations as well

Professional organizations such as unions representing petroleum workers and formal professional associations play a role in politics.

Ethnic and Religious Associations◦ MOSOP (Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People)

Spoke for those who owned land now occupied by oil rigs and has seen environmental destruction

Ken Saro-Wiwa Imprisoned and executed by Abache military dictatorship

Associational groups◦ Labor Unions usually organized by sector◦ Universities source of political activism◦ National Union of Petroleum and Gas Workers (NUPENG)◦ Nigerian Bar Association◦ Nigerian Medical Association◦ No farmer groups…ethnic divisions prevented this.

Non-associational Groups◦ Kaduna Mafia

A network of powerful northern military leaders who maintain strong influence over military and politics and are engaged in organized crime

Patron-Client Networks◦ Powerful political figures are able to mobilize support

through personal connections with subordinates◦ Clientelism

Great range in activity◦Voting◦Civil war◦Violence; thugs

Without census data hard to assess Mobilization of patron-client networks

key to victory Rise in honest and responsive

institutions

Constitution of 1999 written to promote national parties and to deflect conflict between ethnic groups

Goal of Constitution to ensure that candidates for office had broad public support

Example: It specified that to be elected president, a candidate would have to poll at least 25 percent of votes cast in at least two-thirds of states.

1975 Elections controlled by Federal Elections Commission (FEDECO)

All parties must register with FEDECO

“Federal Character” of parties

Parties have to show some support (25%) in at least two-thirds of all states to be able to run candidates

Indep. National Election Commission (INEC) 1999

Obasanjo was elected under this system PDP◦ PDP: People’s Democratic Party◦ As a northerner and a Hausa, he is a Christian and his candidacy

received broad popular support

Ethnic Solidarity and Party Loyalty◦ In 1999 the party system had consolidated into three

major parties.◦ Each of these parties had a base of support from one of

the three major ethnic groups◦ However, due to the requirements of INEC (formerly

FEDECO), each had to have regional support Example: The PDP (People’s Democratic Party) is said

to have it support in the north Election of 2007

◦ Umar Musa Yar’adua won◦ The election marked first civilian-to-civilian transfer of

power in Nigerian history◦ Charges of widespread fraud and denial of voting rights

People’s Democratic Party (PDP)◦ Hausa-Fulani and North◦ Obasanjo and Umar Musa Yar’adua

All Nigeria People’s Party (ANPP) 2003◦ Formally the All People’s Party APP 1999◦ Igbo and East/Southeast◦ Main opposition party◦ Ran Former General Muhammadu Buhari in 2003 and 2007.

Action Congress (AC)◦ Merger of Alliance for Democracy, Justice Party, Advance of

Democrats◦ Yoruba and West/Southwest◦ Ran Atiku Abubakar in 2007

Dealing with Debt and SAP◦ Borrowed heavily from foreign banks in 1970s◦ High interest caused debt trap◦ World Bank and IMF restructured much of the

debt◦ Spending to repay debt = highest item in

annual budget◦ The problem of how to deal with debt is one of

highest items of priority

The Census Issue◦ Major source of political conflict!...that’s right

counting people

◦ More People = More Federal Money

◦ This is because each ethnic group fears that the count will inaccurately reflect larger opposing groups and that the state’s resources will be directed accordingly

◦ Also, in a country where federal subsidies make up the lion’s share of budgetary allocations at all levels, the distribution of population directly affects the distribution of resources.

Has the population and resources to be a regional power

Economic Community of West African States◦ Free trade zones◦ Critic of international organizations’ monetary

policy: World Bank, IMF France- closer economic ties U.S. and Britain – condemnation of military

rulers

Sample FRQColonialism had an impact on both the colonizer and the colonized.

(A) Describe two examples of how colonialism has shaped contemporary politics in Nigeria.

(B) Describe two examples of how colonialism has shaped contemporary politics in Great Britain.

Sample FRQANSWER A Acceptable descriptions of how colonialism shaped contemporary politics in Nigeria:

Inhibits national identity formation: colonial rule created regional identities and rearranged boundaries

Ethnic and religious divisions and tensions: Indigenous and Christian religions in the south, Islam in the north; underlying ethnic identities; rearranged boundaries

Residual colonial institutional and cultural features: bureaucracy, language, colonial boundaries

Dependency: extractive economic relations with the West and former colonial power; neocolonialism (continued exploitation)

System of government: Westminster and procedural features of western democracy

Ineffective civil society and weak democratic consolidation: authoritarian colonial structure disrupted consensus-based indigenous political systems; evolution of dominant executives; corruption (prebendalism)

Sample FRQANSWER B Acceptable descriptions of how colonialism influenced contemporary politics in Great Britain:

Multi-ethnic/multi-racial society: immigrant presence from former colonies

Rise in nationalism: anti-immigrant tendencies and xenophobia More inclusive political institutions and society: immigrant

representation in political offices and social sectors Resurgent nationalism: self-determination movements in colonies

fostered a shift in the way that sub-national groups sought greater autonomy

The British Commonwealth offers a framework for contemporary foreign policy interaction between Great Britain and its former colonies

International influence is partially sustained on wealth from exploitation of natural resources and trade arrangements with former colonies