Unit 1: Mapping and Introduction

A. Lab Safety Rules1. No eating or drinking in the lab.2. Clean all spills.3. Contact teacher if any equipment is broken.4. No horseplay!5. Follow teacher’s instructions for using safety equipment such as goggles.6. Always clean glassware at the end of each activity.

B. Maps1. Globe- three dimensional representationof the Earth.

Includes: a. 7 continents- North America, South America, Africa, Asia, Antartica,

Europe and Australiab. 4 Oceans- Atlanic, Indian, Pacific and Articc. Equator- the reference point for latitude (horizontal); 0 degrees d. Prime Meridian- the reference point for longitude (vertical); 0 degrees

2. Topographic Map- shows changes in the Earth’s elevationIncludes:

a. Contour Lines- represent a specific elevation.b. Legend- includes symbols such as schools, churches and railroadsc. Contour Interval- difference in elevation between each contour line.

C. Graphs3 Major Types of Graphs:1. Line Graph- Shows changes and trends2. Bar Graph- information collected by counting3.Circle or Pie Graph- fixed quantity is broken down

D. Scientific Method Steps1. Problem- scientific problem trying to solve2. Hypothesis- A testable explanation3. Experiment- a way to test the hypothesis

a. Independent Variable- the variable you controlb. Dependent Variable- the variable that “depends” on or is changed by the

independent variablec. Constant- all other factors that remain the samed. Control- normal used to measure against- no factor is changed

4. Data- information collecteda. Quantitative- data in numbersb. Qualitative- descriptive data using words

5. Results – charts or graphs of the data6. Conclusion- is the hypothesis correct? What does the data tell you? Are

there trends?7. Revise/Redo or Repeat?8. Form a Theory-an explanation based on many observations during repeated

experiments that is valid only if it is consistent with observations

E. Metric Conversions1. System International (SI): system used to convert base units.

2. Base Units: meter, liter, gram, second

Prefix Prefix abbreviation ExponentKilo- K 103

Base- None 100

Centi- C 10-2

Milli- M 10-3

Unit 2 : AstronomyA. Earth’s motion

1. rotation – turning or spinning of a body on its axis2. Earth’s rotation around the sun = 24 hours

a. rotation results in day and night++ Discovery Ed –day and night++3. revolution - motion of earth along a path around some point in space4. Earth revolves around the sun

a. revolution results in seasonsb. Earth revolves around sun once per year

++ Discovery Ed – Reason for the seasons++5. the moon revolves around the Earth6. Earth’s orbit around the sun is in an elliptical shape with an average speed of

107,000 km/hr7. Earth is the third planet from the sun8. Earth is tilted at a 23.5 degree angle++ Discovery Ed – Phases of the Moon++

B. Origin of the Galaxy - Big Bang Theory (just one of many)1. at one time, the entire universe was confined to a dense, hot, super massive

ball2. 13.7 billion years ago, a violent explosion occurred3. this caused the hurling of material in all directions which created all matter and

space4. several thousand years later, the universe was cool enough for atoms to form++Discovery Ed – Big Bang Theory

C. 3 Laws of Planetary Motion1. The path of each planet around the sun is an ellipse.2. Each planet revolves so that an imaginary line connecting it to the sun sweeps

over equal areas in equal time interval (a planet must travel more rapidly when it is near the sun and more slowly when it is farther away from the sun)

3. T2 = d3, where T is time it takes to orbit the sun, and d is distance to the sun

D. Hierarchy of Organization1. universe is made up of galaxies2. galaxies are made up of many stars3. some stars have planetary systems4. Earth is a satellite planet of one star (the Sun)5. the moon is a satellite to the earth (because it revolves around the Earth)

E. Galaxy1. Our solar system is located on the Orion arm of the Milky Way Galaxy2. Our solar system revolves around the center of the Milky way in an up and

down motion3. Galaxies move away from each other as the universe continues to expand

F. Precession1. Precession – precession of Earth is the slight change in direction over a period

of 26,000 years 2. Earth’s axis maintains the same angle of tilt, but the direction of the axis points

changes slightly over a long period of time3. Currently the Earth is pointing to the star Polaris but eventually it will point to

another star Vega4. Will not affect the seasons because the 23.5 degree tilt will be the same

G. Nutation1. Nutation – wobbling around the precessional axis2. This is a change in the angle – ½ degree one way or the other3. This occurs over an 18 year period 4. Nutation is caused by the moon5. This would cause slight changes in the seasons

H. Barycenter1. Barycenter – the point between two objects where they balance each other

(see-saw)2. it is the center of mass where two or more celestial bodies orbit each other3. For example – the moon does not orbit the exact center of the Earth, but a

point on a line between the Earth and the Moon approximately 1,710 km below the surface of the Earth where their respective masses balance

4. This is the point (barycenter) about which the Earth and Moon orbit as they travel around the Sun

I. Summer1. When the Earth’s axis points towards the sun, it is summer for that hemisphere2. July 4th the Earth is farthest from the sun3. During summer solstice (June 21st or 22nd) the sun appears 23.5 degrees north

of the equator4. When the sun is overhead, the light is falling straight on you, and so more light

(and more heat) hit each square centimeter of the ground

J. Winter1. When the Earth’s axis points away from the sun, it is winter for that hemisphere2. Jan 3rd the Earth is closest to the sun3. During the winter solstice (Dec. 21st or 22nd) the sun appears 23.5 degrees

south of the equator 4. When the sun is lower in the sky, the light gets more spread out over the

surface of the earth, and less heat (per square centimeter) can be absorbed

K. Tides1. Tides are daily changes in the elevation of the ocean’s surface2. Ocean tides result from the gravitational attraction exerted upon the Earth by

the moon and, to a lesser extent, the sun3. Gravity and inertia (resisting movement) are the forces that cause tidal changes4. Spring tide – occurs during full and new moon (sun and moon pulling in the

same direction)5. Neap tide – occurs during first and last quarter moon (sun and moon pulling in

perpendicular directions)++Discovery Ed – Endless Voyage – Ebb and Flow++

L. Shape of the Earth1. Shape of the earth is not a true sphere – but rather bulging at the equator2. Caused by the planets rotation and gravity3. Gravity pulls all materials as close as possible to the core of the earth4. Because earth rotates, the sphere is distorted by centripetal force which is

greatest at the equator causing a slight outward bulge

Unit 3 : The SunA. Layers of the Sun

1. Core 2. Radiation zone3. Convection zone4. Photosphere – visible surface of the sun – lower atmosphere 5. Chromosphere – thin layer of hot gases – middle atmosphere 6. Corona – outer weak layer of the solar atmosphere

B. Sun’s life cycle 1. Starts with large cloud of gas and dust – mainly of hydrogen 2. Nuclear fusion occurs and cloud of gas becomes the Sun 3. Later (billions of years) all the hydrogen gets consumed into helium which will

cause the sun to collapse 4. Sun will expand much larger than it was earlier in its lifetime and will become a

Red Giant (large, cool star of high luminosity)5. Core will stabilize while the rest of its outer regions continue to expand and are

shed off 6. Core will be a white dwarf – a star that has exhausted all of its nuclear fuel and

has collapsed = final stage of evolution 7. Outer regions will be planetary nebula (glowing shell of gas)

++Discovery Ed – Powering Earth’s Systems C. Solar Energy becomes Chemical Energy

1. plants take in sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water to create glucose (sugar) and releases oxygen = photosynthesis

2. solar energy is called photons3. glucose is used to make energy for all living things

D. Nuclear Reactions1. Fusion – process that produces radiant energy within the sun by colliding 2

atomic nuclei++Discovery Ed – Nuclear Fusion2. Fission – splitting of something into 2 or more parts 3. Combustion – a burning reaction which causes sun to produce light

E. Forms of Energy Produced by the Sun1. the sun is the ultimate source of energy for every living thing2. the sun emits a spectrum of electromagnetic energy which includes UV rays,

visible light, and heat3. solar energy reaches the Earth as radiation4. X-rays and cosmic rays are filtered by the atmosphere++Discovery Ed – Electromagnetic Spectrum

F. Energy Flow from the Sun1. A thermonuclear fusion reaction from the sun’s interior converts hydrogen into

helium which releases a huge amount of energy (therm = heat)2. the energy created by this fusion reaction creates heat (thermal energy) which

travels through space in the form of electromagnetic waves3. electromagnetic waves allows the transfer of heat through a process known as

radiation4. there are different types of radiation depending on the size of the wavelength

a. examples include : gamma rays, X rays, UV rays, and visible lightG. Magnetic Field

1. about 50% of the solar energy that strikes the top of the atmosphere reaches the Earth’s surface and is absorbed

2. most of this energy stays in the sky3. water vapor and carbon dioxide (greenhouse gases) are the major absorbing

gases that absorb solar radiation4. there is a strong magnetic field generated by the movement of the Earth’s liquid

outer core5. this magnetic field protects the planet from the harmful effects of radiation++Discovery Ed – Magnetic Field

H. Heating of Earth’s Surface1. how hot the Earth’s surface is determines the temperature of the air above it2. different land surfaces absorb differing amounts of incoming solar energy3. land heats more rapidly and to a higher temperature than water4. land cools more rapidly and to a lower temperature than water5. it takes more thermal energy (heat energy) to change the temperature of

water, therefore water has a smaller temperature range

Unit 4 :Meterology

A. Air Pressure1. Air pressure – the weight of air pressing down on Earth2. temperature and altitude determine air pressure3. the more air particles are present, the more air density or pressure exists4. the less air particles are present, the less air density or pressure exists5. High pressure

a. air is more denseb. associated with cold air (more dense than warm air)c. associated with sinking air

6. Low pressure a. air is less denseb. associated with warm air (less dense than cold air)

c. associated with rising air7. warm air rises, cold air sinks8. air cools as it rises9. air pressure is measured using a tool called a barometer10. winds are formed when air from a high pressure (more dense) moves to areas

of low pressure (less dense)

B. Air Mass1.air mass – large mass of air that takes on the temperature and moisture

characteristics of the surface below it2. air moves from an area of high pressure (more dense) to areas of lower

pressure (less dense)3. a high pressure system

a. rotating mass of cool, dry air rotating in a downward clockwise motionb. creates sunny and pleasant weather

4. a low pressure systema. rotating mass of warm, moist air rotating an upward counterclockwise

motionb. creates stormy, windy weather

5. air masses are classified by their temperature and humidity (moist or dry)6. air masses in the US move west to east

C. Fronts1. there are 4 major air masses that effect the weather in North America

a. continental polar (cP)b. continental tropical (cT)c. maritime polar (mP)d. maritime tropical (mT)

2. most weather occurs along the border of these air masses at boundaries called fronts

3. Cold front a. occurs when a cold air mass overtakes a warm air massb. this pushes the warm air mass upward c. creates severe weather lasting a short period of timed. represented by blue triangles on a weather map

4. Warm fronta. occurs when a warm air mass slides up and over a cold air massb. this creates rainy weather that lasts for several daysc. represented by red semicircles on a weather map

5. Stationary fronta. occurs when a cold and warm air mass meet but do not move in either

directionb. this creates sluggish winds and precipitationc. represented by alternating blue triangles and red semicircles

6. Occluded front a. occurs when two cold air masses merge and force warmer air between

them to riseb. this creates high winds and heavy precipitationsc. represented by purple alternating triangles and semicircles

D. Clouds

1. cloud – a visible mass of condensed water in the atmosphere made up of mixtures of tiny droplets of water or tiny crystals of ice

2. form when water evaporates from Earth’s surface3. classified according to shape and altitude4. prefixes:

a. cirro – describes high clouds (above 6000m)b. alto – describes middle clouds (between 2000m and 6000m)c. strato – describes low clouds (below 2000m)

E. Types of Clouds1. cirrus

a. high, white, feathery cloudb. usually associated with fair weather

2. cumulusa. thick, puffy massesb. usually associated with fair weather

3. stratusa. occurs in layers and often cover the whole skyb. usually associated with fair weather

4. nimbusa. dark, grey clouds with ragged edgesb. associated with precipitation

F. Fronts and Clouds1. cold front – cumulonimbus clouds are large puffy rain clouds associated with

severe thunderstorms along a cold front2. warm front – cirrus, stratus, and nimbostratus clouds are associated with the

passing of a warm front

G. Water Vapor1. humidity – the amount of water vapor in the air2. relative humidity – ratio of water vapor in a volume of air relative to how much

water vapor that volume of air is capable of holdinga. warm air is capable of holding more moisture than cool airb. if you increased the temperature of a room without adding more

moisture, the relative humidity of the room would decreasec. relative humidity is expressed as a percentaged. measured by a hygrometer

3. saturation – point at which the air holds as much water vapor as it possibly cana. warm saturated air contains more water vapor than cold saturated air

4. dew point – temperature to which air must be cooled at the same pressure to reach saturationa. if the same air continued to cool past the dew point, the air’s excess water

vapor would condense to lead to precipitation5. condensation (gas to a solid) occurs only when air is saturated

a. this leads to precipitation (rain, snow, freezing rain (glaze), sleet, hail)6. saturation, relative humidity, and dew point are used to measure humidity

Use data to substantiate explanations and provide evidence of various air mass interactions.Activity

Observe, analyze, and predict weather using technological resourcesActivityInterpret and analyze weather maps and relative humidity chartsActivity

Unit 5 : StormsA. Wind Patterns

1. Coriolis effect – wind (moving air) is deflected to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere

2. trade winds a. air sinks, warms, and moves toward the equator in a westerly direction b. at the equator, the air rises again and moves back to 30o where is sinks

and starts the process all over againc. occurs at 30o north and south latitude

3. prevailing westerliesa. surface winds move towards the poles in an easterly directionb. occurs between 30o and 60o north and south latitude

4. polar easterliesa. flow from the northeast to the southwest in the northern hemisphereb. wind flow is reversed in the southern hemispherec. characterized by cold aird. occurs between 60o latitude and the poles

5. jet streams – narrow bands of fast, high-altitude westerly windsa. can flow up to 185 km/h at elevations of 10.7 to 12.2 km

B. Predicting Storms1. Doppler Effect – is the change in wave frequency that occurs in sound or light

as the energy moves towards or away from the observer2. meteorologists use Doppler radar to plot the speed at which raindrops move

toward or away from a radar station3. because moving rain drops is caused by wind, it provides a good estimation of

wind speed associated with precipitation

C. Hurricanes (Tropical cyclones)1. large, rotating, low pressure storm2. aka tropical cyclone3. thrive on the tremendous amount of energy in warm, tropical oceans4. as water evaporates from the ocean surface, heat is stored which is later

released when the air begins to rise and water vapor condenses into clouds and rain

5. the rising air creates an area of low pressure at the ocean surface6. as more warm air moves toward the low pressure center to replace the air that

has risen, the Coriolis effect causes the moving air to turn counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere which produces the cyclonic rotation

Hurricane Precautions: o Prepare enough water and food for several days.o Fill tank of car with gas and take out cash.o Seek shelter in a secure structure that will withstand strong winds.o Move to an area away from storm surge.

o Stay away from windows and doors during the storm and do not go outside.o Close all interior doors and go to an interior first floor room such as a bathroom or

a closeto Lie on the floor under a table

D. Thunderstorms 1. a storm with thundering and lightning and typically with heavy rain2. lightning is electricity caused by the rapid rush of air in a cumulonimbus cloud

which separates electrons and causes an electrical imbalance3. caused by:

a. abundant moisture in the atmosphereb. rising of air so that the moisture can condense which releases heatc. air must continue to cool for the growing cloud to stay warmer than the

surrounding air which causes instability in the atmosphere4. supercell – self-sustaining, extremely powerful storm

Thunderstorm Precautionso The best defense against thunderstorms is to stay inside a sturdy building or

shelter that can protect you from deadly lightning, large hail, damaging winds, flooding rain and tornadoes.

o Once in a shelter, stay away from windows and avoid electrical equipment and plumbing. Remember to bring pets inside. If there is time, secure loose objects outside as these objects often become dangerous flying debris in high winds.

o Avoid open spaces, isolated objects, high ground and metallic objects.o Get out of boats and away from bodies of water. Remember, if you can hear

thunder, you are close enough to the storm to be struck by lightning.

E. Torndados1. a violent, whirling column of air in contact with the ground2. typically associated with supercells3. forms when wind speed and direction change suddenly with height

Tornado Precautionso Prepare for tornadoes by gathering emergency supplies including food, water,

medications, batteries, flashlights, important documents, road maps, and a full tank of gasoline.

o When a tornado approaches, take shelter indoors—preferably in a basement or an interior first-floor room or hallway.

o Avoid windows and seek additional protection by getting underneath large, solid pieces of furniture.

o Avoid automobiles and mobile homes, which provide almost no protection from tornadoes.

o Those caught outside should lie flat in a depression or on other low ground and wait for the storm to pass

Use predictions to develop plans for safety precautions related to severe weather eventsActivity

Unit 6 : Atmosphere and Climate

A. Earth’s Atmosphere1. atmosphere is composed of the following :

a. Nitrogen (71%)b. Carbon (28%)c. trace gases (1%) – argon, methane, hydrogen, and helium

2. atmosphere also contains ozone (O3) which absorbs UV radiation

B. 5 Layers of the Atmosphere1. Troposphere

a. layer closest to Earth’s surfaceb. where most weather takes place and most air pollution collectsc. temperature decreases with altitude

2. Stratospherea. layer made primarily of ozoneb. where jet stream is locatedc. temperature increases with altitude due to absorption of UV radiation

3. Mesospherea. where most meteoroids are burnt up as they enter our atmosphereb. temperature decreases with altitude

4. Thermospherea. layer where radio waves are transmittedb. where space shuttles are foundc. ionosphere is located here – a layer of charged ions that cause Aurora

Borealis and Aurora Australis at polesd. temperature increases with altitude due to solar radiation

5. Exospherea. outermost layer where satellites can be foundb. temperature in this layer decreases with lower air pressure

C. Climate and Weather1. weather is the condition of the atmosphere over a short period of time2. climate is the average daily weather for an extended period of time at a certain

location3. temperature and precipitation determine climate4. factors that affect climate

a. latitudeb. elevationc. topography d. water bodiese. atmospheric circulationf. vegetation

D. Climate1. The Köppen Climate Classification System – organizes the world’s climates into

categories based on the annual and monthly averages of temperature and precipitation

2. 3 major climate zones based:

a. polar – coldest with temperatures below freezingb. temperate – more moderate temperatures and rainfall year-roundc. tropical – warmest average temperatures with the most precipitation

E. Natural Processes that Change Climate1. El Niño

a. associated with a band of warm ocean water temperatures that periodically develops off the Pacific coast of South America

b. happens every 2 to 7 years and can last from 9 months to 2 yearsc. in South America, this leads to

i. increased temperatures and rainfalld. in North America, this leads to

i. mostly drier and warmer conditionse. effects both fishing and farming industries

2. La Niñaa. climate pattern represented by the cooling of the eastern tropical Pacific

Oceansb. in South America, this leads to

i. in some areas, droughtii. in other areas, excessive rainfall, leading to flooding

c. in North America, this leads toi. above average rainfall in the northern regionsii. below average rainfall in the southern regionsiii. allows for more stronger-than-average hurricanes off the Atlantic

andlessin the Pacificd. effects both fishing and farming industries

3. Volcanic eruptionsa. increases the amount of solar radiation that is reflected back into space,

decreasing the temperature of the atmosphere4. Sunspots

a. sunspot – dark blemishes that appear with the sun is most intense (active)

b. associated with increased temperatures in Europe and North Americac. when sun is less intense (active), there is a decrease temperatures

5. Earth’s orbita. Earth’s orbit around the sun is elliptical, which can bring the Earth closer

to the sun, warming the Earth 6. Earth’s tilt

a. the angle of the tilt varies which changes the severity of the seasons7. Carbon dioxide

a. atmosphere CO2 has increased by almost 40% since pre-industrial timesb. this increase in CO2 has increased global temperatures by absorbing heat

from the sun

F. Greenhouse Effect1. greenhouse effect – natural warming of Earth and it’s atmosphere2. when sunlight reaches Earth’s surface, it can either be reflected back into space

or absorbed by Earth3. greenhouse gases – gas that absorbs and releases radiation4. examples of greenhouse gases include

a. water vapor (H2O)b. carbon dioxide (CO2)c. methane (CH4)d. nitrous oxide (NO)

5. greenhouse gases lead to the greenhouse effect by acting like a blanket, trapping sun’s heat close to the Earth’s surface

6. CO2 is the primary greenhouse gas that contributes to climate changea. it is released by animals and plants through respirationb. also released by burning of fossil fuels by humansc. deforestation (clearing land) for agriculture, industry, and urbanization

have also increased CO2 concentrations7. warmer conditions can lead to more evaporation and precipitation8. a stronger greenhouse effect will warm the oceans and partially melt glaciers

and other ice, increasing the sea level

G. Global Temperatures1. increased temperatures will cause drought conditions effecting agriculture2. species that are able to adapt more quickly to increased temperatures and rapid

temperature changes will become more abundant3. loss of biodiversity in ecosystems will be widespread and species diversity will

decline4. increased global temperatures raise sea levels worldwide

H. Heat Islands1. heat islands – a metropolitan areas that is significantly warmer than

surrounding areas due to human activity2. open air and vegetation is replaced by urbanization3. increases energy demands, air conditioning costs, air pollution,

greenhouse gas emission, heat-related illness and mortality, and water quality

4. to reduce heat island effect :a. plant trees and vegetationb. using eco-friendly building materials

I. Land Use1. urbanization- increasing the number of people that live in urban areas

a. closely linked with modernization and industrializationb. results in heat islands

2. deforestation – removal of trees in a forest for the conversion of farms, ranches, or urban usea. trees are sold or land is used for human purposesb. deforestation without sufficient reforestation has resulted in the loss of

habitats and biodiversity3. agriculture – cultivation of animals and plants for food, fuel, or medicines to

sustain human lifea. leads to loss of natural habitats

Analyze actions that can be taken by humans on a local level, as well as on a larger scale, to mitigate global climate change

Unit 7 : Oceanography

A. Ocean Water (salinity and density)1. Salinity – total amount of solid material dissolved in water (mainly salt)2. ocean temperature depends on the solar radiation received and latitude3. ocean density depends on temperature and salinity of water4. cold water is more dense than warm water5. deeper ocean water is colder than surface ocean water

B. Ocean Currents1. surface currents are caused by winds2. surface currents move warm water from the equator towards the colder water

at the poles3. deep ocean currents are effected by the density of the ocean water4. downwelling – movement of water from the surface to greater depths5. upwelling – movement of water up to the surface6. downwelling and upwelling create a convection current in the ocean7. barrier island – long ridge of sand or other sediments deposited or shaped by

currents that is separated from the mainlanda. can be up to tens of km long

C. Coastal vs. Inland Climates1. water has a high heat capacity – takes a lot of energy to change the

temperature of water2. oceans take longer to heat or cool than land due to the huge amount of energy

required3. the oceans respond very slowly to changes in the seasons4. the ocean makes winters in coastal regions slightly warmer and summers near

the coast slightly cooler than inland areas

D. Ocean Acidification1. the ocean removes about 1/3 of the CO2 released into the atmosphere as a

result of photosynthesis of aquatic plants2. whenCO2 dissolves in seawater, it leads to decreased pH levels3. acidification is a consequence of human emissions of carbon dioxide in the

atmosphere4. effects of ocean acidification :

a. decreases amount of carbonate ions for marine animals to make bones and shells

b. coral reefs are unable to grow and are more vulnerable to erosion which reduces food supply for other marine organisms

c. reduces phytoplankton

E. Sea Levels1. sea levels rise depending on land elevation changes2. increased temperatures will cause the melting of glaciers and ice caps which

raise the sea levels

F. Changing Sea Levels1. 3 reasons for changing sea levels

a. as water warms and cools it expands and contracts

b. the amount of water contained as ice on land surfaces changes over timec. the Earth’s surface is dynamic and can move vertically

2. hurricanes can cause erosion to create a longer shore-line and push the ocean back

3. global warming can raise sea levels due to the melting of polar ice caps

G. Ocean Life Zones1. photic zone (photo = light)– upper part of the ocean where sunlight penetrates

a. euphotic zone (eu = good) – portion of the photic zone strong enough for photosynthesis to occur

2. aphotic(a = no/not) – portion of the ocean where there is no sunlight3. benthic zone – any sea-bottom surface

Evaluate water quality of NC streams (chemical, physical properties, biotic index)

o http://itsourwater.info/sites/default/files/assets/pdf/ GettingtoKnowYourStream.pdf

Activity

Unit 8 : Ecology

A. Definitions1. biotic(bio = living) – living or once living organism in an ecosystem2. abiotic(a = no or not) – non-living factor in an ecosystem

a. ex : sunlight, water, temperature, soil3. ecosystem - a community of organisms that interact with each other and

abiotic factors in the environment4. biodiversity – genetic variation within a population

a. both abiotic and biotic factors determine where an organism can live and how much the population can grow

5. biosphere – any aspect of Earth that supports lifea. a variety of ecosystems make up the biosphereb. extends from oceans to the atmosphere

B. Biomes1. a biome – group of ecosystems that share both biotic and abiotic conditions2. biomes are characterized by their climates, as well as plant and animal life3. Examples :

Biome Water Temperature Soil Plants Animals

Desert Almost none hot or cold poor

sparse - succulents

(like cactus), sage brush

sparse - insects, arachnids,

reptiles and birds (often nocturnal)

Tundra dry cold permafrost (frozen soil)

lichens and mosses

migrating animals

Taiga (coniferous

forest)adequate cool year-round poor, rocky

soil conifersmany mammals,

birds, insects, arachnids, etc.

Temperate Deciduous

Forestadequate cool season and

warm season fertile soil deciduous trees

many mammals, birds, reptiles,

insects, arachnids, etc.

Grasslandwet

season, dry season

warm to hot (often with a cold

season)fertile soil grasses (few

or no trees)many mammals,

birds, insects, arachnids, etc.

Tropical rain forest very wet always warm poor, thin

soil many plants many animals

C. Limiting Factors1. limiting factors – anything that restricts the size of a population from reaching

its full potential2. Abiotic limiting factors

a. lightb. heatc. nutrientsd. watere. airf. space

3. Biotic limiting factorsa. organic matter b. predationc. competition

4. limiting factors for human population growtha. food supplyb. spacec. diseased. natural disasters

5. carrying capacity – maximum number of organisms an ecosystem can supporta. limiting factors determine carrying capacity b. humans have not yet reached our carrying capacity

D. Biodiversity Worldwide is Important1. provides us with food (produce for consumption and feed for animals)2. used for medical discoveries 3. provides us with clean water and oxygen to breathe4. allows for ecosystems to rebuild after major disturbances 5. prevents disease6. helps species adapt to changes in their environment 7. aesthetically beautiful

E. Negative Effects of Human Population Growth 1. reduces the amount of space available for habitats for plants and animals2. increases pollution and resource consumption

a. overharvesting due to deforestation to produce fertile farmland3. humans introduce invasive species (species not native to a particular area)

a. causes competition with the native species for food and space4. aerosols – minute particles suspended in the atmosphere that scatter and

absorb light

a. aerosols can change how clouds reflect and absorb sunlightb. aerosols are released by

i. volcanoesii. desert dustiii. burning fossil fuels

5. CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) – nontoxic, nonflammable chemicals contains carbon, chlorine, and fluorine used in the manufacture of aerosol sprays and refrigerantsa. once CFCs reach the ozone layer, they react with UV rays, releasing

chlorine gas which breaks down ozone6. industry – release large amounts of CO2 into the atmosphere, increasing

greenhouse gases7. over-farming – increases the amount of CO2 released into the atmosphere8. habitat destruction and degradation9. reduction in natural resources10. reduce biodiversity

F. Invasive Species1. invasive non-native species (aka exotic species) were brought here for use as

ornamental lawn or garden plants2. when the invasive organism is able to survive and reproduce, it can invade the

natural habitat and crowd out the native species reducing biodiversity3. habitats with low plant diversity can be poor for wildlife

a. ex : the absence of sharp thorns on exotic plant and differing branch patterns can allow predators easier access to nests

G. Ways Humans Can Help the Environment1. use cleaner transportation methods2. add energy-savings features to your home3. adopt energy saving habits (ex – turn off lights)4. reduce your food footprint (eat less meat)5. reduce your housing footprint (less yard space)6. choose sustainable building materials, furnishings, and cleaning products7. adopt water saving habits8. reduce the quantity of good and services

H. Acid Rain1. when sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are released into the environment and

mixed with water and other chemicals they create acidic compounds (sulfuric acid and nitric acid)

2. these acids become part of the water cycle3. the causes of acid rain

a. volcanoesb. decaying vegetationc. burning fossil fuels

Match landforms and soils (and their changes over time) to biomesActivityExemplify methods to mitigate human impacts on the atmosphere

o Reduce carbon footprint_______________________________________________________________

Unit 9 : Natural Resources, Alternative Energy, and Human Impact

A. Energy Sources1. non-renewable energy source – energy taken from sources that are available on

earth in limited quantitya. once this energy is used, it cannot be re-used or regeneratedb. pros :cheap, easy to use, efficient source of energyc. cons : will someday run out, release greenhouse gases, becoming more

expensive as supply runs outd. fossil fuels – nonrenewable energy source formed over geologic time from

the compression and partial decomposition of organisms that lived millions of years ago

2. renewable energy – energy which is generated from natural resources that can be generated again and again when requireda. pros : some are abundant in quantity and free to use, low carbon

emissions, self-sufficiency for energy supplyb. cons : initial setup costs are high, some energies are not always available

and require specific locationsc. natural resources – resources provided by Earth, including air, water,

land, living organisms, nutrients, rocks, and minerals – these resources are used for renewable energy

3. sustainable energy – involves global management of Earth’s natural resources to ensure that current and future energy needs will be met without harming the environment

B. Alternate / Renewable Energy SourcesEnergy Source Definition NegativesSolar energy Direct use of sun’s rays to

supply heat or electricity- Equipment is expensive- supplemental heat unit needed when solar energy is not available

Nuclear energy

Energy comes from radioactive material that releases energy through nuclear fission

- expensive to build safe nuclear power plants- hazardous wastes produced- fear of radioactive materials escaping

Wind energy Harnessing wind in wind turbines to generate electricity

- noise pollution- cost of large tracts of land

Hydroelectric power

Power of falling water drives turbines that produce electricity

- finite lifetimes due to buildup of sediment in rivers preventing a dam from producing any more power- limited number of sites

Geothermal energy

Harnessed by trapping natural underground reservoirs of steam and hot water

- finite source of energy (steam and hot water usually lasts 10-15 years from each well)

Tidal energy Generating electricity from oceans by constructing a dam and using large tidal range to drive turbines and drive electric generators

- can bring toxic chemicals up to the Earth’s surface- initial costs to build dam

C. Agriculture and Aquaculture Sustainable Practices1. aquaculture – active production of marine and freshwater aquatic organisms

under controlled conditions2. monitoring fishing to maintain species diversity - size of nets, size of fish

caught, number of fish caught 3. agriculture – alternating crops to maintain nutrients in the soil4. these practices replace the supply of food at the same rate in which it is

consumed

Evaluate which sources of alternative energy may work best in different parts of the state and whyExtension : examine for region, country, continent, hemisphere, and worldActivityJudge potential impact of sustainable techniques on environmental quality (include magnitude, duration, frequency)

o Watch Lorax (worksheet on CMAPP)2.8.4 Explain how ecological footprints exist at the personal level and

extend to larger scaleso Measure of the human demand on the Earth’s ecosystems

Evaluate personal choices in terms of impacts on availability of natural resources and environmental quality; relate this to ecological footprints on various scales

o – Ecological Footprint Survey-Evaluate the impact of implementing change that adheres to the “reduce, reuse, recycle” philosophy (ex. Through case studies, data collection/analysis, model development)

o Poster

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Unit 10 : Rivers, Streams, Groundwater

A. Water Cycle1. water cycle – natural process that circulates water on Earth2. evaporation – process of converting liquid water into water vapor (gas)

a. occurs when energy from the sun is used to heat the water enough to cause it to change its state

3. condensation – occurs when water vapor in the atmosphere cools and loses energy, converting it into liquid water

4. transpiration – process of converting water found in leaves of plants to water Vapor

5. precipitation – any form of water returning back to the surface of Eartha. ex : rain, snow, sleet, or hail

6. infiltration – occurs when water is absorbed into the surface of the Earth- water is either stored underground in aquifers or used through wells

7. runoff – water that is not absorbed and flows downhill due to gravity until it reaches a river, lake, or stream, where it is stored until it is evaporated back into the atmosphere

8. sublimation – process that changes solid water to water vapor, bypassing the liquid state

B. River Systems1. river – flowing water stream that empties into a larger body of water2. the river sources is the beginning of the river, located at a higher elevation

a. beginning of river may be fed by an underground spring or by runoff from rain, snowmelt, or glacial melt

3. river mouth- place where a river flows into a larger body of water, such as another river, lake, or an ocean

4. sediment that is deposit at a river mouth forms a delta5. direction of river

a. upstream – direction of, or nearer the to the source of a riverb. downstream – direction of, or nearer to the mouth of a river

6. wetlands – low-lying areas saturated with water for long enough periods to support vegetation adapted to wet conditionsa. wetlands help maintain river quality by filtering out pollutants and

sediments, and regulating nutrient flow7. floodplain – relatively flat land stretching from either side of a river, which may

flood during heavy rain or snowmelta. soil in floodplains is often rich in nutrients and ideal for growing food

8. tributary – smaller stream or river that joins a larger stream or main river9. watershed – tract of land drained by a river and its tributaries10. watershed boundary – (aka drainage divide) marks the outermost limited of a

watershed11. meandering river – winds back and forth, rather than following a straight

course12. 3 phases of rivers : young, mature, old

C. Floods1. groundwater levels increase due to increased rainfall2. the water table (area where groundwater is collected) becomes saturated, not

being able to absorb additional water3. as a result, the water table rises causing water on the surface to flood

D. Water Uses1. wells – a hole dug in the earth used to pump water

a. benefit : water is available for consumptiona. danger : excessive pumping can lead to groundwater depletion

2. dams – barriers built to restrict water flowa. benefit : used to store water, provide water for irrigation, and generating

hydroelectric powerb. danger : trap sediments from flowing water sources, reducing water

volume before the dam and causing further erosion downstreamc. danger : dam removal : land downstream is flood, chemical and pollutants

are released, and stream banks are destroyed3. agriculture – use of water for crops

a. benefits : crops growb. dangers : fertilizers and pesticides can effect streams, lakes, and rivers

which leads to human and animal consumption, and lowered water quality

E Aquifer Depletion1. aquifer – permeable underground layer through which groundwater flows easily

2. salta. salt pollution is a threat to the water available in an aquiferb. freshwater becomes contaminated with salt water when wells are over-

pumped3. subsidence

a. water pressure helps to keep the land above the aquifer upb. as a result of excessive withdrawal of water, the land above the aquifer

sinks

F. Watersheds1. watershed – area of land where all of the water drains and goes into the same

place2. storm-water runoff threatens watershed quality3. as water runs over and through the watershed it picks up and carries

contaminants and soil a. leaked motor oil, pesticides, fertilizers, detergents, and sediments

4. these pollutants wash directly into waterways carried by runoff from rain and infiltrate ground water

5. pollutants then concentrate in streams and rivers and can be carried downstream into the ocean

6. these pollutants then effect the amount of oxygen and food sources in the waters which negatively impacts aquatic animals

7. pollutants affect recreational waters by making them unusable for swimming,fishing, and drinking

G. Water Treatment1. after wastewater has been treated, it is returned back to rivers and streams to

be re-used as drinking water 2. wastewater treatment plants improve the quality of water that is discharged

and returned to water sources3. unfortunately, we are creating more wastewater faster than we can clean it

causing a rise in the cost to treat waste waterH. Humans need Water

1. as the population of Earth increases, water availability decreases2. in undeveloped countries, water is expensive to transport and difficult to purify

causing a water shortage

I. Eutrophication1. eutrophication – too many nutrients runoff into a small body of water causing

algal bloom2. wetlands and estuaries can be destroyed when large amounts of algal blooms

lower the amount of oxygen in the water, thus causing fish and other animals in the water to diea. wetland – land area that is covered with water for a large part of the year

( ex : bogs, marshes, swamps)b. estuary – the area where lower end of a freshwater river or stream enters

the ocean

J. Pollution1. pollution occurs when hazardous material comes in contact and dissolves in

Water

2. point source pollution – comes from a specific source(s) which can be identifieda. ex : wastewater treatment plant or industry

3. non-point source pollution – source of pollution cannot be directly identified a. ex : runoff, pet waste, construction sitesb. construction can cause significant increase in sediment in nearby

waterwaysc. removal of vegetation exposes soil and causes more erosiond. suspended solids (turbidity) from erosion prevents sunlight from reaching

aquatic plantse. without light, photosynthesis cannot take place which reduces the amount

of available oxygenf. increased turbidity can also make it hard for fish to see their prey, can

lead to clogged fish gills, and can interfere with filter-feeding organisms that live in water

g. as solid matter settles, it may cover and arm plants and animals, and spawning beds

h. stormwater runoff can pick up sediment and pollutants and deposit them into water systems that are used consumption and recreation

i. arsenic (causes cancer and diabetes) can be introduced naturally through rocks or unnaturally by industry

K. Human Activity and Shorelines1. human activity accelerate the natural shoreline erosion process2. clearing natural vegetation

a. often done by landownersb. destroys the roots of plants that provide significant shoreline stabilization

3. construction or developmenta. when done uphill from a shoreline, it can result in increased stormwater

runoffb. results in increased sediment loads in the water

4. structuresa. pavement, buildings, roofs, drainage ditches all increase the amount of

speed and energy of stormwaterb. this results in more runoff being routed to streams and lakesc. increases shoreline erosion

5. agriculturea. increase levels of nutrients in streams and lakes (eutrophication)b. effects are greatest in the spring when snow is melting, the soil is

saturated, and water runoff is highest6. shoreline projects

a. erecting walls can reduce habitatsb. redirects waves away from the area in which the wall was installedc. changes the natural “drift” of loose materials

L. Conservation Measures1. development of alternative sources of supply2. reduce the use of water while showering, cleaning, and brushing teeth3. monitor water sources4. efficient planning for land use projects5. public awareness

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Unit 11 : Weathering, Erosion, and Soils

A. Soil1. soil is the result of weathering of rocks and includes weathered particles : sand,

silt, and clay2. a soil texture triangle is used to classify soil texture using the different

proportions of sand, silt, and clay in a sample

B. Physical Weathering1. physical weathering – occurs when physical forces break rocks into smaller and

smaller pieces without changing the rock’s mineral composition2. frost wedging – rock breaks into pieces after many freeze-thaw cycles

a. most common in mountainous regions in middle latitudes3. unloading – large masses of igneous rock may be exposed through uplift and

erosion of overlaying rocksa. the outer rock masses separate and break into smaller pieces

4. biological activity – activities of organisms such as plant growth, burrowing animals, and humans can cause physical weathering

C. Chemical Weathering1. chemical weathering – transformation of rock into one or more new compounds2. water promotes chemical wreathing by absorbing gases from the atmosphere

and the grounda. these dissolved substances then chemically react with various mineralsb. ex : iron oxide is rust that forms when iron containing objects are

exposed to water

D. Rates of Weathering1. physical weathering speeds up the process of chemical weathering by

increasing the surface area of the exposed rock

2. high temperatures and abundant moisture creates the most favorable climate for chemical weathering

3. different parts of a rock mass weather at different rates depending on mineral composition and the number of cracks

D. Erosion1. erosion – process by which Earth materials are carried away and redeposited by

wind, water, gravity, or icea. plucking –lifting up and moving fragments of rocksb. abrasion – scouring actions of particles carried by the windc. Humans move things from place to place due to construction,

deforestation, and agricultural practices

2. watera. the higher the speed of the water, the greater the mass of material will be

movedb. coastlines are constantly eroded by waves causing loss of coastlinec. water forms river systems by eroding rock and moving sediment

downstream

d. water will create canyons like the Grand Canyone. erosion by water is the most common form of erosion

3. winda. causes erosion by plucking andabrasionb. erosion through wind will cause landforms such as sand dunes

4. icea. glaciers move sediments by abrasion or pluckingb. landforms left by glaciers include deep rounded valleys, bowl valleys, and

sharp pointed mountain ridges5. gravity

a. creates landslides, mudslides, and avalanchesb. gravity is constantly pushing materials down which causes loose

sediments to erode

E. Precautions1. landslide

a. be aware of landslide susceptible areas in your neighborhood and recognize landslide warning signs

b. if you see signs of a landslide contact your local authorities, your neighbors, and evacuate

c. if you are caught in a landslide, curl up into a ball and protect your head2. earthquakes

a. if your areas is prone to earthquakes : secure tall or heavy furniture to the wall, and latch cupboards so that plates and glass do not fall out

b. during an earthquake, stay indoors, move away from windows and anything that can fall on you and duck

c. if you are outdoors, move quickly and safely into an open space away from electrical lines, trees, and buildings

3. tsunamia. plan an evacuation route, follow local authorities directions, and seek

higher ground4. sinkholes

a. sinkholes are caused by rock that is dissolved by weak natural acids found in rain and pore spaces in soil

b. check for limestone deposits and be aware of past sinkholes in the area5. groundwater pollution

a. test groundwater before consumption or use6. flooding

a. be aware if you live in a flood plain areab. move to higher groundc. do not walk, swim, or drive through swift moving water

2.1.4 Conclude the best location for various types of development to reduce impacts by geohazards and protect property - activity

Unit 12 : Rocks and MineralsA. Atomic Structure

1. Elements – substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances 2. Atoms – Smallest particle of matter that contains the characteristics of an

element

3. Nucleus – Central region; contains;a. Protons – positive charge (+) b. Neutrons – no charge (0)c. Electrons – negative charge (-) that surround the atom’s nucleus

B. Minerals 1. Naturally occurring, inorganic solid with an orderly crystalline structure and

definite chemical composition 2. To be considered a mineral it must have the following characteristics:

a. Naturally occurring (forms naturally)b. Solid substancec. Orderly crystalline structure d. Definite chemical composition e. Generally inorganic

3. Properties of Minerals a. Color – Not a useful property b. Streak – color of a mineral in its powdered formc. Luster – how light is reflected from the surfaced. Crystal form – visible expression of a mineral’s internal arrangement of

atoms e. Hardness – me asure of the resistance of a mineral being scratched

i. Mohs scale – standard hardness scaleii. 1 (softest) – 10 (hardest)

f. Cleavage – tendency to cleave, or break, along flat, even surfacesg. Fracture – uneven breakage of a mineral h. Density – ratio of an object’s mass to its volume

i. D = mass (m) / Volume (V)

C. Rocks1. Rock – any solid mass of mineral or mineral-like matter that occurs naturally as

a part of our planet2. most rocks are a mixture of different minerals3. 3 groups of rocks

a. igneous – a rock formed from by the crystallization of molten magmab. sedimentary – rock formed from the weathered products of pre-existing

rocks that have been transported, deposited, compacted, and cemented

c. metamorphic (meta = change, morph = shape) – rock formed by the changing pre-existing rock through heat and pressure

D. Rock Cycle1. rock cycle – continuous process that causes rocks to change 2. the forms of energy that drive the rock cycle include heat and mechanical

Energy3. involves interactions among the Earth’s water, air, and land4. Stages

a. magma forms when rock melts deep beneath the Earth’s surfaceb. when magma or lava cools and solidifies, igneous rocks formc. rocks at Earth’s surface are broken down into smaller pieces called

sedimentsd. when sediments are compacted and cemented, sedimentary rocks forme. any type of rock that is changed by heat, pressure, or fluids becomes a

metamorphic rock5. deposition – when sediments are dropped due to an agent of erosion (water,

wind, ice, or gravity) losing energy6. compaction – process that squeezes or compacts sediments

a. caused by weight b. pushes water out

7. cementation – takes place when dissolved minerals are deposited in the time space among the sediments

Unit 13 : Earthquakes & Volcanoes

A. Earthquakes1. Earthquake – vibration of Earth produced by the rapid release of energy 2. Focus – The point within Earth where the earthquake starts 3. Epicenter – Location on the surface directly above the focus 4. Aftershocks – a small earthquake that follows the main earthquake

a. Usually much weaker than the main earthquake b. Can sometimes destroy structures weakened by the main EQ

5. Foreshocks – small earthquake that often comes before a major earthquake a. Can happen days or years before the major quake

B. Faults 1. Fault - Fractures in Earth where movement has occurred 2. Earthquakes are usually associated with faults in Earth’s crust and mantle

C. Causes of Earthquakes 1. Most earthquakes are produced by the rapid release of elastic energy stored in

rock that has been subjected to great forces2. When the strength of the rock is exceeded, it suddenly breaks3. Transform fault boundaries -Produce smaller, shallow-focus earthquakes that

occur 0-40 miles deep 4. Converging plate boundaries - Can produce deep-focus earthquakes that occur

180 miles or more below the Earth’s surfacea. Occur in subduction zones

D. Earthquake waves 1. Surface waves – seismic waves that travel along Earth’s outer layer 2. Travel along the ground and cause the ground and anything resting upon it to

move3. Movement is like ocean waves that toss a ship 4. Up-and-down motion as well as side-to-side motion5. P waves – push (compress) and pull (expand) rocks in the direction the waves

travela. Also known as compression wavesb. Travel through solids, liquids, and gasesc. Have the greatest velocity of all earthquake wavesd. Move through the entire earth-crust, mantle, and core like a slinky

6. S waves – shake particles at right angles to the direction that they travel a. Also known as transverse waves b. Travel only through solids c. Slower velocity than P waves

d. Move through the ground (Earth’s outer layer) like a rope7. A seismogram shows all three types of seismic waves8. First P wave, then first S wave, and then surface waves (Hint: alphabetical

order)

E. Locating an Earthquake 1. The greater the interval measured on a seismogram between the arrival of the

first P wave and the first S wave, the greater the distance to the earthquake source

2. The precise location can be found when the distance if known from three or more different seismic stations a. The point where the three circles intersect is the epicenter of the quake

3. Most earthquakes occur around the outer edge of the Pacific Ocean

F. Measuring Earthquakes 1. Two different types of measurements to describe size of earthquake

a. Intensity – a measure of the amount of earthquake shaking at a given location based on the amount of damage

b. Magnitudes – a measure of the size of seismic waves or the amount of 2. Most earthquake measurements you hear on news reports use Richter scale

a. 1-10b. Scientists no longer use it

3. Moment Magnitude - Most widely used measurement for earthquakes because it is the only magnitude scale that estimates the energy released by earthquakes

G. Destruction from Earthquakes based on 1. Intensity and duration of the vibrations2. Nature of the material on which the structure is built 3. Design of the structure 4. The greatest damage to structures is from landslides, or the sinking of the

ground triggered by the vibrations 5. Fire due to gas and electrical lines being cut 6. Water lines may also break

H. Tsunamis 1. Triggered by an earthquake2. Occurs where a slab of the ocean floor is displaced vertically along a fault3. Can also occur when the vibration of a quake sets an underwater landslide into

motion

Unit 14 : VolcanoesA. Volcanoes

1. volcano – a mountain formed from the flow of lava from beneath the Earth’s surface

B. Factors Affecting Eruptions1. Viscosity – a substance’s resistance to flow

a. Ex. Maple syrup more viscous than water and flows more slowly

2. temperature – as temperature increases, a substance becomes more fluid and less viscous a. As lava flow cools and begins to harden eventually the flow halts

3. silica content - More silica in magma, greater its viscosity

C. Volcanic Material 1. Lava Flows – streams of molten rock that pour or ooze from an erupting vent

a. Some lavas have a flow rate of 10-300 meters per hourb. Types of lava

i. Pahoehoe – resembles braids in ropes ii. Aa lava – rough, jagged blocks

2. Pyroclastic Material – the volcanic rock ejected during an eruption, including ash, bombs, and blocks

3. Volcanic gases a. More than 90% is water vaporb. Sulfur dioxide emitted = can cause acid rain

D. Dangers 1. Pyroclastic flows – hot gases, glowing ash, and larger rock fragments moving

at 200 km/hr2. Lahars – destructive mudflows occur when volcanic debris becomes saturated

with water and rapidly moves down steep volcanic slopes a. Can occur when a volcano is not erupting

3. Ash fall – resulting from eruption columns that form eruption clouds a. Heavy ash can collapse buildings b. Minor ash can damage crops, electronics, and machinery

E. Magma vs. Lava1. Magma - molten material beneath Earth’s crust (below)2. Lava – what magma becomes when it reaches the surface (above)

F. Plate Tectonics and Igneous Activity 1. Convergent Plate Boundary

a. Plate motions provide the mechanisms by which mantle rocks melt to generate magma

b. Slabs of crust are pushed down into the mantlec. Slab sinks deeper = increase in temperature and pressure drives water

from the crustd. Fluids eventually reduce melting point of hot mantle rock enough for

melting to begin e. Magma formed slowly migrates upward forming volcanoes

2. Ocean-Oceana. Results in formation of a chain of volcanoes on the ocean floor b. Eventually grow large enough to rise above the surface and are called volcanic island arcs

3. Ocean-Continent a. Produce a continental volcanic arc

4. Divergent Plate Boundaries a. Most magma is produced along the oceanic ridges during seafloor

spreadingb. Mantle rises upward to fill in the rift where the plates have separated

c. Rock rises pressure decreases rock melts produces large amounts of magma which rises

5. Intraplate Igneous Activity a. Most intraplate volcanoes occur where a mass of hotter than normal

mantle material called a mantle plume rises toward surfaceb. Results in a small volcanic region a few hundred kilometers across called a

hot spotc. Hot spot – Unusually hot regions of Earth’s mantle where high-

temperature plumes of mantle material rise toward the surfaced. As the Pacific plate moves over the hot spot, successive volcanic

mountains have been created

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Unit 15 : Plate TectonicsA. Pangea (Alfred Wegener)

1. Pangea - Single supercontinent 2. 200 million years ago Pangaea (all land) began to break up and started drifting

to their present positions 3. Evidence

a. Matching fossils on different continentsa. Rock Types and Structures - Several mountain belts that end at one

coastline, reappear on a landmass across the ocean 4. Rejection of Hypothesis - Wegener could not describe a mechanism that was

capable of moving the continents across the globe

B. Theory of Plate Tectonics 1. theory : Earth’s outer shell consists of individual plates that interact in various

ways and thereby produce earthquakes, volcanoes, mountains, and the crust

2. Lithosphere – rigid outer layer of Earth, including the crust and upper mantlea. Divided into segments called platesb. Seven major plates (Largest = Pacific plate )c. Move about 5 cm/yr (about as fast as your fingernail)

C. Types of Plate Boundaries 1. Divergent boundaries - When two plates move apart

a. Results in upwelling of material from the mantle to create new seafloorb. Oceanic ridge – seafloor that is elevated along well developed divergent

boundaries c. Rift valleys – deep faulted structures found along the axes of some

segmentsd. Seafloor spreading – The process in which the ocean floor is extended

when two plates move apart, forming a crack where magma can rise to the surface, cooling and forming new crust.

e. Example: East African Rift valley2. Convergent boundaries - When two plates move together

a. A subduction zone occurs when one oceanic plate is forced down into the mantle beneath a second plate

b. Creates an ocean trenchc. 3 types of convergent boundaries

i.Oceanic-Continental - Ocean plate (more dense) sinks down under continental plate, leads to volcanic eruptions, ex : Andes

ii. Oceanic- Oceanic - One descends beneath the other, Can cause volcanoes to form on ocean floor, Ex. Aleutian Islands off the shore of Alaska

iii.Continental-Continental- Plates collide, Causes formation of complex mountains, Ex. Himalayas - Urbanizing mountainsides leads to erosion, landslides, and waterpollution

3. Transform fault boundaries - Two plates grind past each other without the production or destruction of lithosphere a. Can cause earthquake activity b. Ex. San Andreas fault zone

D. Evidence for Plate Tectonics 1. Paleomagnetism - The study of the Earth’s magnetic field in the past – used as

evidence for seafloor spreading a. Normal Polarity – when rocks show the same magnetism as the present

magnetic field b. Reverse polarity – rocks that show the opposite magnetism c. The discovery of strips of alternating polarity, while lie as mirror images

across the ocean ridges, is among the strongest evidence of seafloor spreading

2. Earthquake patterns 3. Ocean drilling 4. Hot spots - A concentration of heat in the mantle capable of producing magma,

which rises to Earth’s surfacea. Pacific plate moves over a hot spot, producing the Hawaiian Islands b. Supports the idea that the plates move over Earth’s surface

E. Mechanisms of Plate Motion 1. Convection – warm, less dense material rises and cooler, denser material sinks

a. driving force for plate movementb. Convection Currents – transfer of thermal energy from warmer regions of magma below the crust to cooler regions

2. Slab-Pull - Occurs because old oceanic crust, sinks into the asthenosphere and pulls the trailing lithosphere along

3. Ridge-Push- Results from the elevated position of the oceanic ridge systema. Causes oceanic lithosphere to slide down the sides of the oceanic ridge

4. Mantle convection - Mantle plumes are masses of hotter-than-normal mantle material that ascend toward the surface

5. Upward flowing arms - The unequal distribution of heat within Earth causes the thermal convection in the mantle that ultimately drives plate motion