. This study was designed to examine migration patterns among residents of a Byzantine (5th-7th C) monastic community in Jerusalem. The historical record suggests extensive pilgrimage to Jerusalem during this period from across the Old World, including the Mediterranean, Asia Minor, North Africa, Europe and throughout Palestine. By examining isotopic strontium levels in a representative sample of the St. Stephan’s community—one of the largest urban monasteries of its day—this study aims to determine whether or not such migrations were occurring.

Radiogenic strontium isotope analysis has been successfully used to provide information about human mobility when applied in a bioarchaeological context (Price 2002, Knundson 2004). Strontium is incorporated into bone and enamel due to its chemical similarities to calcium. Generally speaking, the skeletal strontium values can provide an estimate of the region inhabited within approximately the last ten years of life as each geographic region has a distinct geochemical profile with a relatively unique isotopic ratio of 87Sr/86Sr. Simultaneously, significant variation in skeletal strontium content among individuals can be indicative of human mobility. Like bone, dental enamel also incorporates strontium. Unlike bone, however, enamel is not regenerated after formation, and is very minimally affected by diagenesis (Ericson, 1985). Enamel may therefore be used to reflect the region in which childhood development occurred and can prove valuable when studying the community demographic. Metric and non-metric data compiled for the St. Stephen’s collection reveal a considerably homogeneous group, suggesting that pilgrimage was perhaps not as widespread a phenomenon as the texts imply (Williams et al 2006, Guappone et al 2006, Ullinger 2002). Rather, such activity may have been unique to an elite minority, with the majority of the monastic community being comprised of local individuals. Stable strontium isotope analysis of the osteological and dental remains from St. Stephan’s should provide greater insight into overall community mobility.

Strontium Isotope Analysis: As micronutrients from the bedrock progress into the soil and groundwater, stable isotopes of strontium (Sr) enter the food chain of the earth’s biological systems (Price, 2002). Strontium salts present in the soil are completely soluble in groundwater; however, a concentration reduction from soil to soil-water occurs by approximately two fold, as calcium salts tend to be more soluble than strontium. Ground water is then absorbed by plants, with equal absorption of the two elements. Strontium isotopes continue to propagate through biological systems as herbivores consume this plant material. At each successive trophic level, the reduction in strontium concentration may approach five-fold. This effect is attributable to the intestine’s selective absorption of calcium during digestion (Aufderheide, 1989). The chemical behavior of strontium mimics that of calcium, often substituting for this rare earth in the hydroxyapatite crystal matrix (Knudson, 2004). Consequently, the 87Sr/86Sr ratios of calcified tissues will indicate the unique isotopic composition of the region occupied by the individual prior to death (Price, 1994).

Bone is continually replaced, with cortical and trabecular bone maintaining half-lives of 23.1 years and 2.9 years, respectively (Price, 2000). Therefore, the 87Sr/86Sr value of bone can be indicative of an individual’s migratory behavior, with the strontium ratio shifting toward local values as bone is turned over (Price, 2002). Dental enamel can be utilized in a similar fashion. Differences exist, however, which affect the inferences gleaned from enamel ratios—for example, enamel is subject to a much lesser degree of diagenesis than is bone. Furthermore, this material is not regenerated after initial formation (Ericson, 1985). Hence, enamel may be used to reflect the region in which childhood development occurred, whereas bone values only indicate residence in later life. Synthesizing both sources of data can prove valuable when tracing individuals’ life histories.

Trace Element Analysis: Another method indicative of human mobility involves examining the elemental barium and strontium content of bone. By examining the logarithmic dispersions of Sr/Ca and Ba/Ca, average elemental values of an area’s geochemistry can be estimated (Burton, 2003). As is the case with isotopic analysis, bone values are indicative of the area inhabited within the last decade of life, while enamel values correspond to an individual’s natal region

Pilgrimage: Much of the historical and archaeological record supports extensive migration and pilgrimage from throughout the Old World to Jerusalem. In fact, one cemetery in Palestine dating to the 6th and 7th century recorded the birthplaces of seventy-three monks. Binns (1994) reports that the monks came from Northern Syria and Asia Minor to Greece, Mesopotamia, Georgia, Persia, India, Rome, and Arabia. Wilkinson (2002) also catalogues the accounts of European pilgrimage, including Bordeaux from modern France, Egeria of Galacia in modern Spain, Piacenza from Italy, Arculf from Gaul and Willibald and Bernard from Rome. Hirschfeld (1992) points out that some pilgrim monks would often migrate to holy sites with the intent of remaining there permanently in hopes of joining a monastery. Even those intending to return home would often decide upon

arrival to enter the monastic life instead (Wilkinson, 2002).

The doctrine of the time encouraged the pious to experience firsthand the tombs of saints and martyrs. As the site of Christianity’s first martyr, St. Stephen’s monastery would have been no exception. Schur (1992) states that martyrs like St. Stephen

would have held a special meaning for believers. It

was thought that the location of martyr- dom acquired a “remissory power” --

capable of granting forgiveness of sins. It is the intent of this study to determine whether or not pilgrim monks were taking up permanent residence at Byzantine St. Stephen’s by utilizing radiogenic strontium isotope analysis.

Strontium Isotope Analysis: Twenty–four upper left third molars and 2 dental faunal samples from the Byzantine St. Stephen’s collection were used for strontium isotope analysis. The roots of the teeth were broken off, and the enamel was mechanically separated from dentine and pulp with a diamond wheel point bit fitted to a Dremel® MultiPro® Model 395 drill. Approximately 0.20 gram enamel samples were analyzed by a VG Micromass Sector 54 TIMS at the University of North Carolina Chapel Hill Geochronology and Isotope Geochemistry Laboratory. Data were collected using Faraday cups in a 4-collector array using peak-hopping, or "triple dynamic" mode. The ratios were referenced to lab measurement of standard Sr NBS-987—measured at a ratio of 0.710262 ± 0.000012. The data were corrected for isotope fractionation during analysis assuming 86Sr/88Sr = 0.1194.

Trace Element Analysis: Fifty-four left proximal femora were used for trace element analysis. One to two grams of bone were removed from the femoral shaft and the periosteal/endosteal surfaces with an aluminum oxide grinding stone fitted to a Dremel® MultiPro® Model 395 drill. Next, the samples underwent sonication with 30-35 mL of ultrapure 18.2mΩ distilled, de-ionized water for thirty minutes. These were decanted and replaced with another 30-35 mL of ultrapure 18.2mΩ distilled, de-ionized water, followed by another thirty minutes of sonication. The samples were then sonicated in 30 mL of 5% acetic acid (C2H4O2) for thirty minutes, followed by a second aliquot of 5% C2H4O2 sonicated for five minutes. The samples were placed in a VWR 1320 drying oven for about two hours, then ashed in a Thermolyne® Type 48000 Furnace at 750 C for eight hours in open nitric acid (HNO3)-cleaned porcelain crucibles. Finally, the ashed bone was crushed and powdered using an agate mortar and pestle, and sealed in plastic bags cleaned with HNO3.

Using Teflon-coated spatulas, 0.1 (+/-0.02) g powdered bone were measured into HNO3-cleaned disposable 15 mL centrifuge tubes. The powdered sample was dissolved in 2.0 mL Tracepur® HNO3, and the solutions were heated for 90 minutes in a Dry-Bath at 100ºC. While heating, each tube was covered with a polyethylyne ball (to prevent loss of trace elements while allowing excess vapor to escape). Samples were vortexed repeatedly throughout the heating process. Samples were cooled and added to 45 mL ultrapure 18.2mΩ distilled, de-ionized water. Samples were analyzed using an ICP-OES equipped with a Perkin-Elmer AS 90 auto-sampler and WinLab32 ICP continuous software at the Center for Environmental Science and Technology at the University of Notre Dame.

The methodology utilized in this study was modified from previous trace element and strontium isotope studies, including Sheridan (1992), Bentley (2003), Knudson (2004), Price (2001), Burton (2003).

Stable Strontium Analysis: Twenty-four human samples from 22 upper left third molars (n=2 duplicates), and 2 regional faunal samples were analyzed from the Byzantine St. Stephen’s collection (the donkey and pig teeth were found within the same repository as the human remains). The fauna were tested to provide a local, temporal 87Sr/86Sr baseline for comparison, yielding an average ratio of 0.70810.00005. The mean 87Sr/86Sr value for the human enamel (n=22) was 0.070840.00069. Figure 1 illustrates the St. Stephen’s isotopic distribution, showing a unimodal pattern indicating one group of residents. In order to define the “local” isotopic value, a range of 2 standard deviations of the mean was designated (Grupe, 1997). According to these criteria, all but two individuals fall within the local parameter of 0.7070-0.7098. The outliers have values

of 0.7104 and 0.7099, respectively. Though they may be considered “non-local”, their values are very close to the upper boundary of the local range. On the whole, the sample demonstrates considerable homogeneity in terms of 87Sr/86Sr values. Such would be expected of a group of lifetime residents of a given area.

In testing enamel, immigrants can be more easily identified since the childhood dietary Sr is reflected, whereas bone values reflect geographic residence in later life. Due to the lack of substantial variation, it is unlikely that any individuals from the sample were immigrants to the area, except the statistical outliers. Thus, with a largely local monastic community at St. Stephen’s, the applicability of ancient texts suggesting a widespread migration to Jerusalem’s monasteries is called into question. This interpretation correlates with the findings of other studies investigating migration at Byzantine St. Stephen’s (Williams et al 2006, Guappone et al 2006, Ullinger 2002)—namely that the monastic community is significantly homogenous, indicative of a predominantly local group.

The St. Stephen’s 87Sr/86Sr enamel values were compared to nineteen worldwide studies (Table 1). The means of three Near Eastern locations—Aila, Jordan (df=29, t=0.33, p<0.1); Rehovot (df=29, t=0.16, p<0.1) and Zabayir Zahir edh-Dhiyab, Israel/Palestine (df=29, t=0.28, p<0.1)—show no significant difference from the St. Stephen’s mean. Similarly, there was no significant difference in sample means between St. Stephen’s and 11 other sites: Grasshopper Pueblo, Arizona (df=30, t=1.35, p<0.1); Malibu, California (df=26, t=0.08, p<0.1); Century Ranch, California (df=25, t=0.58, p<0.1);Tiwanaku, Bolivia (df=34, t=0.61, p<0.1); Asparn/ Schletz, Austria (df=26, t=1.39, p<0.1); Globasnitz, Austria (df=29, t=1.12, p<0.1); Monkton-up-Wimbourne, England (df=38, t=0.17, p<0.1); Campeche, Mexico (df=34, t=0.73, p<0.1); Flomborn, Germany (df=34, t=1.66, p<0.1); Dillingen, Germany (df=41, t=0.79, p<0.1); and Vaihingen, Germany (df=40, t=1.24, p<0.1). Substantial differences were seen in the communities at Walnut Creek, Arizona (df=27, t=3.78, p>0.001); Tiwanaku, Bolivia (df=26, t=4.44, p>0.001); Teotihuacán, Mexico (df=30, t=2.01, p=0.05); Cape Town, South Africa (df=25, t=2.05, p=0.05) and Schwetzingen, Germany (df=45, t=1.76, p>0.1).

0.706500

0.707000

0.707500

0.708000

0.708500

0.709000

0.709500

0.710000

0.710500

0.711000

Local

Non-local

Faunal

Local Range

Figure 1. 87Sr/86Sr distribution for the St. Stephen’s sample

87S

r/86

Sr

valu

es

Alicia Cooper1; Zachary Viets2; Susan Guise Sheridan, Ph.D.1 (1Department of Anthropology, University of Notre Dame; 2Department of Anthropology, University of Kansas)

Site Region Dates Method n n

Flomborn Germany 5200 B.C.E. TIMS 5 0.70995 ± 0.00019 10 0.71072 ± 0.00125 Price, 2001Flomborn Germany 5200 B.C.E. TIMS 6 0.70995 ± 0.00017 Bentley, 2004Schwetzingen Germany 5200 B.C.E. TIMS 6 0.70941 ± 0.00036 21 0.71007 ± 0.00071 Price, 2001Schwetzingen Germany 5000 B.C.E TIMS 7 0.70941 ± 0.00036 Bentley, 2004Dillingen Germany 5200 B.C.E. TIMS 7 0.70865 ± 0.00012 17 0.70915 ± 0.00071 Price, 2001Dillingen Germany 5200 B.C.E. TIMS 7 0.70865 ± 0.00012 17 0.70914 ± 0.00079 Bentley, 2004Vaihingen Germany 5200 B.C.E. TIMS 14 0.70959 ± 0.00020 16 0.70942 ± 0.00053 Price, 2001Vaihingen Germany 5200 B.C.E. TIMS 25 0.70959 ± 0.00022 46 0.70943 ± 0.00051 Bentley, 2004Asparn/Schletz Austria 5000 B.C.E ICP-MS 11 0.71030 ± 0.00020 Latkoczy, 1998Asparn/Schletz Austria 5000 B.C.E ICP-MS 2 0.71110 ± 0.00007 2 0.71405 ± 0.00403 Prohaska, 2002Great Hungarian Plain Hungary 4500-4000 B.C.E. ICP-MS 11 0.70922 ± 0.00000 13 0.70942 ± 0.00020 Giblin, 2004Monkton-up-Wimbourne England 4000 B.C.E. TIMS 14 0.70855 ± 0.00071 Montgomery, 2000Altdorf Bell Beaker, Bavaria 2500-2000 B.C.E. MS 1 0.70962 ± 0.00000 76 0.70967 ± 0.00060 Grupe,1997Augsburg Bell Beaker, Bavaria 2500-2000 B.C.E. MS 11 0.70824 ± 0.00014 76 0.70967 ± 0.00060 Grupe,1997Irlbach Bell Beaker, Bavaria 2500-2000 B.C.E. MS 11 0.70943 ± 0.00054 76 0.70967 ± 0.00060 Grupe,1997Kunzing-Bruck Bell Beaker, Bavaria 2500-2000 B.C.E. MS 11 0.70908 ± 0.00020 76 0.70967 ± 0.00060 Grupe,1997Landau Bell Beaker, Bavaria 2500-2000 B.C.E. MS 11 0.70924 ± 0.00036 76 0.70967 ± 0.00060 Grupe,1997Manching Bell Beaker, Bavaria 2500-2000 B.C.E. MS 11 0.70880 ± 0.00016 76 0.70967 ± 0.00060 Grupe,1997Osterhofen Bell Beaker, Bavaria 2500-2000 B.C.E. MS 11 0.70920 ± 0.00017 76 0.70967 ± 0.00060 Grupe,1997Pommelsbrunn Bell Beaker, Bavaria 2500-2000 B.C.E. MS 11 0.70998 ± 0.00000 76 0.70967 ± 0.00060 Grupe,1997Straubing-Oberau Bell Beaker, Bavaria 2500-2000 B.C.E. MS 11 0.71016 ± 0.00020 76 0.70967 ± 0.00060 Grupe,1997Tuckelhausen Bell Beaker, Bavaria 2500-2000 B.C.E. MS 11 0.70985 ± 0.00000 76 0.70967 ± 0.00060 Grupe,1997Weichering Bell Beaker, Bavaria 2500-2000 B.C.E. MS 11 0.70875 ± 0.00015 76 0.70967 ± 0.00060 Grupe,1997Lankhills England 300-400 C.E. MS 18 0.71219 ± 0.00650 Evans, 2006Neuburg/Donau Bavaria 330-400 C.E. TIMS 70 0.70892 ± 0.00015 70 0.70968 ± 0.00133 Schweissing, 2003West Helerton England 400-600 C.E. TIMS 41 0.70942 ± 0.00072 Montgomery, 2005Globasnitz Austria 400-500 C.E. ICP-MS 3 0.71047 ± 0.000702 3 0.70987 ± 0.00116 Prohaska, 2002Høre kraine Norway 1100 C.E. MS 1 Aberg, 1998Ringebu 3A Norway 1200 C.E. MS 1 Aberg, 1998Uvdal Norway 1250 C.E. MS 1 Aberg, 1998Bergen Norway 1250 C.E. MS 1 Aberg, 1998Ringebu 3B Norway 1400 C.E. MS 1 Aberg, 1998 Teotihuacan Mexico 1-650 C.E. TIMS 41 0.70472 ± 0.00013 26 0.70583 ± 0.00110 Price, 2000Aztalam Wisconsin, US 1050-1250 C.E. TIMS 21 0.70102 ± 0.00040 Price, 2000Grashopper Pueblo Arizona, US 1299 C.E. MS 54 0.71011 ± 0.00275 Ezzo, 2002Grashopper Pueblo Arizona, US 1300 C.E. TIMS 16 0.71018 ± 0.00050 6 0.71110 ± 0.00190 Price, 2002 (bone); 1994 (teeth)Walnut Creek Arizona, US 1300 C.E. TIMS 2 0.70931 ± 0.000329 3 0.71081 ± 0.00000 Price, 1994Malibu California, US 1600-1800 C.E. MS 2 0.70884 ± 0.00011 2 0.70849 ± 0.00100 Ericson, 1985Century Ranch California, US 1600-1800 C.E. MS 1 0.70765 ± 0.00110 Ericson, 1985Campeche Mexico 1500-1700 C.E. TIMS 10 0.71454 ± 0.00835 Price, 2006

Tikal Guatemala 500-950 C.E. TIMS 83 0.70804 ± 0.00122 Wright, 2005Tiwanaku Bolivia 500-1100 C.E. TIMS 1 2 0.71329 ± 0.00090 Knudson, 2005Tiwanaku Bolivia 500-1100 C.E. TIMS 10 0.70757 ± 0.00120 Knudson, 2004

Cape Town (UCT 169) South Africa 1400 C.E. MS 1 0.70938 ± 0.00002 1 0.70970 ± 0.00002 Sealy, 1995

Zabayir Zahir edh-Dhiyab Jordan 0-400; 500-600 C.E. MS 5 0.70819 ± 0.00001 5 0.70818 ± 0.00001 Perry, 2002Aila Jordan 300-650 C.E. MS 5 0.70797±0.00013 5 0.70854± 0.00066 Perry, 2002Rehovot Israel 300-650 C.E. MS 5 0.70830±0.00014 5 0.70821± 0.00003 Perry, 2002

St. Stephen's Israel/Palestine 438-630 C.E. TIMS 22 0.70843 ± 0.00069

SOURCES87Sr/86Sr TOOTH87Sr/86Sr BONE

meanmean

--

--

--

--

--

0.732320.710870.72359

--

0.71976

--

--------

COMPARATIVE COLLECTIONS

--

--

0.71985

--

--0.71236

--

--

--

Table 1. Comparison of radiogenic strontium isotope levels in human bones and teeth

Trace Element Analysis: Concentrations of Ca, P, Sr, and Ba were used to calculate a variety of elemental ratios (Table 2). The Ca/P ratio for the St. Stephen’s adult bone was 2.098 (n=54). This is in keeping with a characteristic value of 2.1-2.2 in modern living bone, indicating a fairly high quality of preservation (Price, 1994). Log10(Sr/Ca) and log10(Ba/Ca) values were calculated for the femoral samples. The mean log10(Sr/Ca) value was -0.95, and the mean log10(Ba/Ca) value was 0.04. Figure 2 illustrates the high degree of homogeneity among the sample values, with a linear relationship, with only a small number of outliers. It is not surprising to find similar values within a community, assuming comparable diets of local foods for all individuals. This provides a second indication that the majority of individuals were living in the region during their final decade of life (Burton, 2003).

-5.5

-5

-4.5

-4

-3.5

-3

-2.5

-2

Log(Ba/Ca)

Log(Sr/Ca)

Figure 2. Log 10 (Sr/Ca) & log10(Ba/Ca) for the St. Stephen’s adults

Byzantine St. Stephen’s Project

Laboratory for Biocultural StudiesUniversity of Notre Dame

Department of Anthropology

• National Science Foundation Research Experiences for Undergraduates (SES #0244096)• University of Notre Dame Undergraduate Research Opportunities Program (Institute for Scholarship in the Liberal Arts) • University of Notre Dame Undergraduate Intellectual Initiative (Office of Undergraduate Studies)• Carroll D. Clark Research Award from the Department of Anthropology, University of Kansas• Dennis Birdsell, Center for Environmental Science and Technology, University of Notre Dame• Drew Coleman, Isotope Geochemistry Lab, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill• Jaime Ullinger, Department of Anthropology, The Ohio State University• L'École Biblique et Archéologique Française de Jérusalem & Couvent St-Étienne

Analysis of radiogenic strontium isotopes is a useful method of identifying human mobility patterns. When applied to dental enamel, findings are indicative of where an individual spent their early childhood. Life histories can be traced by comparing the 87Sr/86Sr values ofenamel and bone from the same individual.

Strontium isotope analysis of enamel samples from the Byzantine monastic community of St. Stephen’s in Jerusalem suggests a largely homogenous group of residents. This finding is consistent with the trace element data obtained from the femoral samples, which showed little deviation within the samples. Based on concurrent metric and non-metric trait analysis of the St. Stephen’s monastic community, it is likely that all were born within the Jerusalem area. The data from the present study do indicate the possible exception of two outliers, however.

Further studies of bone strontium may shed light on the place of residence several years prior to death for a subset of the St. Stephen’s community. Similar studies could be performed on the sub-adult remains associated with the collection to determine their geo-graphic origins. A larger sample size in the future, in addition to geological analysis, could offer a more complete picture of pilgrimage and migration to the monastery. With the data amassed from the present study, in conjunction with other migration studies utilizing metric and non-metric traits, a strong circumstantial case has been built for the local origins of the St. Stephen’s inhabitants. These data support the growing opinion in Byzantine studies that the writings of pilgrimage to the “Holy Land” reflect the activities of an elite minority, with the majority of monks originating in the southern Levant.

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Knudson KJ, Price TD, Buikstra JE, Blom DE. 2004. The use of strontium isotope analysis to investigate Tiwanaku migration and mortuary ritual in Bolivia and Peru. Archaeometry 46:5-18.

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Latkoczy C, Prohaska T, Stingeder G, Teschler-Nicola M. 1998. Strontium isotope ratio measurements in prehistoric human bone samples by means of high-resolution inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (HR-ICP-MS). J Anal Atom Spectrom 13:561-566.

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Price TD, Burton JH, Bentley RA. 2002. The characterization of biologically available strontium isotope ratios for the study of prehistoric migration. Archaeometry 44:117-135.

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Price TD, Manzanilla L, Middleton WD. 2000. Immigration and the ancient city of Teotihuacan in Mexico: a study using strontium isotope ratios in human bone and teeth. J Archaeol Sci 27:903-913.

Price TD, Tiesler V, Burton JH. In Press. Early African diaspora in colonial Campeche, Mexico: strontium isotopic evidence. Am J Phys Anthropol (Forthcoming Article).

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A copy of this poster can be downloaded at the following website:

http://www.nd.edu/~sheridan/AAPAs.html

Table 2. Comparison of trace element values in human bone

Kirchheim/Teck1 Germany 6th C CE 121 378.00 ± 32.00 173.00 ± 8.00 180.00 ± 31.00 86.00 ± 26.00 2.19 0.23 0.48 -0.64 -0.32Wenigumstadt1 Germany 6th-8th C CE 96 378.00 ± 13.00 164.00 ± 7.00 309.00 ± 68.00 92.00 ± 34.00 2.31 0.24 0.82 -0.62 -0.09Neresheim1 Germany 6th-8th C CE 130 378.00 ± 10.00 169.00 ± 5.00 291.00 ± 53.00 100.00 ± 23.00 2.23 0.26 0.77 -0.59 -0.11Weingarten1 Germany 6th-8th C CE 234 369.00 ± 16.00 168.00 ± 5.00 447.00 ± 113.00 101.00 ± 24.00 2.18 0.27 1.21 -0.57 0.08

Atoyac10 Mexico 600-1100 CE 5 --- --- --- -1.19 0.0302Black Mesa2 Arizona USA 600 BCE-1150 CE 10 1.96 0.08 0.55 -1.11 -0.26Kanimaljuyu10 Guatemala 5th-9th C CE 31 --- --- --- -0.55 -0.17Tikal10 Guatemala 5th-9th C CE 8 --- --- --- -1.24 -0.93Pueblo Grande3 Arizona USA 800-1400 CE 60 340.49 ± 21.89 162.34 ± 22.593 193.08 ± 81.991 188.00 ± 196.68 2.13 0.05 0.56 -1.30 -0.25Browerville4 Alaska USA 900-1000 CE 2 373.35 ± 2.76 148.20 ± 40.16 --- --- 0.40 --- -0.40Utqiagvik4 Alaska USA 900-1000 CE 3 376.26 ± 1.55 254.33 ± 31.60 --- --- 0.68 --- -0.17Kipuqlak4 Alaska USA 900-1000 CE 2 365.15 ± 5.59 612.50 ± 141.00 --- --- 1.68 --- 0.22W. Thule4 Alaska USA 900-1000 CE 2 379.15 ± 2.48 194.45 ± 37.83 --- --- 0.51 --- -0.29Kugok4 Alaska USA 900-1000 CE 1 --- --- 0.72 --- -0.14Ipiutak4 Alaska USA 900-1000 CE 2 354.50 ± 15.83 375.70 ± 92.63 --- --- 1.06 --- 0.03Tarascan' Atoyac10 Mexico 1100-1350 CE 5 --- --- --- -1.29 0.02Urichu10 Mexico 1350-1522 CE 5 --- --- --- -1.81 -0.01

Agua de Dios5 Canary Islands prehistoric" 14 245.20 ± 43.70 226.70 ± 136.70 196.30 ± 142.70 --- 0.80 0.92 -0.10 -0.03Cape Penninsula6 South Africa 3rd C BCE 3 231.22 ± 12.917 368.73 ± 128.51 12.67 ± 2.82 --- 0.05 1.59 -1.27 0.20Cape Point6 South Africa 6th C BCE 1 --- 0.02 1.53 -1.74 0.18Elands Bay6 South Africa 4th C BCE 1 --- 0.03 1.13 -1.49 0.05Kulubnarti Sudan 8th-16th C CE 57 370.36 ± 17.75 174.52 ± 9.74 190.57 ± 36.335 29.63 ± 12.93 --- 0.08 0.51 -1.10 -0.29Gordan's Bay6 South Africa 7th C CE 1 --- 0.08 3.30 -1.12 0.52Blouberg6 South Africa 8th C CE 1 --- 0.09 1.59 -1.06 0.20Clanwilliam6 South Africa 300 BCE - 1700 CE 2 207.67 ± 64.58 253.98 ± 47.80 22.455 ± 9.93 --- 0.10 1.22 -0.98 0.09La Concepcion5 Canary Islands 18th C CE 24 253.40 ± 69.40 283.80 ± 69.40 281.20 ± 184.70 --- 1.11 1.12 0.05 0.05La Palma7 Canary Islands modern 8 251.70 ± 25.20 119.40 ± 43.30 7.70 ± 1.10 --- 0.03 0.22 -1.51 -0.66Tenerife5 Canary Islands modern 7 263.70 ± 13.60 48.30 ± 13.90 63.90 ± 16.90 --- 0.24 0.18 -0.62 -0.74Espigon7 Canary Islands n.d. 11 223.70 ± 82.80 140.80 ± 72.50 15.70 ± 8.90 --- 0.07 0.34 -1.15 -0.47Barranco Porto7 Canary Islands n.d. 15 258.40 ± 40.40 505.10 ± 213.80 14.80 ± 8.90 --- 0.06 0.84 -1.24 -0.08

Umm el-Jimal8 Jordan 4th C CE 22 --- 0.32 0.25 -0.50 -0.60Umm el-Jimal8 Jordan 4th C CE 41 --- 0.22 2.24 -0.65 0.35

--- 407.38 24.55

381.00 --- 257.04 107.15

384.00 --- 371.54 5.89383.00 --- 398.11 19.50

Region DatesSite

380.00

n

Ca (ppm)

mean

382.00

369.20

270.00

Ba (ppm)

mean

Sr (ppm)

mean

---

149.00

---

P (ppm)

mean

4.33

---

---

8.25

19.0718.60

---

---

log (Sr/Ca)Ca/P Ba/Ca Sr/Ca

log (Ba/Ca)

765.48

---

224.67

224.67291.00

232.00

------

682.74

343.86327.98

------

---

---356.82

---

------

---

------

21.00138.00

--- 44.67 21.88

---------

304.71

---

------

264.90

439.23 110.68 139.05---68.32

St. Stephen's Israel/Palestine 4th-6th C C.E. 54 225.57 ± 24.93 107.60 ± 12.11 250.10 ± 62.00 25.10 ± 14.216 2.10 0.11 1.11 -0.95 0.04

1Fabig & Herrmann (2002); 2Martin et al (1991); 3Jones & Sheridan (1994); 4Connor & Slaughter (1984); 5Arnay-de-la-Rosa (1998); 6Gilbert et al. (1994); 7Perez-Gonzalez et al. (2001); 8Shah (1997); 10Burton (2003)