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The Palaeogeographic Evolution of the Kairatos Drainage Basin and its Coastal

Plain during the Holocene

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Κείμενα και μελέτες της Κρητικής Ιστορίας

ΤΡΙΤΗ ΠΕΡΙΟΔΟΣ * 2014 * ΤΟΜΟΣ ΛΔ’

ΕΤΑΙΡΙΑ ΚΡΗΤΙΚΩΝΙΣΤΟΡΙΚΩΝ ΜΕΛΕΤΩΝ

Ηράκλειο 2014

Διευθυντής Αλέξης Καλοκαιρινός

Συντακτική επιτροπή (μέλη του Δ.Σ. της ΕΚΙΜ)Αργυρή Γαλενιανού, Μανόλης Δρακάκης, Αλέξης Καλοκαιρινός,Κλαίρη Μιτσοτάκη, Γιώργος Νικολακάκης, Μιχάλης Ταρουδάκης,Λένα Τζεδάκη-Αποστολάκη

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PETER WARREN

Aromatic Questions 13

GERALD CADOGAN

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Επιγραφή χαλκής μίτρας Μουσείου Ηρακλείου 55

ΕΛΕΥΘΕΡΙΟΣ Ν. ΠΛΑΤΩΝ

Η «χειρονομία της αποκάλυψης»: ένα άγνωστο μέχρι σήμερα στιγμιότυπο των μινωικών τελετουργιών ενηλικίωσης 65

JEAN-PIERRE OLIVIER

Une «loi fiscale mycénienne» et le tableau des prix du boucher de Malia en 1972 83

PHILIP P. BETANCOURT – THOMAS BROGAN – VILI APOSTOLACOU – ANDREW KOH

The organization of minoan manufacturing 89

N. GALANIDOU – K. GAKI-PAPANASTASSIOU – E. KARYMBALIS – H. MAROUKIAN – E. KOSKERIDOU – C. GIANGAS

The Palaeogeographic Evolution of the Kairatos Drainage Basin and its Coastal Plain during the Holocene 97

ALEXANDRA A. KΑRETSOU

KOPHINAS Revisited. The 1990 Excavation and the Cultic Activity 123

GIORGOS RETHEMIOTAKIS

Images and semiotics in space: the case of the anthropomorphic figurines from Kophinas 147

ALEXIA SPILIOTOPOULOU

Kophinas Peak Sanctuary. Preliminary results of the pottery study 163

ΑΘΑΝΑΣΙΑ ΚAΝΤΑ

Η ακρόπολη της Καστροκεφάλας Αλμυρού Ηρακλείου 183

Ν. ΔΗΜΟΠΟΥΛΟΥ-ΡΕΘΕΜΙΩΤΑΚΗ

Ασημένιο σφραγιστικό δακτυλίδι από τον Κατσαμπά 191

KOSTIS S. CHRΙSΤΑKIS

Communal storage in Bronze Age Crete: re-assessing testimonies 201

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EIRINI GΑLLI

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VINCENZO LA ROSA

Περιπλανήσεις σχετικά με την παρουσία των καπουτσίνων μοναχών στην Κρήτη 249

ΑΙΚΑΤΕΡΙΝΗ Κ. ΜΥΛΟΠΟΤΑΜΙΤΑΚΗ

Αποξεσμένη Παράσταση – Damnatio Memoriae στον Ναό του Αγίου Παντελεήμονα στο Μπιτζαριανώ Πεδιάδας Ηρακλείου 265

WALTER PUCHNER

Offene Forschungsfragen zum kretischen religiösen Gedicht “Altes und Neues Testament” 279

ΚAΤΕΡΙΝΑ Β. ΚΟΡΡΕ

Ο στρατιωτικός διοικητής Αντώνιος Ευδαιμονογιάννης και το φέουδο της Σούδας (16ος αιώνας) 293

Στυλιανός Αλεξίου1921-2013

N. GALANIDOU1 – K. GAKI-PAPANASTASSIOU2 – E. KARYMBALIS3 – H. MAROUKIAN2 –E. KOSKERIDOU4 – C. GIANGAS2

The Palaeogeographic Evolution of the Kairatos Drainage Basin and its Coastal Plain during the Holocene

Introduction*

The Kairatos drainage basin, the modern Katsabanos, and its coastal plain (Fig. 1) in north-central Crete have yielded abundant archaeological evidence for human settlement and activity spanning the greater part of the Holocene. In c. 7000 BC this basin induced the island’s first settlers to make a permanent camp at Knossos (Evans 1971; 1994; Efstratiou et al. 2004; 2013). The small camp grew into a larger village and developed further in size and importance throughout the Neolithic, offering an unparalleled archaeological archive of the island’s early farming com-munities (Evans 1964; 1968; 2008; Tomkins 2008). In c. 5500 BC, a small group of people from Knossos moved closer to the coast, on the west bank of the Kairatos, at Katsambas (Alexiou 1956; 1957; Galanidou forthcoming). They settled in a small hamlet both on the summit and at the foot of the Katsambas limestone hill; they buried their dead in the karstic cavities on the hillcrest. During the Bronze Age,

1. Department of History and Archaeology, University of Crete, 74100 Rethymno, Greece, email: galanidou@uoc.gr.

2. Department of Geography-Climatology, Faculty of Geology and Geoenvironment, Na-tional & Kapodistrian University of Athens, 15784 Athens, Greece, email: gaki@geol.uoa.gr.

3. Department of Geography, Harokopio University, 17671 Athens, Greece, email: karymbalis@hua.gr.

4. Department of Historical Geology–Paleontology, Faculty of Geology and Geoenviron-ment, National & Kapodistrian University of Athens, 15784 Athens, Greece, email: ekosker@geol.uoa.gr.

* Keywords: geomorphic evolution, Holocene, Crete, Greece, Neolithic, Bronze Age, Knossos, Katsambas, palaeogeography

Κρητικά Χρονικά ΛΔ́ (2014), 97-122ISSN 0454-5206 © Ε.Κ.Ι.Μ.

98 N. GALANIDOU ET AL.

this same basin once again hosted the north coast’s major administrative centre at Knossos. Beyond Knossos, yet still within the Kairatos catchment, its satellite outposts at Poros and Katsambas bear witness to artisanal and funerary activities (e.g. Alexiou 1967; Dimopoulou 1997; 1999). Given this immense body of evidence, reconstructing the evolution of the Kairatos drainage basin and the wider coastal area of the east part of the present city of Herakleion during the Holocene is ex-pected to furnish archaeological insights. In this paper, we explore the palaeogeog-raphy of the Kairatos catchment to shed light on the particular attractions that it offered to the prehistoric people of Crete. Our research formed part of the Kat-sambas Project, whose objective was the study and final publication of Stylianos Alexiou’s Neolithic finds from his 1950s excavations at Katsambas (Galanidou and Manteli 2008; Galanidou 2011; in press). Placing the Neolithic activity in its pal-aeoenvironmental setting was a major component of our research agenda. Alexiou followed closely every stage of this interdisciplinary research in the field, as he did with all the other strands of archaeological work relating to the site’s publication. On two occasions he accompanied us to Katsambas to offer advice and discuss ‘on site’ the progress of our work. The present paper is dedicated to the memory of a mentor to archaeology, language, literature and life.

The River Kairatos is 16.5 km long, rising from Mt Megalo Kefalaki in Epano Archanes, at an elevation of 664 m. It flows S-N, passes east of the archaeological site of Knossos and debouches into the sea east of the port of Herakleion (Fig. 2). It has an elongated drainage basin of 40.25 sq km, developed mainly on Neogene and Lower Pleistocene formations (mainly sandstones, marls and conglomerates). To-day the Kairatos is a seasonal stream; its watercourse is dry in the summer months. In order to reconstruct the geomorphic evolution of the study area during the Ho-locene, a detailed geomorphological map was prepared including landforms such as alluvial cones, marine and fluvial terraces, knickpoints, slopes and planation surfaces (Fig. 3). Three boreholes were drilled in the downstream part of the river. Two were located close to the modern coastline, while the third was on the present-day west bank of the river, about 550 m northeast of the Katsambas Neolithic ham-let (Buildings III and IV). In order to determine the palaeoenvironmental deposi-tional evolution, the stratigraphy of the Holocene deposits was studied. The work included granulometric and paleontological analyses of selected sediment samples collected from the three drill cores. The stratigraphy of thirteen shallow drills car-ried out by other surveys in the wider area of the port was also taken into account.

THE PALAEOGEOGRAPHIC EVOLUTION OF THE KAIRATOS DRAINAGE 99

Physiographical characteristics of the Kairatos drainage basin

Crete lies in a prominent position in the fore-arc of the Hellenic subduction zone, prone to large and disastrous earthquakes. The prevailing fault tectonism of the study area is oriented north-south and has affected the evolution of the drainage systems of north-central Crete.

The wider area of the River Kairatos is composed mainly of Neogene forma-tions, mostly Pliocene in age (Geological maps of IGME; Tsiambaos 1988; Papa-nikolaou and Nomikou 1998; Papanikolaou et al. 2008) (Fig. 4). They are repre-sented by marls, sandstones and conglomerates with some gypsum. In particular, an extensive area of the central and southern drainage basin consists of the easily eroded (Lower to Middle Pliocene Finikia Formation) white homogenous marls or marly limestones, greyish clays with brown, often thin-bedded intercalations, white-beige fossiliferous marls, lamellar marls or diatomites (with vegetal and fish remnants and sponge spicules) and bioclastic limestones. The base of the formation generally consists of an unsorted marly breccia with constituents of white homog-enous marls. Many foraminifera, mollusk and gastropod species, as well as corals, bryozoa, brachionopoda and echinoidea, are included in this formation. According to the IGME geological maps, this formation is over 150 m thick and unconform-ably overlies the Agia Varvara formation. The last is made up of Upper Miocene (Upper Tortonian-Messinian) bioclastic, reef limestones, locally conglomeratic or brecciated and is rich in fossils (Clypeaster, Pecten, Heterostegina, bryozoa and cor-als in places).

In the 1950s, excavations conducted by Alexiou at Katsambas brought to light, amongst many impressive Minoan finds, the remains of a Neolithic hamlet: a karst-ic cavity, referred to as the “rock shelter”, and three buildings. The Rock Shelter was situated on the hillcrest, facing east towards the river. Building II, the House, lay a short distance to the northwest, commanding excellent views of the coast, the sea and the island of Dia to the north, and the landscape surrounding the Kairatos and its tributaries to the south, east and west. The Rock Shelter and the House were on the topmost surface of the hill, which corresponds to an Upper Pleistocene marine terrace. Further down and immediately below the bioclastic reef limestone cliff were the poorly preserved remains of Buildings III and IV (Alexiou 1957), set on a terrace sloping down gently towards the river, on colluvial and scree deposits.

An outcrop of gypsum in this formation occurs about 1 km south of Knossos. The Upper Miocene limestone formation is 280 m thick. A small part of the Kai-ratos drainage basin is made up from the Abelouzos formation, which comprises

100 N. GALANIDOU ET AL.

irregular alternations of marine, brackish and fluvial conglomerates, sandstones, marls and lignites of Tortonian age, up to about 300 m thick. The Abelouzos for-mation is in unconformity with a small outcrop of the Viannos formation about 1.3 km west of Kato Archanes village. The Viannos formation is composed of Mid-dle Miocene dark grey-greenish silty clays and well-sorted brown sands with rare fresh-water mollusks.

In the southwest part of the drainage basin is a small outcrop of Eocene flysch with Mesozoic resistant, locally karstified limestones and dolomites, which belong to the tectonic nape of the Tripolis zone. In the lower parts of the basin exist Qua-ternary alluvial deposits in the form of fluvial terraces and alluvial cones, coastal deposits represented by beach rocks, uplifted marine terraces, coastal caves and notches and aeolian deposits in the form of coastal dunes. The natural coastal en-vironment has been artificially landfilled during the last several decades in the construction of the modern port of Herakleion city.

The natural mouth of the Kairatos no longer exists, as a section of its north-ernmost part is now buried beneath Kazantzidis Avenue. The modern port of Her-akleion has been extended, to now cover the coastal parts of the Trypiti area; a new peripheral road has been constructed around the limits of the port, leading towards Alikarnassos (Fig. 5). The Alikarnassos-Mantraki peninsula has also been artificially extended further into the sea: a large area stretching about 200 m from the old mouth of the Kairatos has been created by landfill. According to a 1934 map produced by the Greek Navy Hydrographic Service (1938), at the time a 240 m-wide marshy area still existed near the mouth of the Kairatos (Fig. 6).

The drainage network exhibits an elongated dentritic pattern. It is a relatively young hydrological system, as it affects mostly Plio-Pleistocene formations. The drainage systems of the wider Herakleion area are characterized by a parallel pattern, likewise indicating their recent formation and evolution. According to Strahler’s (1957) stream order, the network of the Kairatos is of the fourth cat-egory, with a high number of third-order streams due to the elongation of the basin (Fig. 1).

A large portion of the main channel of the Kairatos appears to follow a normal fault extending from the limestones near Epano Archanes northwards towards the wider Herakleion area. It traverses mainly Neogene and Lower Pleistocene marls, marly limestones and conglomerates.

The climate regime of the city of Herakleion, where the study area is locat-ed, is of the typical Mediterranean type, as shown in Table 1. The mean monthly temperature flow is exactly opposite to the mean monthly precipitation values

THE PALAEOGEOGRAPHIC EVOLUTION OF THE KAIRATOS DRAINAGE 101

(Fig. 7). Winter temperatures are at their lowest in January and February, even though freezing temperatures are rare. High precipitation occurs in December and January. Mean summer temperatures are at their highest in July and August, while precipitation is almost absent in those two months (only 1.6 mm). We should point out that the Mediterranean climate is one of extremes: mean monthly figures are only indicative. In July and August, daily temperatures may exceed 40°C, while mean monthly values are about 26°C. In recent years, heavy rainstorms with pre-cipitation exceeding 70-80 mm in a 24-hour period (as in the case of January 18, 2010) have led to catastrophic flash floods. The climate is known to have changed several times in the last nine millennia, but more data is needed for a precise recon-struction of palaeoclimatic conditions during the Holocene.

Methodology and research techniques

Various research tools were utilized for the purposes of the geomorphological study of the wider Kairatos area. These comprised topographic maps and diagrams at different scales and dates, older charts, aerial photographs taken throughout most of the 20th century (1945, 1960, 1972 and 1991), and satellite images from several government agencies including the Hellenic Army Geographical Service (HAGS), the Navy Hydrographical Service (NHS) and the Institute of Geology and Mineral Exploration (IGME). These different lines of evidence for the study area were inte-grated into a GIS environment utilizing MapInfo and ArcGis software. An essen-tial characteristic of GIS applications is the ability to display and manage different data sets on a common spatial basis and to incorporate them in spatial analysis procedures. GIS data integration comprises a common geographical reference sys-tem, common spatial and temporal coverage, and similar scale and quality. For the purposes of this study, a spatial geodatabase was designed and implemented, con-sisting of the primary GIS layers, including contour lines (line topology), elevation points (point topology), stream network (line topology), mainland (polygon topol-ogy), geological formations (polygon topology), borehole locations (point topol-ogy) and various landforms (point, line and polygon topology) recognized during fieldwork. The main sources of these datasets were the above-mentioned analogue maps, aerial photos and satellite images, as well as the GPS identified field observa-tions. The maps were georeferenced in the EGSA87 coordinate system, followed by onscreen digitization to create the information layers. Additionally, the aerial pho-tos were georeferenced and geometrically corrected in the same coordinate system. The post-processing of these layers within a GIS environment produced secondary

102 N. GALANIDOU ET AL.

thematic layers, e.g. the Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and the geomorphological map of the Kairatos drainage basin (Figs 1 and 3).

Furthermore, detailed geomorphological mapping was performed in the field in order to provide a better understanding of the study area. Fieldwork, especially in the lower reaches of the Kairatos and the coastal area of the river mouth, was impeded by the intense urbanization that has taken place over recent decades. The landforms mapped included marine terraces, fluvial features such as knickpoints, gorges or steep-sided valleys, U-shaped valleys and alluvial cones, as well as con-cave and/or convex slopes, ridges, crests, dolines and planation surfaces with slope characteristics (Fig. 3). A longitudinal profile along the main channel of the Kaira-tos was also plotted and analyzed (Fig. 8).

The description of 13 shallow drilling logs carried out by IGME in the wider coastal area were studied in order to determine the stratigraphy of the Holocene sedimentary sequences and obtain information on coastal evolution. Moreover, three new drill cores (G1, G2 and G3) were obtained, extending down to a depth of 15 m (G1), 10 m (G2) and 7 m (G3) (Fig. 5). All three were taken in the fluvial deposits of the River Kairatos. The first (G1) is located close to the Neolithic hamlet, on the west bank of the Kairatos, about 1 km from the old natural coastline, at an absolute elevation of 8 m. The second (G2) and third (G3) boreholes are located on the east bank of the Kairatos, about 200 m from the present-day coastline, at an absolute elevation of about 2 m (Fig. 5).

The three cores were granulometrically and paleontologically analyzed in or-der to determine the depositional evolution and the paleoenvironmental history of the lower reaches of the Kairatos. Dry mechanical sieving was performed on all three cores with samples taken at decimeter intervals. Eight sieves were used, ranging in diameter from 4 mm for the coarser particles to 45 μm or 0.045 mm for the finer ones.

The paleontological analysis included the determination of the depositional environment. For that purpose, selected samples were studied from cores G1, G2 and G3 to assess their environmental character and biostratigraphic position. These samples were processed using traditional macro- and micropalaeontological techniques for calcareous macro- and microfossils (mollusks and foraminifera). The material >125 μm of the washed residue was semi-quantitatively sorted for all biogenic components under a light microscope. Even though the material in these samples is not well preserved (most of the shells are abraded and coloured), the foraminifera were identified at species-level wherever possible.

THE PALAEOGEOGRAPHIC EVOLUTION OF THE KAIRATOS DRAINAGE 103

A radiocarbon date was obtained on a selected sample of core G2 in order to give an idea about the depositional rates of fluvial sedimentation and the paleogeo-graphic evolution of the study area.

Geomorphical analysis

The Kairatos catchment basin reveals various geomorphological characteristics, depicted on the geomorphological map (Fig. 3). The general slope of the longitudi-nal profile of the River Kairatos is quite gentle, as its highest elevation is only 664 m. According to the longitudinal profile, the main channel can be divided into five main sections: the first, approximately 7.1 km long, corresponds to the lower reach-es of the river and has a 1.20% mean slope. The second section is 4.4 km long with a mean slope of 2.92% while the third section of 1 km length has an 8.77% mean slope and corresponds to the part of the stream flowing between two knickpoints. At the fourth section, the mean channel slope decreases to 3.91% for a distance of about 3 km. Finally, the last mountainous section has a mean slope of 12.12%.

The archaeological sites at Knossos and Katsambas are located along the lower section of the river, on the lower mean channel slope (Fig 8). In practical terms, this means that during Neolithic or Bronze Age times walking from the river mouth on the north coast to the uplands, from Katsambas to Knossos or vice versa, was both viable and required little effort in terms of slope and terrain.

However, there are some points where the channel is affected by faulting or lithological contacts. Of particular interest is the presence of a gorge, just upstream of the Kephala Hill archaeological complex of Knossos, which owes its formation to the lithological differences between knickpoints K2-K4. The northern down-stream half of the drainage basin (about 9 km upstream from the coastline) is pri-marily composed of easily-eroded marly Pliocene formations, while the southern upstream half consists of hard-to-erode Miocene limestones. Within the gorge, knickpoint K3 corresponds to the presence of a fault zone which intersects the main channel of the Kairatos (Fig. 8).

Further downstream, knickpoint K1, located immediately north of Knossos, has formed due to the changing lithology from limestones to marls. Approximate-ly 1 km south of Knossos, an alluvial terrace (Fig. 9) has formed which extends downstream for about 4 km and has a depth of nearly 5 m. Its deposits, according to Roberts (1979), are dated from 350 AD to 1700 AD. These deposits correspond both in character and in age to the younger or historical fill proposed by Vita-Finzi (1969) for all Mediterranean valleys; the upper and lower dates accord with the

104 N. GALANIDOU ET AL.

younger or historical fill in the Aegean area (Bintliff 1977; Butzer 2005). East of the terrace are three deeply incised alluvial cones which are a little older than the alluvial terrace (Fig. 10). The last three kilometers of the Kairatos before it reaches the sea are composed of relatively thick fluvio-torrential deposits exceeding 15 m in depth (borehole G1).

A characteristic feature of the Kairatos drainage basin is the different kinds of erosional surface (Fig. 3). These surfaces may be divided into coastal or marine terraces, planation surfaces and a karstified surface. There are two Late Quaternary marine terraces at elevations ranging between 20-24 m and 36-68 m, both slightly inclined to the north (Ganas et al. 2010). They are deeply incised by a number of streams. The Neolithic site of Katsambas is located on the second terrace at an el-evation of 40 m overlooking the Kairatos (Fig. 2).

Four planation surfaces have been recognized at elevations of 80-100 m, 120-180 m, 210-260 m and 360-460 m, having a general dip to the northeast. One should bear in mind that the inclination of these planation surfaces coincides with the strata dip of the uplifted marine Neogene formations composed of marls, reef limestones and conglomerates. A karstified surface is observed at an elevation of 240-260 m on the eastern edge of the basin, about 1 km east of Knossos. On this surface a small doline exists at 238 m, which owes its formation to the intersection of two faults.

The drainage network presents two types of valley form: U-shaped valleys, cor-responding to an older drainage evolutionary cycle, and V-shaped valleys, which represent a more recent and rejuvenated cycle.

Sedimentary stratigraphy

In order to obtain information on the Holocene sedimentary stratigraphy under the recent alluvial cover at the lower reaches of the Kairatos, three boreholes (G1, G2, G3) were drilled (Fig. 11) and granulometric analyses of ninety collected sam-ples were performed (Figs. 12, 13 and 14). The stratigraphic logs of 13 relatively shallow boreholes (γ 1-6, γ 15-17, Γ 1-4) carried out by IGME in the wider area in and around the Herakleion port to determine the location of the previous coastline were also taken into account. In Fig. 15 the logs are presented according to their absolute elevation, while Fig. 4 indicates the locations of the five boreholes (Γ3, γ15, γ16, γ17 and Γ4) that reached the bedrock (mainly marly limestones and sand-stones) at depths of 2.0, 2.9, 3.1, 3.1 and 8.6 m respectively. The upper parts of the borehole sections correspond to alluvial deposits and fine sands (boreholes γ15, γ16

THE PALAEOGEOGRAPHIC EVOLUTION OF THE KAIRATOS DRAINAGE 105

and γ17), while the lower layers consist of probable coastal sediments including fine to coarse sands (most possibly coastal dunes), sands with gravels and sandy clays.

The lower part of the sedimentary sequence consists of sands and gravely sands with small cobbles, while the lower part of borehole Γ4, closer to the Kairatos mouth, is composed of a 3 m-thick layer dominated by coarse material probably corresponding to torrential channel deposits, underlain by a 2 m-thick sandy layer. These sedimentary sequences lead to the mapping of the old coastline along the limits of the port (Fig. 5).

Borehole G1, located about 900 m upstream from the present-day shore at an absolute elevation of 8 m, was sited a few meters west of the main channel of the Kairatos within the easternmost corner of the Agricultural Station of the Ministry of Agriculture. It was drilled down to a depth of 15 m. The depth of the main chan-nel at that point is about five meters, resulting in low flood frequency.

Granulometric and sedimentological analysis (Table 1) and palaeontological investigations were performed on the material of this drill, for the reconstruction of the depositional palaeoenvironmental evolution of the area close to the Neo-lithic hamlet (Fig. 12). From the surface down to a depth of 6.5 m, the core is com-posed of overbank deposits, then there is an abrupt change to channel deposits which reach a depth of 14 m, with the exception of a narrow band of fine material at 12 m. Near the bottom of the borehole, at 14.5 m, there is a sudden decrease of the grain size. All the analyzed samples were paleontologically examined and in-cluded different species of benthonic, lagoonal, coastal and terrestrial fossils such as gastropods, mollusks, bivalves and foraminifera of Pliocene age.

Boreholes G2 and G3 are located just east of the main channel of the Kairatos near the natural river mouth, at an absolute elevation of 2 m. Their logs represent the infilling of the Kairatos during the Holocene. Sediment samples were collected at various intervals (ranging approximately between 10 cm and 40 cm) where dif-ferences in grain size between the sedimentary layers were obvious, and granulo-metric analyses of the matrix material (<4 mm) were performed.

The upper part of the core G2 sequence (0-5 m) records a decrease in grain size, with sediments consisting largely of silty clay and sand (Table 2, Fig. 13). A 20 cm-thick layer containing relatively recent sherds is found at a depth of 0.90 cm, underlain by a light brown silty sand with a few gravels rich in root and shell fragments of terrestrial gastropods (-1.20 m). At -1.25 to -1.30 the sediment is abun-dant in well-sorted sand and rich in shell fragments, representing probably recent coastal sand dune deposits.

106 N. GALANIDOU ET AL.

At -4.20 m, a 10 cm-thick layer of silty-clayey sand with pottery fragments was observed. The lower 5 m-thick unit of core G2 sedimentary section, at -5 to -10 m, consists of coarse-grained material (limestone gravels and cobbles of various sizes in a silty-clayey sand matrix) alternating with layers containing less coarse gravels.

Samples for granulometric analysis were collected from borehole G3 at approx-imately 50 cm intervals (Table 3, Fig. 14). The upper 1 m of the core is composed of artificial landfill material. A 20 cm, predominantly sandy, thin layer rich in trans-ported rounded pottery sherds is recorded between -3.20 and -3.40 m. Samples of these sherds were collected; three of them were dated to the Archaic period and one to the Final Neolithic (Katya Manteli personal communication). Most importantly, within the same layer a broken bovid tooth was found and AMS (Accelerator Mass Spectrometry) radiocarbon dated to 1460-1310 calibrated (Cal) years BC. A few centimeters above this horizon, at -3 to -3.20 m, lies a 20 cm-thick layer incorpo-rating angular pottery fragments which are unidentifiable due to their fragmenta-tion. Some rounded sherds (>4 mm) were found during the sieving of the sample collected at -3.25 m. Below the sherd-rich layer lies a thin layer (-3.90 to -4.00 m) containing an assemblage of shell fragments from different marine, coastal and terrestrial environments. The base of the sedimentary sequence (between 4.3 and 7 m in depth) of the G3 borehole log is represented by a 2.7 m-thick layer of gravels ranging in diameter from a few mm to 6 cm, in a brown silty-clayey sand matrix material. Above this level, the mean grain size of the matrix material decreases significantly. In order to present an overall view of the logs of the boreholes G1, G2 and G3, placed in absolute elevation, a synthetic plot is drawn in Fig. 16.

Paleontological analysis and palaeological significance of fauna assemblages

The cores of the drilled boreholes were paleontologically inspected, and paleonto-logically interesting sediment samples selected from various depths were studied in order to identify the faunal assemblages and reconstruct the depositional pal-aeoenvironments.

Core G1: The general lithological characteristics of this core are layers of fluvia-tile pebbles and cobbles intercalated with sands. The sandy samples show an as-semblage made of several reworked foraminifera (both planktonic and benthonic), a few littoral and well-preserved benthic foraminifera, and marine macro-fossil fragments (corals, sea urchins, bryozoa, molluscs and rare brachiopods). The most abundant taxa are the benthic foraminifera Cibicides lobatulus, Cibicides refulgens,

THE PALAEOGEOGRAPHIC EVOLUTION OF THE KAIRATOS DRAINAGE 107

Asterigerinata planorbis, Lenticulina sp., Elphidium sp., Ammonia sp. Brackish environment ostracods such as Cyprideis torosa and fragments of terrestrial and fresh-water gastropods as Valvata piscinalis also occur. Globorotalia puncticulata, Sphaeroidinelopsis seminulina and Globigerina bulloides dominate the planktonic foraminifera. A highly mixed fauna is the most important characteristic of the studied horizons. All the fauna indicates a provenance from the erosion of the up-stream Neogene formations.

Sample S3 from borehole G2 at a depth of 1.25-1.30 m: The marine macrofauna con-sists of bivalve and gastropod fragments. Of the gastropods, elements of Trochidae were identified. A rich, diverse benthic foraminiferal fauna was recognized. Quan-titatively important taxa are Asterigerinata planorbis, Cibicides refulgens, Cibicides lobatulus, Bolivina pseudoplicata, Elphidium sp.: a typically epiphytic foraminif-eral assemblage which can be correlated with the presence of an algal covered sea-bottom in an inner shelf environment. Their tests show signs of abrasion, cor-roded surfaces and partly dissolved walls, due to transportation. Rare planktonic foraminifera also occur with Globigerina bulloides and Orbulina dominants. The paleontological analysis of this sample shows that the fauna also originates from the Neogene formations, eroded, transported and deposited by the River Kairatos.

Sample S7 from borehole G3 at a depth of 3.30-3.49 m: This is a barren, terrestrial material, although an allochtonous bovid tooth was identified and AMS dated to 1460 to 1310 Cal years BC (Beta Analytic, sample 287162).

Sample S8 from borehole G3 at a depth of 3.90-4.00 m: The marine macrofauna consists of echinoid spines, bivalves such as Chlamys and venerids and unidentified gastropods. It is pummelled to sub-centimetre fragments indicating a high-energy milieu depositional setting. Fragments of terrestrial gastropods are also present.

Microfauna predominantly comprise the benthic foraminifera Elphidium crispum, Cibicides refulgens, Cibicides lobatulus and, in lower proportions, Asteri-gerinata spp., Ammonia becarii, Peneroplis sp., Lenticulina sp., Rosalina globularis, Planulina sp., Planorbulina sp. The foraminifera have a modern shallow marine distribution (inner shelf zone), and characterize densely vegetated substrate (Mur-ray, 1991). Globorotalia puncticulata, Sphaeroidinelopsis seminulina and Globige-rina bulloides dominate the planktonic foraminifera, indicating an Upper Pliocene date. This 10 cm-thick deposit is composed of a combination of fauna of Pliocene and Recent age, and is not characterized by fluvial deposition. It was most probably

108 N. GALANIDOU ET AL.

transported and deposited as a mixed layer due to a strong surf originating from an important event that occurred in the sea. The pummelled bivalve and gastro-pod fragments and the highly abraded foraminifera, with their high diversity and the mixing of elements of different environments, indicate transportation probably due to tsunami influence by the major volcanic eruption of Thera island in 1627-1600 BC, (Friedrich et al. 2006; Manning et al. 2006; Bruins et al. 2008).

Discussion

During the Holocene, the landscape evolution of the upstream part of the drainage network of the Kairatos has not experienced important changes; the coastal envi-ronment, on the contrary, has altered significantly.

The only important geomorphological change in the upstream part of the drainage network occurred along the main channel of the Kairatos. In Neolithic times there was a period of intense downcutting, followed by alluvial aggradation in historical times and incision of the fluvial deposits that led to the formation of a historical valley terrace.

On the other hand, the lower reaches of the Kairatos and the coastal environ-ment experienced important changes due to natural and anthropogenic factors. This area has been greatly influenced by vertical and horizontal sea-level fluctua-tions and fluvial sediment supply. During the Last Glacial Maximum, c. 16000 BC (18000 BP), the sea level had dropped by approximately 130 m, exposing a great extent of land mass. This brought the coast of the present Herakleion area much closer to the island of Dia, about 10 km offshore today. An extended coastal plain resulted. At the end of the glacial period, there followed a rapid sea level rise which drowned all the coastal areas worldwide. The present sea level had been achieved by around 4000 BC. During this period, the influence of tectonics in the area was of minor importance compared to the sea-level rise impact on the landscape.

During the Last Glacial Maximum at around 16000 BC, when the sea level was low, the River Kairatos carved its valley on its way to the sea; the transported sediments deposited lie in the deeper parts of today’s sea. During the Holocene, however, the Kairatos deposited its sediments along the present coastal area, where it formed a coastal plain.

Boreholes G2 and G3 were drilled very close to the present natural mouth of the Kairatos. Both core logs are dominated by fluvio-torrential sediments composed of alternating channel and overbank deposits. The significant upward-fining particle-size sequence indicates the reduced aggradation gradient of the watercourse fol-

THE PALAEOGEOGRAPHIC EVOLUTION OF THE KAIRATOS DRAINAGE 109

lowing the sea-level rise. At -3.30 to -3.40 m within borehole G2, a well-preserved bovid tooth was found, which was AMS dated to 1460 to 1310 Cal BC years. The lo-cation of the tooth is extremely significant, as the core includes a 10-cm sandy layer at -3.90 to -4.00 m which consists of, among other things, a significant assemblage of marine shells. This layer is only 50 cm below the location where the tooth was found. The presence of this thin sandy layer allows us to assert the probability of a tsunami having occurred some time before 1460 to 1310 BC. This puts us very close to the great Thera volcanic eruption event which occurred around 1627-1600 BC.

Based on the absolute age of the tooth at a depth -3.30 to -3.40 m, it is pos-sible to estimate an indicative fluvial sedimentation rate of 1 mm/yr, although we must bear in mind that in Mediterranean environments sedimentation rates are rarely regular and homogenous. In both boreholes G2 and G3, at a depth of 1.20 to 1.30 m, the abundant sandy material could be attributed to the presence of re-cent coastal sand dunes probably formed during the last 1,000 years. Despite the absence of absolute dating, we could argue that these sand dunes were not present during Neolithic times because the coastline was further north than it is now. They were certainly there during Venetian times, and perhaps the northern part of the ‘Spiaggia del Cazzabano’, a map showing the Kairatos valley and its mouth and published by M. Boschini in 1651 (1967), depicts, north of the farm land, the sand dunes identified during our study (Fig. 17).

Combining the data of the 13 coastal boreholes drilled by IGME and sea-level curves, it is suggested that the sea level reached -7.5 m below its present position at around 4000-4500 BC, right next to the modern port of Herakleion (Fig. 18). The sea does not appear to have advanced far inland, as boreholes G2 and G3 at the Katsambas mouth did not encounter marine or coastal sediments down to a depth of 10 m.

The geomorphological survey of the drainage basin of the Kairatos, combined with the study of the Holocene stratigraphy of the Kairatos coastal plain, shows that when the Neolithic hamlet at Katsambas flourished in 5000 BC, the sea was not as close to the hill as it is today. Fig. 18 depicts the approximate position of shoreline of the study area at 16000 BC (18000 BP), 8000 BC (10000 BP) and 4000 BC (6000 BP) taking into account sea-level curves for the seas of Greece and east Mediterranean Sea (Lambeck, 1996; Sivan et al., 2001; Perissoratis and Conispolia-tis, 2003; Lambeck et al., 2004; Lambeck and Purcell 2005; Antonioli et al., 2007) and the present day bathymetry. These models provide generic relative sea-level rise fluctuation curves which have been widely used in palaeogeographic recon-struction studies along the Greek coastline. Sea-level changes are the result of the

110 N. GALANIDOU ET AL.

combined action of processes such as tectonics, faulting, volcanism and sediment load accumulation at the mouth of the rivers, that produce localized movements differing both in magnitude and rate (Galanidou 2014; Sakellariou and Galanidou in press). The coastal topography across Crete has been formed by these processes. Hence a more precise reconstruction of the palaeogeography and the coastline po-sition of the area to the east of Herakleion at various points of the past requires a more detailed approach, one combining various strands of evidence such as sedi-mentology, biostratigraphy, rates of tectonic movements, and fan-delta sediment deposition processes. A multidisciplinary approach to further refine the palaeo-geographic picture of the Kairatos basin is a main objective of our future work. According to Aegean Sea relative sea-level curves, when the Neolithic hamlet and cemetery at Katsambas were in use, at around 5000 BC, the sea level was about 15 m lower than its present position and the shoreline was located further north than it is now. Taking into account the present-day bathymetry of the wider area of Herakleion port, the area between the Katsambas hill and the coastline consisted of an extensive and elongated E-W coastal plain formed by the Kairatos alluvial deposits. The sea never reached the area where boreholes G2 and G3 were drilled near the present-day Kairatos mouth, since no marine deposits were identified by the sedimentary and paleontological analyses. However, the coastal plain seems to have been affected by a tsunami, probably caused by the Thera volcanic eruption around 1600 BC. The lower reaches of the Kairatos have since undergone signifi-cant modifications due to the intense urbanization of the area. Nowadays the river channel is buried beneath an avenue, while a new extension of the port has obliter-ated the coastal alluvial plain.

The natural coastal landscape of the wider area of the Katsambas Neolithic hamlet has changed dramatically in the last millennia, leaving aside the hill it-self. At around 5000 BC the coastline was further north than it is now. The broad coastal alluvial plain between the hill and the coastline, now partly submerged and partly buried beneath the Herakleion port, must have offered land suitable to Neo-lithic activity. Katsambas could well have served as the coastal outpost of Knossos; the two sites ought to be considered in an organic connection.

During Prehistoric and Historical times the slope of the main river channel between Knossos and Katsambas hill remained always low, providing suitable con-ditions for viable access between these two prehistoric sites, even though in the Neolithic period the lower fluvial terrace (a historical fill), now present along the main channel for a distance of about 2 km north of Knossos, had not been formed. The mean walking time between these two sites is estimated at about an hour.

THE PALAEOGEOGRAPHIC EVOLUTION OF THE KAIRATOS DRAINAGE 111

Conclusions

Detailed geomorphological mapping of the drainage basin area and the drilling of three boreholes in the lower reaches of the River Kairatos, northeast of the Neo-lithic hamlet at Katsambas, were conducted to reconstruct the geomorphic evolu-tion of the area during the Holocene. The stratigraphy of the Holocene deposits was investigated through granulometric and palaeontological analysis of sediment samples from the drill cores. The geomorphological analysis shows that the nat-ural environment of the coastal area around Katsambas has experienced signifi-cant changes in the last millennia, with the exception of the hill itself. When the Neolithic hamlet flourished, c. 5000 BC, an extensive, elongated E-W coastal plain formed by the Kairatos alluvial deposits lay between the hill and the coastline, since the sea-level was about 15 m lower than its present position and thus the shoreline was further to the north than it is now. The width of this plain was gradu-ally reduced due to the acceleration of sea-level rise between 5000 and 3000 BC. The landscape evolution of the upstream part of the Kairatos drainage network, on the contrary, has not altered considerably. The slope of the main channel between Knossos and the Katsambas hill has always been low, providing suitable conditions for viable access between these two sites. Thus Katsambas could very well have served as the coastal outpost of Knossos. In around 1627-1600 BC the coastal plain must have been affected by the disastrous event of the tsunami caused by the major volcanic eruption of Thera.

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THE PALAEOGEOGRAPHIC EVOLUTION OF THE KAIRATOS DRAINAGE 115

F IGU R E CA P T IONS

Fig. 1. Location map of the Kairatos drainage basin, presented as a Digital Elevation Model, with major archaeological sites discussed in the text marked on it. At Katsambas the star symbol in the west corresponds to the Katsambas hilltop sites (the Rock Shelter and the House), and the star symbol in the east corresponds to Buildings III and IV, excavated below the cliff on the alluvial terrace sloping down gently towards the river.

Fig. 2. Panoramic view of the lower valley of the River Kairatos taken from the Katsambas Neolithic site. The photo is taken from the hill summit.

Fig. 3. Geomorphological map of the Kairatos drainage basin.Fig. 4. Geological map of the Kairatos drainage basin, based on IGME geological maps.Fig. 5. Topographical map of the northern part of the Kairatos basin and the coastal area that

today overlaps with the port of Herakleion, showing the location of the boreholes and the archaeological components of the Neolithic hamlet.

Fig. 6. Hydrographic chart of the old port of Herakleion as it was until 1934. Note the marshy area at the mouth of the River Kairatos (modern Katsabanos).

Fig. 7. Mean monthly temperature and precipitation values of Herakleion Meteorological Station (1971-2009).

Fig. 8. Longitudinal profile of the Kairatos main channel, showing knickpoints and lithological changes along the watercourse (fd: fluvial deposits, m: marly formations, c: conglomerates and sandstones, l: limestones). The main faults (F) affecting it are also depicted. K1, K2, K3 and K4 stand for the four important knickpoints along the main channel. The changing slopes of the main channel are shown at the bottom.

Fig. 9. Inner fill terrace, located east of Knossos.Fig. 10. Deeply incised alluvial cone, located east of Knossos.Fig. 11. Drilling equipment at work at site G3, near the mouth of the Kairatos.Fig. 12. Log and percentage distribution by weight of silt-clay, sand and gravel particles of the

matrix material in borehole G1. Fig. 13. Log and percentage distribution by weight of silt-clay, sand and gravel particles of the

matrix material in borehole G2. Fig. 14. Log and percentage distribution by weight of silt-clay, sand and gravel particles of the

matrix material in borehole G3. Fig. 15. Synthetic plot of the logs of the boreholes drilled by IGME.Fig. 16. Synthetic plot of the logs of boreholes G1, G2 and G3.Fig. 17. ‘La spiaggia de Cazzabano’, map by M. Boschini, 1651, showing the Kairatos River

valley, the village of Katsambas and the north coast at the river’s mouth. The lazaretto appears to the west and Trypiti to the east.

Fig. 18. Map of the area depicting the approximate position of the coastlines at 16000 BC (18000 BP, Last Glacial Maximum), 8000 BC (10000 BP) and 4000 BC (6000 BP), taking into account published sea-level curves and the present-day bathymetry. The inset diagram corresponds to sea-level changes in Herakleion area based on sea-level curves for the Aegean Sea (Lambeck, 1996; Lambeck and Purcell, 2005).

116 N. GALANIDOU ET AL.

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THE PALAEOGEOGRAPHIC EVOLUTION OF THE KAIRATOS DRAINAGE 121

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