Socioeconomic Gaps in MathematicsTrisha Waldbauer and Shayla Berner

EMTH 310- 030Tuesday, November 10th/2015

Running head: SOCIOECONOMIC GAPS

Abstract

This paper examines socioeconomic gaps within the education system. It discusses some

possible reasons for the achievement gaps, and provides efforts being taken to close these

detrimental gaps that are influencing students’ intellectual competence. Socioeconomic

status is continuing to play a huge role in academic achievement. This is a problematic

issue present not only within schools, but in our society as well. Children who fall below

the poverty line are not receiving equal opportunities to succeed, which has long term

negative effects not only for the students but everyone in our society because the students

of today are the faces of tomorrow. An emphasis is being placed on quality rather than

equity, and this needs to be changed in order to give students the valuable education that

they have every right to earn.

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Introduction

Socioeconomic status is continuing to play a growing role in academic

achievement. There are many factors contributing to this problematic issue, and the

importance of closing the socioeconomic gap is becoming increasingly evident. Some

factors associated with mathematical achievement is equity within the education system,

parental academic achievement and the impacts it has on students, and the long-term

effects that low socioeconomic status children experience. These factors begin to provide

explanations on why these gaps exist, and ways in which the students are being impacted

by them.

Closing the socioeconomic gap is essential in providing equal learning

opportunities to all children. The importance of looking beyond the classroom is an

essential component to close socioeconomic gaps. Providing an enriched curriculum that

promotes equity for all is vital. Regardless of socioeconomic status, all students deserve

the chance to experience a positive and equal learning experience. Students of low

socioeconomic status are not receiving equal opportunity to a quality education, and this

is a concern that needs to be addressed.

A Look into Socioeconomic Status and Academic Achievement

“Socioeconomic status is a composite indicator of parents’ education, parents’

occupation, and family income” (Ma, 2000, p. 1). This status is continuing to play a

growing role in academic achievement within the classroom setting. Socioeconomic gaps

within the education system are a problematic concern in today’s society. There are many

possible explanations for this gap. Examining the relationship between socioeconomic

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status and mathematical achievement is important in understanding this gap, and the

affects it has on students.

Students’ academic outcomes have long been related to their socioeconomic

status (Ma, 2000). Several reasons have been discussed that provide explanations for this.

One of these reasons is parental academic achievement. The academic achievement of

parents can play a role in financial stability and socioeconomic status, and that is

something that has a big impact on student achievement. Equity is a term that is not

always implemented in mathematics classrooms, which is problematic. Children are not

receiving the same opportunities for success due to socioeconomic differences, which is

another reason for the gaps that are becoming evident within the education system.

“Socioeconomic status is one of the four most important variables that are responsible for

the differential performance of Canadian students in reading, mathematics, and science

(Ma, 2001, p. 98).” It plays a huge role not only in student achievement levels, but in

society as well. The third reason that is important to place an emphasis on is that low-

income, one of the major components of socioeconomic status, has a long-term effect on

children’s mathematics and reading achievement (Ma, 2000).

“The socioeconomic status of a child’s parents has always been one of the

strongest predictors of the child’s academic achievement and educational attainment

(Reardon, 2011).” One of the major factors that play into this is opportunity. What

children from low-socioeconomic status often lack is the opportunity to succeed. Even if

their desire is there, their willingness to learn is present, they are often placed at a

disadvantage. Students lack opportunity, and they lack the resources necessary in order to

achieve academic success. “An explanation for the rising income achievement gap is that

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high-income families not only have more income than low-income families, but also have

access to a range of other family and social resources (Reardon, 2011, p. 20).” Children

of high socioeconomic status often have access to other family, and to educational

resources that help them learn. These resources could be very beneficial to students, and

without them, additional challenges are added for those classified in the low-economic

status category. If parents do not prioritize education, their children are likely to follow

suit.

Because highly educated parents are more able and more likely than less-educated

parents to provide resources and opportunities for their children to develop

cognitive and academic skills in both the preschool years and the school-age

years, children of parents with college degrees may have higher academic

achievement on average, than children of parents with lower levels of education

(Reardon, 2011, p. 20).

This promotes the vicious cycle of poverty. In today’s society, the rich get richer and the

poor get poorer, and this is becoming increasingly evident. The gap is continuing to

widen, and that is making it increasingly difficult for families, and students living in

poverty. Students do not always have access to resources essential for furthering their

education, and it is critical that teachers are aware of this. For many children, their

teacher, and their school is their only educational resource. “Not only do the poor have

less money than they did before, but they may have fewer social support systems as well

(Reardon, 2011, p. 26).” This lack of resources is problematic in the subject area of

mathematics. Often, teachers assign homework. When students do not understand the

information presented in class, their next course of action is to seek help from their

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parents. If this vital resource is lacking, it can set students back even further. Those who

place a high value on education are likely to instill that mindset into their children,

whereas those parents that are in a position where they need to prioritize other things may

not. Resources are a source of opportunity, and this is something that is not available to

everyone.

It is also important to discuss the challenges that are presented with families who

have recently immigrated to a new country. Students are often learning a new language,

and are immersed in an entirely new education system. This can make it extremely

difficult for parents to help their children, due to both the language barrier, and the

unfamiliar content that their child is learning. “In addition to the differences regarding

methods, some children have to translate the problems to their Spanish speaking parents

in order to receive their help (Civil et al., 2005).” Children lacking this parental resource

for homework help are at yet another disadvantage. Often, not only are children dealing

with poverty, but with the feeling of academic failure as well due to the lack of equality

within schools. “As the children of the rich do better in school, and those who do better in

school are more likely to become rich, we risk producing an even more unequal and

economically polarized society (Reardon, 2011m p. 27).”

The idea of opportunity and its detrimental effects on academic achievement goes

hand in hand with equity within the classroom. “Schools commonly deal with two

educational issues: quality of education, and equity of education (Ma, 2000, p. 353).”

Though both are extremely important, the emphasis is often placed on quality rather than

equity. This is where the school system is continuing to fail students who fall below the

poverty line.

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It is so easy for school administrators to focus on the educational quality of their

school, particularly when they are held accountable for schooling outcomes of

their school. As a result, most school policies and practices, such as curriculum

tracking and parental volunteering may directly target the quality of education,

rather than the equity of education (Ma, 2000, p. 353).

This provides a valid explanation to why the school systems are bettering the rich, and

lessening opportunity for the poor. Socioeconomic differences are a major equity issue in

today’s society, and this is something that needs to be addressed within the education

system. Without equity, we do not have quality. We need both within the education

system in order to have a positive learning environment that provides a quality education

for all.

“In the United States, socioeconomic status has been associated with differences

in early childhood outcomes spanning a wide range of developmental domains, including

physical, socio emotional, and cognitive (Beliakoff & DeFlorio, 2015, p. 320).” DeFlorio

and Beliakoff’s (2015) article discusses that research in child development and early

childhood education consistently demonstrates that upon kindergarten entry, children

from lower socioeconomic families fare worse than children from middle and higher SES

families in terms of health, behavioral or emotional, self-regulation, language skills, and

cognitive abilities. These are all critical areas, and a failure to have these basic

developmental skills can have severe, and long-term effects on students. These students

who are underdeveloped in these areas are behind from the beginning, and that is the

reality of today’s society. Not all children enter kindergarten with the same academic

competence, which needs to be addressed within the education system. Being

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developmentally behind provides an additional challenge, and causes students to fall

farther and farther behind. Though this often causes students to struggle in several

subjects, mathematics is perhaps one of the greater struggles for students of lower

socioeconomic status to overcome.

“One important aspect of cognitive development that is strongly influenced by

socioeconomic status is early, or informal, is mathematical knowledge (Baliakoff &

DeFlorio, 2015).” The early years of a child’s life play a huge role in their future

academic success. A failure to develop mathematical skills during the elementary years

can have a very negative impact on their overall educational experience. If they do not

develop the fundamental math skills, it will likely have long term effects. “Of all skills

assessed, early mathematical competence was the most powerful predictor of overall

academic achievement throughout the elementary school years (Baliakoff & DeFlorio,

2015, p. 320).” Socioeconomic status factors into this, and plays a huge role in the

academic success of a student.

“On average, children from lower socioeconomic families are entering

kindergarten approximately one developmental year behind children from higher

socioeconomic families in mathematics (Baliakoff & DeFlorio, 2015, p. 320).” This is a

vital piece of information that teachers need to be aware of. At five years old, they are

already behind, and that has the potential to set them back for the rest of their educational

experience. One of the reasons for this that Baliakoff and DeFlorio discussed within their

article was that middle socioeconomic children were more likely than lower

socioeconomic children to use math in the home routine, engage in made-up games

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involving math, read number/shape books, and use a computer with math software

(2015). This goes hand in hand with opportunity.

Higher and middle class families often have the ability to provide their children

with resources to help them learn, and to help them form mathematical concepts. Low

socioeconomic families often do not have the ability to provide their children with these

opportunities. Students who have been exposed to math in ways that relate to their

everyday lives have a better chance at achieving mathematical success. “Middle SES

children have more extensive mathematical knowledge compared to lower

socioeconomic children (Beliakoff & DeFlorio, 2015).” Students of higher SES have

more of an opportunity to succeed than those of lower SES, and this is something that

needs to be recognized within the education system. It is impossible to make the situation

better if we are unable to see the problem.

Efforts in Closing Achievement Gaps

Opportunities allow students to hit a certain standard of achievement, when

students are provided with these opportunities their achievement is much greater. One of

the most important efforts an educator can make is to provide all students with ample

opportunities for success. Enriched curriculum contributes to this student success around

achievement and provides more opportunity for learning development than watered down

curriculums that are being presented to low SES students and students of other various

backgrounds. Achievement groupings are also a contributing factor for oppressed

academic achievement and are detrimental not only to the low achieving groups, but the

high achieving groups as well. Studies looking into social policy are excellent avenues to

examine because achievement gaps are formed before students reach school and continue

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to take place during the summer months. Looking into what a student is lacking in factors

outside of school is just as important as looking into what factors are missing in the

school. There also needs to be a priority of de-tracking these groups and providing high-

track classes to all in order to close the achievement gaps. Incorporating equity into

classrooms is a crucial component of eliminating achievement gaps as well because each

student deserves a fair opportunity to learn and grow. Socioeconomic status correlates

with academic achievement a great deal and it is long overdue to put efforts into making

education a fair playing field for all students regardless of their background. After all, the

students of today are the faces of our future.

Equity in classrooms should be one of educator’s main concerns, especially in

mathematics because it is generally a subject that a lot of students struggle with. It should

not matter what social class, race, gender, religion or other personal beliefs that students

carry with them in relation to promoting effective teaching practices, yet so often, this

influences which students receive enriched curriculum. More often it’s the students

residing in high economic families that receive enriched teaching practices which is very

counterproductive because it is usually the students coming from lower income families

that need the extra learning reinforcement. The Association of Mathematics Teacher

Education (AMTE), the National Council of Supervisors of Mathematics (NCSM) and

the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) have made equity a priority in

their organizations in which they support teacher educators, mathematics teachers and

teacher leaders (Berry, et al. 2012). The concept of equity as defined by Berry, et al

(2012) is “the equitable distribution of material and human resources, intellectually

challenging curricula, educational experiences that build on students’ cultures, languages

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and home experiences and identities; and pedagogies that prepare students to engage in

critical thought and democratic participation in society” (p. 2). With this being said, one

can see how crucial it is to incorporate equity into their classroom because it truly affects

the students learning and their developmental process. However, achieving equity in

mathematical classes is not always an easy task, which is why it is important to perform

constant evaluation as an educator to ensure all these needs are being met in their

teaching practices. Another great step in achieving equity is to examine the class in depth

and create relationships with the students in order to find out their backgrounds. If an

educator does not know the extent of diversity of their classroom, it can be quite difficult

to know how to teach in order to create successful equity. Children have very little say to

what happen in their life, and it is no fault of their own in regards to what social class

they may come from. “Not only are these students robbed, so too is our nation” (Ford,

2011. p. 32). Therefore, it is devastating to treat these lower income students differently

when they deserve just as many supports as any other student. To make inferences on

their academic ability based on socioeconomic class or any other characteristic is not

only racist but detrimental to the student and their learning journey. Approximately 3.4

million K-12 students living below the poverty line rank in the top quartile academically

(Ford, 2011). Which goes to show the intellectual capabilities that all students possess,

not only the ones from economically stable backgrounds.

“A highly proficient student from a low socioeconomic background only has a 50-

50 chance of being placed in a high-track class” (Burris & Welner, 2005. p. 595). While

most parents want their child/children in the most elite high track classes, they do not

realize that these ability groupings are not only detrimental to the lower achieving

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students, but to the high achieving students as well. This is because the students in high-

track classes tend to feel great pressure to be perfect and their classes accelerate too fast

(Boaler, 2015). In reality, the country with the highest achieving rates among students is

Korea, which has the least tracking groups in place. This promotes equal learning to all

students (Boaler, 2015). Sorting students at early stages for ability groupings is

unfavorable because children develop at different rates and it is difficult to accurately

distinguish these differences. To place students in low achieving groups is to close the

door to many opportunities these children are no longer receiving due to the watered

down curriculum that is being presented to them. The students are given low level work

and this reflects on their attitude immensly. “Sir treats us like we’re babies, puts us down,

makes us copy stuff off the board, puts up all the answers like we don’t know anything.

And we’re not going to learn from that, ‘cause we’ve got to think for ourselves” (Boaler,

2015. p. 109). Teachers inevitably have lower expectations for students residing in the

low achievement groups, therefore they water down the curriculum and teach it in a way

that leaves most students feeling put down and in return, do not absorb valuable

information. Burris & Welner (2005) state:

Others believe that if all students are given the enriched curriculum that high

achieving students receive, achievement will rise. They believe that no students –

whatever their race, SES or prior achievement – should be placed in classes that

have watered-down or remedial academic curriculum and that the tracking system

should be dismantled entirely (p. 595).

The Rockville Centre School District located on Long Island embarked on a multilayer

de-tracking reform in the 1990’s that increased learning expectations for all students

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(Burris &Welner, 2005). This reform takes a look at Regents diplomas earned when

tracked classes were in place and examines the results after de-tracking had been

implemented. The average rate for Regents diplomas earned was 58% and 38%

respectively (Burris & Welner, 2005). Regents exams are closely linked with coursework

which is why they eliminated low-track courses. High track students enrolled in

trigonometry and advanced algebra in the 10th grade, compared to not even starting first-

year algebra until grade ten in the low-track classes (Burris & Welner, 2005). This goes

to show the low expectations teachers have for their students in the low ability groupings

and how detrimental it can be on their learning development, reinforcing the idea that

they are being robbed of an adequate education. In this reform, educators noticed that the

second math Regents exam presented a road block in earning a diploma due to their later

start in high-end mathematics. To solve this problem, the math curriculum was condensed

and taught to all students, providing after school help four afternoons a week (Burris &

Welner, 2005). This act of universally accelerating all students produced percentages that

tripled results between 1995 and 1997. Low-track classes improved from only 23% up to

75% and high track classes also improved from 54% to 98% (Burris & Welner, 2005).

“The tone, activities and discussions in the heterogeneously grouped classes were

academic, focused and enriched” (Burris & Welner, 2015. p. 597). This de-tracking

movement also increased science exams, from 48% to 77% in African American and

Hispanic students and 85% to 94% in Asian American and white students (Burris &

Welner, 2015). “By the time the cohort of 1999 graduated in 2003, the gap had closed

dramatically -- 82% of all African American or Hispanic and 97% of all white or Asian

American graduated earned Regents diplomas” (Burris & Welner, 2005. p. 597). In

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addition to this improvement, low SES students and special education students also

showed notable improvement during the 2001 cohort (Burris & Welner, 2005). A study

closely related to this looked at Railside High School in California in which they started

mixed ability groupings where all students took an algebra class and the results were

outstanding, 47% of seniors taking calculus and pre-calculus advanced classes compared

to 28% of students in tracked classes of other typical high schools (Boaler, 2015). As one

can infer from the data presented above, tracking denies opportunities and in return

denies students a valuable education. In order to close the achievement gap, the

curriculum gap must also be closed (Burris & Welner, 2005).

Furthermore, social policy might also aid in closing the achievement gap that has

been ever so prevalent. Bower (2013) suggests that children have already been exposed to

a large gap by the time they enter school, and building from that, each additional absence

was associated with a 5% greater chance in students dropping out before graduating. This

achievement gap also grows larger during the summer breaks, which leaves the

achievement gap to be three quarters formed outside of school and one quarter formed

inside school (Bower, 2013). “The strong relationships between various background and

socioeconomic variables and achievement suggest that limiting reform to in-school

changes may not be the most effective strategy for closing the achievement gap” (Bower,

2013. p. 6). Social policy, according to Bower (2013) generally consists of the following

categories: education, health care, housing, welfare, social security, unemployment,

family services and sometimes the criminal justice system. “Not only are numerous social

conditions and environmental factors correlated with academic performance, but most

disproportionately impact poor, minority students” (Bower, 2013. p. 14). This links social

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policy to achievement gaps and why it is an important factor to closing the gaps

altogether. A child’s health can greatly affect their school achievement because if a

student is not properly nourished or have other health implications like vision

impairment, it can be very hard for them to focus in school and achieve at a high

academic rate. A study was conducted in Baltimore which assigned students with vision

problems to either a control group or one that received vision therapy throughout the

school year. Students were randomly assigned to these experiments and by the end of the

year, students were scoring significantly higher with the help of the vision therapy

(Bower, 2013). A different study correlating with vision impairment conducted in Boston

over the course of six years had significant outcomes as well. Students who had failed an

eye exam were either given free glasses, prescribed glasses or received vision therapy and

after this treatment, they were scoring significantly faster whereas performance in

mathematical and reading achievement was prominently lower before these vision aids

than peers who had originally passed the eye exams (Bower, 2013). Nutrition plays a

significant role in academic achievement as well and a number of studies have linked

various nutritional factors with lower cognitive function in relation to iron deficiency

(Bower, 2013). A study conducted on inner-city students revealed a difference of one

standard deviation lower in both math and reading of students who eat fast food four

times a week compared to students only consuming fast food 0-3 times per week.

(Bower, 2013) Students in New York were also examined on their vitamin/mineral

intake, reporting that students who took a vitamin/mineral supplement gained about three

additional IQ points over a 3-month period (Bower, 2013). Housing and neighborhoods

tend to play a role in the achievement gap as well and there is correlation to noise levels

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in the home and academic performance. A New York study compared students who lived

on opposite sides of a school, one being located next to elevated train tracks and one on

the quieter side of the school. This study suggested that the student living on the noisier

side of the school performed lower, however after installing noise dampening devises,

had achieved equal scores as the student residing on the quieter side of the school the

following year. (Bower, 2013) While these are only a few studies suggested and they are

very informative ones, it is difficult to predict a clear theoretical consensus in the regards

to social policy eliminating achievement gaps. “Whereas some relationships are

straightforward (e.g., giving children eyeglasses), others are less so (e.g., improving

housing stock)” (Bower, 2013. p. 28). There are plenty of reasons to believe that social

policy will eventually bridge the gap of academic achievement in regard to low SES,

however there needs to be more research conducted on these variables to realize the full

effects of social policy on student’s academic achievement. (Bower, 2013)

There are a few required ingredients that are often missing in regards to closing

the achievement gap which include: concern, compassion, courage, commitment and

collaboration and change (Ford, 2011). Educators usually do not collaborate enough with

families, communities or other organizations which leads to them being contained in their

own vacuum, losing out on valuable insights that could help them better understand the

achievement gaps and how to fix this prevalent issue. “In a mixed ability group, the

teacher has to open the work, making it suitable for students working at different levels

and different speeds” (Boaler, 2015. p. 111). Collaboration with others as well as

building relationships with the students and their families can open a multitude of doors

for educators in relation to closing achievement gaps that all classes contain. In order to

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start closing these gaps, teachers need to be educated on the students in their classes and

how to best further their learning development. Compassion and concern goes hand in

hand when dealing with closing achievement gaps because of how serious this issue has

become and recognition needs to be made in order to bring light on how much impact

achievement gaps have on student’s academic abilities. Courage is needed to stand up to

those who protest ability groupings and other factors that contribute to achievement gaps

among low socioeconomic students. “A culture of equity maximizes the learning

potential of all students” (Berry et al. 2012. p. 2). All students have a right to a valuable

education and equity is a fundamental component in closing gaps on academic

achievement. “By dismantling tracking and providing the high-track curriculum to all, we

can succeed in closing the achievement gap on important measures of learning” (Burris &

Welner, 2005. p. 595). Change needs to be made in order to provide more disciplinary

actions in closing achievement gaps because as one can see, they are causing

substantially more harm than good and the students of our future are being robbed of

their own future. This needs to be stopped at once.

Conclusion

To conclude, it is vital to give students as many opportunities to succeed as

possible. Without opportunities, students do not have a chance to hit the standard of

achievement that they are entitled to. Academics have long been related to parental

success. In order to break this vicious cycle, efforts need to be made on closing the gaps

of academic achievement. Three quarters of achievement gaps are formed outside of

school, therefore it is critical to examine students’ home life and their health. Students

struggle immensely in school if their health is not being looked after properly.

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Relationships need to be built in order to assess the students’ backgrounds to

determine appropriate supports necessary for academic achievement. Closing gaps in

curriculum will in return close the achievement gaps present in our society. Equity is an

excellent component that educators can implement in order to provide an enriched

curriculum for all students instead of only the high achieving students. All students have

a right to a valuable education. They are being robbed of this right by being placed in

ability groupings which lack sufficient supports or opportunities for success. Closing

these detrimental achievement gaps is critical in order to provide the faces of our future

with quality educational opportunities.

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