© T. M. Whitmore

TODAY •Origins of agriculture & some

consequences

•Questions about last time?Domestication?

Properties of cultivated plants?

© T. M. Whitmore

Origins of agriculture Why - How - Where?

• Many theories (not all noted here)

• No absolute agreement

• Some address the “why” of agriculture

• Most seek to explain the “where”

• Also the “how” of agriculture

• Not “progress” per se – some negative consequences

© T. M. Whitmore

Origins of agriculture• Most of human history we have been

foragers (hunter-gathers)

• Paradox of domestication/agricultureWhy leave hunting-gathering ?First Nutrition transition:

Domestication/agriculture => less variety in diet and less healthy people

Domestication/agriculture done where wild plants (e.g., wild relatives of wheat and barley) are very abundant – so why bother?

H-G often entails less work

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Composite theory to explain the origin of agriculture in

Mesopotamia• Ag arose in part as a consequence of

climate change Climate change => increased

seasonality• Need to have a diversity of domesticatable

wild plants• Humans altered gathered plants

• Process may have been more-or-less unconscious (dump heap theory)

• Population growth leads to population levels above the carrying capacity around margins of optimum habitats

© T. M. Whitmore

Semi-Dissenters• Sauer

Agriculture did not originate from a lack of food

Inventors of agriculture had previously acquired special skills in other directions: predisposition to agricultural experiments

Agriculture began in wooded areas: easier to clear than grasslands

• Harlan Although agriculture started more or less

simultaneously (8,000-6,000 BC) in several parts of the world, circumstances were probably quite different.

Therefore, a single model will not be satisfactory.

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Proposed sequence of change

• “Broad Spectrum” revolution (change in H-G patterns)20,000 BP and later

• “Neolithic” Revolution (advent of agriculture and later, herding)12,000 BP and later

• Urban Revolution (rise of civilization)~ 6,000 BP and later

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Consequences I: 1st Nutrition Transition

(Foragers => Agriculturalists)(Paleolithic to Neolithic)

• H-G/forager health & nutrition Small bands low density => few

infectious diseasesVarious parasites, lice, and

some zoonoses (trichinosis, tetanus, schistosomiasis etc.)

Good nutrition, variety of foods, few deficiencies

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1st Nutrition Transition • Early agriculturalists

Nutritional status likely lower than for foragers Lean years and hunger seasons Theft Storage problems

Domesticated varieties may be less nutritious than wild relatives

Diet is more centered on cereals => less variety

Agriculture => loss of fertility in fields (with no amendments) and possible plant diseases => greater risks again

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Consequences II: Health• Early agriculturalists: increased health

risks over foragers Increased “herd type” infectious diseases

Malaria, mumps, measles, smallpox etc.

Increases in zoonoses and parasites from animals: anthrax, TB etc. salmonella or tape worms

Increases in diseases associated with waste & contaminated water (fecal-oral diseases): cholera, typhus, plague

Insect borne diseases (e.g., malaria)Increased infections => higher

malnutrition especially for weanlings

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Consequences III: Sedentary living• Neolithic/Agricultural revolution involves

sedentary settlement - a major change =>Annual harvests => food storageStorage losses and health risks due to

various forms of rot in storage (e.g., ergot)

Stored foods can be stolen (see McNeil’s classic Plagues and Peoples)

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Urban/sedentary revolution • Trade networks associated with cities can

improve food variety and seasonal availability (but trade is often controlled => development of elite and poor classes)

• “Civilization” is defined by urban specialists (i.e., non-farmers) – don’t grow own foodThus, ability to eat dependent on

exchange rather than production ability => possibly vulnerability to “social famine”

(even if crops are abundant)

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Consequences IV: Population Consequences

• Population growth (conventional, “hockey stick,” view)Paleolithic = .0015%/yr for thousands of

years100,000 – 12,000 BP perhaps 3 m

humans total8 m humans by 10,000 BP (eve of ag)By 5,000 BP (~ 5,000 yrs of ag) = 100

m!

© T. M. Whitmore

Deevey’s 3 “Revolutions”

• A re-interpretation of the “hockey stick growth curve to highlight 3 “revolutions”Paleolithic: tool making revolutionNeolithic: agriculture & urbanism

revolutionIndustrial: industrial revolution

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Deevey’s reinterpretation• Low growth after gains of initial paleolithic

“surge” and neolithic surges

• Paleolithic revolution Both death and birth rates increased, but

births more Increase in population and density

• Neolithic Revolution• Birth and death rates increase ( births more)

Greatest potential for disease and death in very old and very young

Reproducing age folks more likely to survive all these problem

© T. M. Whitmore

Origins of agriculture – where?• Vavilov (1927):

Centers of genetic diversity in wild plants (precursors of domesticates) => center of domestication

He posits 8 major centers of domestication that => centers for early ag Some dissent now but still generally

accepted

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SW Asia & E Mediterranean (IV on map) aka “fertile crescent”)

• Zagros mtns., SW Turkey, and E. Mediterranean hills

• First good evidence of domestication of cereals (many wild grasses) (8,000-12,000 BP) Wheat; barleylater flax for oil, peas, lentils

• By 6000 BP classic Mediterranean crops: olive, grapes, figs

• Early animal domestication (6000 BP): Sheep , goats, cattle, pigs

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Fertile Crescent II• Move to flood plains of Iraq (Tigris &

Euphrates rivers) and Nile by 7000-6000 BP => Rise of great Mesopotamian and

Egyptian civilizations

• Lowlands of Mesopotamia and Nile lack sufficient rain for agriculture => By 5000 BP new (2nd) type of agriculture

(irrigation-based)

• Also key is adoption of ox-drawn plow (very simple “ards”) by 6000 BP

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Fertile Crescent Crops/foods I• Grains: wheat, barley, rye, and oats• Fruits & nuts: grape, olive, fig, date palm,

pomegranates, apricot, walnut, pistachios• Pulses: peas, lentils, chick peas (poor folks'

meat)• Root & tuber crops: turnips, beets, carrots,

radishs• Condiments/vegetables: onions, garlic,

leeks, cucumbers, lettuce, saffron, parsley,• Oil crops: rape seed, safflower, flax, olive• Stimulants: poppy, digitalis, belladonna,

licorice

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Fertile Crescent Crops/foods II• Meat:

Probably mostly small stock (goats, sheep, pigs)

Cows too valuable to slaughterCattle used for milk and traction before

for meat

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Food storage and preparation• Brewing by 5500 BP!

• Wine making (grapes, dates)

• Milling of wheat and barley for cereal foods (porridge) and bread

• Baking

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Diffusion of SW Asia Ag & domesticates

• Diffusion of crops, animals, & techniques

• West thru Mediterranean basin: Spain & N Africa by 6000 BP

• North to Europe via Danube valleyTo N Sea (and Britain?) by 6000 BP

• East to South AsiaBy 5000 BP to Indus R valley (Harappa &

Mohenjodaro civilizations)To Ganges V by 3000 BP

• East to N China plain by 7000 BP

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South East Asia & India (IIa & IIb on map)

• “Vegeculture” (vs seed agriculture) Before seed ag in SE AsiaTiming unclear (before 12,000 BP?)Simple digging stick methods

• Important non-seed propagated crops:Taro, breadfruit, sago palm, bamboo,

coconut, bananas, & some yams• Also chickens and pigs (independently)

© T. M. Whitmore

South East Asia continued• Seed-based agriculture

Asian rice by 5000 BP in Thailand or elsewhere in SE Asia Upland (dry, rain-fed) rice initially Wet (paddy) rice

–Elaborate landscape modifications Spread E to India & N to S China

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India & South Asia continued• Grains: rice

• Pulses: chickpea (?), mung bean, pigeon pea

• Roots & tubers: radish, taro, some yams

• Oil crops: safflower, sesame (?),

• Fruits & nuts: mango, orange, tangerine

• Vegetables: eggplant, cucumber

• Misc & spices: sugar cane, coconut palm, black pepper, indigo, cinnamon

• Fiber: various cottons

© T. M. Whitmore

China & Central Asia(regions I & III on map)

• Cereals: millets; sorghum; buckwheat• Pulses: soybean, adzuki bean, velvet bean• Roots & tubers: turnip, Chinese yams• Oil crops: rape seed• Fruits & nuts: pear, chestnut, quince;

persimmon, litchi, apricot, peach, walnut (?)

• Vegetables & spices: Chinese cabbage, ginger, onions

• Stimulants etc.: tea, ginseng,

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Africa (VI on the map)

• Agricultural origins: after 9000 BP (more likely 5000-6000

BP)regions & crops uncertain (Ethiopia &

Sahael), general diffusion west

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African Domesticates• Cereals: African rice, pearl millet, sorghum,

tef• Pulses: cowpea, groundnuts• Roots & tubers: African (true) yam• Oil crops: oil palm, castor bean• Fruits & nuts: baobab, watermelon, melon• Vegetables & spices: okra• Stimulants: coffee• Animals: Common ass & guinea fowl

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AgricultureAppears

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(Paleolithic)

(Neolithic)

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Near Eastern Crops

6. Olive7. Barley8. Walnut9. Almond10. Pistachio nuts

11. Apricot12. Date13. Wheat14. Fig15. Fava beans

1. Lentil2. Chickpea3. Salt4. Peas5. Raisins

History of Horticulture © 2002 Jules Janick, Purdue University

Fertile Crescent

IRAN

IRAQ

History of Horticulture © 2002 Jules Janick, Purdue University

© T. M. Whitmore

AgricultureAppears

© T. M. Whitmore

(Paleolithic)

(Neolithic)

© T. M. Whitmore

© T. M. Whitmore

ANIMAL SOURCES OF SOME HUMAN DISEASES

DISEASEBacterial

BrucellosisPasteurellosisTularemiaAnthraxListerosisTuberculosisQ Fever

ParasiticTrichinosisCoccidiosis

ViralInfluenzaFoot and MouthRabies

COMMON SOURCE

goats, cattlefowlsheep, rabbitscattle, sheep, goats, horsesguinea pigs, fowlcattlecattle, sheep, goats

swinecats

swine, horsescattle, sheep, goatsdogs, cats