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English 3201 Handbook Appendix A: COHERENCE

Coherence – is the quality of being logically integrated, consistent and intelligible. In order for a piece of writing (usually essays or longer prose) to have coherence, it must include at least two (2) elements.

I. Use of transitional words or phrasesII. Repetition of key words

III. Use of parallelism/parallel structureIV. Pronoun reference

Transitions – words or phrases that help move sentences or paragraphs smoothly from one idea to the next; some common transitions are conjunctions (ignore the idea that you can’t begin a sentence or paragraph with a conjunction, but do so sparingly); conjunctive adverbs: however, moreover, nevertheless, therefore; phrases: in addition, on the other hand; single words: thus, also, first, second, third, finally. Any words from the set of continuity marks (first, next, then), the set of conjunctive adverbs (whereas, however, furthermore) or the adverb clauses (when, if, since). In the larger sense, headings and sub-headings act as general transitions among thematic parts of a report.

Repetition – 1) the repeated use of the same word or word pattern as a rhetorical device, 2) technique for creating unity and rhythm in which a single element or motif is used over and over again.

Parallel structure – 1) Two grammatical structures, similar in form and function, connected by a conjunction: Paul hit the ball over the fence and the trees, 2) In speech or writing, the repetition of an identical grammatical or stylistic structure for the sake of clarity.

Pronoun reference – a word used in place of a noun, a noun phrase or several nouns. They are often used to save repetition of a noun. (i.e. he, she, it )

Connectives – a connective is a word that joins other words, phrases, and clauses. A connective is a word or words that provide a link between ideas in two different grammatical constructions.

Organization – the clarity of the logical flow of ideas and the explicitness of the text structure or plan.

-spatial – a method of paragraph or essay organization in which events are presented according to their location; used when the author's goal is to describe.

-logical – ideas are arranged according to a plan.

-temporal/chronological – items, events, or even ideas are arranged in the order in which they occur

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-oppositional - the relation between propositions having the same subject and predicate but differing in quality, quantity, or both, as with all men are wicked; no men are wicked; some men are not wicked 

Temporal reference points – conventional division of time into present, past, and future

Unity – can be achieved in a written work through the following ways:

- Closing by return- Repetition of key words and phrases- Thesis statement/restatement- Topic sentence

Voice – the personality of the speaker or creator (writer) that is revealed in a work through such elements as style, tone, diction, etc.

Unity – is the quality of having all parts of a piece relate to each other in a way that makes the piece seem like one.   Unity involves being:

on topic focused consistent in tone and level of formality

At the paragraph level, unity is particularly important. Each paragraph should be focused on or unified around a narrow topic. A shift in focus requires a new paragraph. Sentences that are off topic should be eliminated.

At the essay level unity is more complex but no less important. The essay may be held together by a thin thread. An effective opening and closing goes along way in unifying an essay. The structure of the body - what comes in the middle - is even more important.

Closing by Return     Your closing must force the reader to think back to what came earlier. In this way the closing will tie the essay together.

Ways to close your essay:

Restate your thesis, but don't simply repeat it Emphasize the importance of your thesis and the significance or impact of what

you have been talking about. Create a climax, a twist, or a surprise Summarize (but do more than simply repeat your words) Look to the future Call the reader to action Return to something  dwelt on earlier: an example,  a symbol, a statistic

Coherence – is the quality of being logically integrated, consistent and intelligible. Coherence involves connecting sentences, paragraphs, and sections of a piece of writing together.

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Connectives –a connective is a word that joins other words, phrases, and clauses. A word or words that provide a link between ideas in two different grammatical constructions.

Transitions – Use transitions or words and phrases that help move sentences or paragraphs smoothly from one idea to the next; some common transitions are conjunctions (ignore the idea that you can’t begin a sentence or paragraph with a conjunction, but do so sparingly); conjunctive adverbs: however, moreover, nevertheless, therefore; phrases: in addition, on the other hand; single words: thus, also, first, second, third, finally. Any words from the set of continuity marks (first, next, then), the set of conjunctive adverbs (whereas, however, furthermore) or the adverb clauses (when, if, since). In the larger sense, headings and sub-headings act as general transitions among thematic parts of a report.

Ways to establish coherence:

Logical order and connections (Spatially, Logically, Chronologically or Time order)

Here are some ways of ordering information so the logical connections are clearer: Place the items in:

order of time (chronology) order of space (descriptions of a location or scene) order of climax (building toward a conclusion) order of importance (from least to most important or from most to least important) order of familiarity  (from most familiar to least familiar)

Make sure your writing flows logically. When you shift to something new signal the shift and make sure your reader is properly prepared.

Transitional terms or phrases

You can signal the type of connection you are making by using transitional terms or phrases. If the connection is obvious, you might not need a transitional term or phrase, but if there is any doubt use one of these useful terms. The following table of transitional terms indicates the types of connections these words signal. 

Repetition is probably the most important way of tying writing together.Repetition takes various forms.    

Repeating key words or ideas      Using synonyms or similar words      Using summary words      Using pronouns Repeating the same grammatical form (parallel structure)

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Terms as defined in the 3201 Examinable Terms List: Organization – the clarity of the logical flow of ideas and the explicitness of the

text structure or plan. 

spatial – a method of paragraph or essay organization in which events are presented according to their location; used when the author's goal is to describe.

logical – ideas are arranged according to a plan.

chronological – items, events, or even ideas are arranged in the order in which they occur

Repetition – 1) the repeated use of the same word or word pattern as a rhetorical device, 2) technique for creating unity and rhythm in which a single element or motif is used over and over again.

Appendix B – EMPHATIC DEVICES

Emphatic Devices – devices used to place emphasis on a part of a sentence or a sentence in order to make it stand out to the viewer.

Emphasis – special attention, weight, or stress given to a word, phrase, etc. in pieces of literature or when speaking as to make it stand out.

Font – A complete collection of letters, punctuation marks, numbers, and special characters with a consistent and identical typeface, weight (Roman or bold), posture (upright or italic) and font size. Technically, font still refers to one complete set of characters in a given typeface, weight, and size, such as Helvetica italic 12 - but the terms has come to be used interchangeably for referring to typefaces or font families.

-bold – used to heavily emphasize major points.-italics - used to indicate titles of major or complete works, foreign words that are not usually used in English, words used as words themselves (as in when giving a definition of the word) and words or phrases that one wishes to emphasize.-unusual capitalization-underlining

Listing – numerical order, bullets, sequencing – everything has a purpose

Parallel structure – 1) Two grammatical structures, similar in form and function, connected by a conjunction: Paul hit the ball over the fence and the trees, 2) In speech or writing, the repetition of an identical grammatical or stylistic structure for the sake of clarity.

Punctuation – the use of certain marks to clarify meaning of written material by grouping words grammatically into sentences and clauses and phrases , the marks used to clarify meaning by

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indicating separation of words into sentences and clauses and phrases and something that makes repeated and regular interruptions or divisions

a. Period – (.) used to indicate the end of a sentence. Also used at the end of a command, indirect question or for abbreviations.

b. Dash – (--) used for separating words in the middle of a sentence or adding words to the end of a sentence both are used for added emphasis on a part of a sentence. Sometimes used to indicate speed in a piece of writing/how fast the author wants it to read.

c. Semicolon – (;) used to join related independent clauses in compound sentences and to separate items in a series if the elements of the series already include commas.

- To join related independent clauses Ex: Bob’s car broke down; the engine stopped

- To join related main clauses when the coordinating conjunction has been left outEx: Bob bought a used car; he painted it cherry red

- To join independent clauses when one or both clauses contains a commaEx: After he had it painted, he had it detailed; but he didn’t stop there

- Between main clauses connected by a conjunctive adverbEx: Buying a used car is good; however, you must be careful that you don’t buy a lemon

d. Colon – (:) used before an extended quotation, explanation, example, series, etc. and after the salutation of a formal letter.

e. Hyphen – (-) is probably the most debated form of punctuation, but it is generally used to form compound words and prefixes.

f. Quotation marks – (") used to show that the phrase was originally said by another or to show that the sentence is being said by a character.

- Capitalize the first word of a direct quotation- Use single QM when quoting materials within a quotation- Indirect quotations do not require QM- Place periods and commas inside of the end of a QM- Place colons and semicolons outside the end of a QM- Question marks and exclamation points go inside or outside the end QM

depending on meaningg. Exclamation points – (!) used to show emphasis or surprise. If a character is

using it, they may be shouting.h. Capitalization – (A) used for the first letter of a sentence or a quoted sentence,

proper nouns or words derived from proper nouns (ex English from England) and for titles of publications except for little words such as a, an, the, but, as, if, and, or, nor, when used internally (if used externally capitalize them). *Note: There are many more rules and uses concerning people’s titles such as doctor, president etc.

i. Italics – (a) are not really punctuation, but they can be used to indicate titles of major or complete works, foreign words that are not usually used in English, words used as words themselves (as in when giving a definition of the word) and words or phrases that one wishes to emphasize.

j. Apostrophe - used for the following:- To show possession

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1. Add an apostrophe + s to singular and plural nouns2. EXCEPTION: nouns ending in s or sounding like s or z; add an

apostrophe + s to singular nouns ending in s- To show plural form- To show a contraction

k. Parenthesis ( ) - used to show nonessential information and used to enclose additional information in a sentence, to enclose numbers to letters. Also used to show special relationships between the enclosed remark and its contents

l. Brackets [ ] - used to insert editorial comment within quoted materialEx: She said, “You can’t always expect [even if the market is hot] your house to appreciate.”

Repetition – 1) the repeated use of the same word or word pattern as a rhetorical device, 2) technique for creating unity and rhythm in which a single element or motif is used over and over again.

Rhetorical Question – a question asked solely to produce an effect or to make a statement, but not expected to receive an answer. The purpose to such a question, whose answer is obvious, is usually to make a deeper impression upon the hearer or reader than a direct statement would.

Sentence fragment – a phrase or clause written as a sentence but lacking an element (ex: a subject or verb) that would enable it to function as a sentence

Short sentences – help emphasize and individualize sentences and points so that valid points do not get lost in a long, run-on sentence. These sentences might even include sentence fragments.

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Appendix C – ESSAYS & ESSAY DEVELOPMENT

Essay – is a prose composition with a focused subject of discussion.

Importance and effectiveness of the introduction – should start with a general discussion of your subject and lead to a very specific statement of your main point, or thesis. Sometimes an essay begins with a "grabber," such as a challenging claim, or surprising story to catch a reader's attention. The thesis should tell in one (or at most two) sentence(s), what your overall point or argument is, and briefly, what your main body paragraphs will be about. The introduction should be designed to attract the reader's attention and give him/her an idea of the essay's focus.

Body and conclusion – The body paragraphs will explain your essay's topic. Each of the main ideas that you listed in your outline will become a paragraph in your essay. If your outline contained three main ideas, you will have three body paragraphs. The conclusion serves to give the reader closure, summing up the essay's points or providing a final viewpoint about the topic. The conclusion should consist of three or four convincing sentences. Clearly review the main points, being careful not to restate them exactly, or briefly describe your opinion about the topic.

Methods of development (usually evident in expository essays, but can occur in other types)

1. Compare and contrast – discusses similarities and differences in works. Although you can discuss both, it is easier to do one or the other.

2. Classification and division – a writer organizes, sorts or divides things into categories.

3. Examples and illustration – with almost every paragraph, an example is offered as to clarify and inform.

4. Process analysis – a pattern of essay development in which the procedure for doing or making something is detailed

5. Cause and effect – are concerned with why things happen (causes) and what happens as a result (effects). Cause and effect is a common method of organizing and discussing ideas.

6. Definition – writing that explains what a term means. Some terms have definite, concrete meanings, such as glass, book, or tree. Terms such as honesty, honor, or love are abstract and depend more on a person's point of view.

Expository – purpose is to present, completely and fairly, other people's views or to report about an event or a situation. Expository writing, or exposition, presents a subject in detail, apart from criticism, argument, or development. Such writing is discourse designed to convey information or explain what is difficult to understand. Exposition usually proceeds by the orderly analysis of parts and the use of familiar illustrations or analogies.

o Explains a subject using logical reasoning and examples to develop ideaso Writing that explains something using at least one of the following methods of

development (refer to p. 65-67 in Reference Points): Definition

Answers the question "What is it?" Explains an important word or term

Comparison/Contrast Similarities and differences

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Answers the question "How are 2 or more things alike or not alike?"

Classification/Division Uses precise definitions and explanations to show the relationships

between concepts or ideas Answers the question "What kind is it?"

Process Analysis Involves sequential, and often chronological ordering of

information Answers the question "How does it work?" or "How did it

happen?" Cause/Effect

Answers the question "Why did it happen?" [cause] and "What were the results of this occurrence?" [effect]

Example/Illustration Literary analysis Answers the question "For example?" Clarifies ideas Use examples to support a thesis or to make the subject more

interesting

Descriptive – provides details about how something looks, feels, tastes, smells, makes one feel, or sounds. It can also describe what something is, or how something happened. These essays generally use a lot of sensory details. The essay could be a list-like description that provides point-by-point details. Or, it could function as a story, keeping the reader interested in the plot and theme of the event described.

o Writing that describes an object, person, or experienceo Its purpose is to create a sensory experienceo It makes use of the five senses and figurative languageo Provides details organized in a systematic fashiono Select details depending on physical or psychological point of view

Narrative – are told from a defined point of view, often the author's, so there is feeling as well as specific and often sensory details provided to get the reader involved in the elements and sequence of the story. The verbs are vivid and precise. The narrative essay makes a point and that point is often defined in the opening sentence, but can also be found as the last sentence in the opening paragraph.

o Writing that tells a storyo Organizes events into a beginning, middle, and endo Recreates actual experiences by rendering real events (non-fiction) into wordso Carefully selects details relevant to the essay's purpose and audienceo Implies meaning rather than stating it directlyo Tells what and where something happened, who was involved, and how and why

it took place

Argumentative – the function is to show that your assertion (opinion, theory, hypothesis) about some phenomenon or phenomena is correct or more truthful than others. Argumentative writing is the act of forming reasons, making inductions, drawing conclusions, and applying them to the

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case in discussion; the operation of inferring propositions, not known or admitted as true, from facts or principles known, admitted, or proved to be true. It clearly explains the process of your reasoning from the known or assumed to the unknown. Without doing this you do not have an argument, you have only an assertion, an essay that is just your unsubstantiated opinion. Notice that you do not have to completely prove your point; you only have to convince reasonable readers that your argument or position has merit.

Persuasive Essay – utilizes logic and reason to show that one idea is more legitimate than another idea. It attempts to persuade a reader to adopt a certain point of view or to take a particular action. The argument must always use sound reasoning and solid evidence by stating facts, giving logical reasons, using examples, and quoting experts.

o Argues a point using strictly evidenceo Appeals to the emotions to convince the reader to adopt a particular point of view

or take specific action

Elements of the Essay- see Literary terms for definitions

1. Subject2. Theme3. Purpose4. Audience5. Coherence6. Thesis statement7. Topic sentence8. Grammar9. Punctuation10. Sentence structure11. Paragraph structure

An essay has: A purpose A defined audience Specific structure & organization Unity & coherence Definite style Employs appropriate words for the audience & purpose Strong introduction Develops ideas orderly & uses supportive evidence Has a logical conclusion

Toneo Writer's attitude towards his subject and towards his audienceo Possible tones:

Formal Informal Intimate

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Personal Solemn Somber Playful Serious

Purposeo Differs from themeo Why the author wrote the pieceo Sets the tone of a piece of writingo Influences style of the essayo Inform, describe, define, explain, or entertain

Audienceo Determines what you say and how you say ito Factors which influence audience:

Age Attitude towards speaker/writer Familiarity with the subject/interest in the subject Prejudices Sex Ethnic or religious background

Coherence/Unity Style

o An individual manner of expressiono It is the result of choices a writer makes as to the following devices:

Diction (word choice) Imagery (appeals to senses) Sentence structure Figurative language (figures of speech such as simile, metaphor,

personification, apostrophe, symbolism, etc.) Rhythm/rhyme

Subjecto What the essay is about – the topic

Plano Order or arrangement of what the writer is writing to give the reader an

understanding of the subjecto Enables the reader to understand the essay and its purpose

Thesis statemento A sentence or two which gives the main idea of the essayo It should clearly state the main idea of your argumento Everything in your essay should relate to your thesis statemento Often placed near the beginning of your essay

Topic sentenceo Is to a paragraph what a thesis statement is to an essayo It tells what is to follow in the paragraph; its main ideao It is often places at the beginning of the paragraph but can occur elsewhereo It can sometimes be implied and omitted altogether

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Standard Essay Format

- Titleo Conveys the main point of the essay in ten words or fewero Attracts the reader’s attention

- Introductiono Begins with a sentence that attracts the reader’s attentiono Give background information on the topico Enhance the paragraph with an interesting example, surprising statistic, or other

“hook”o Includes a thesis statement (a statement which states the main idea of the essay)o May mention the main point of each of the body paragraphso 7 techniques/methods of introduction

Definition Relevant Fact Unusual Detail Question Personal experience Short narrative or example Direct statement of purpose or thesis statement

- Bodyo Usually three paragraphs in lengtho Each of the three paragraphs should include the following:

Begin with a topic sentence that states the main point of the paragraph and relates to the thesis statement. This creates coherence.

Fill with well organized examples, quotations, comparison, analogies, and/or narration and explanation.

o Important details: Unity Coherence

4 ways to establish coherence:o Transitional terms (words or phrases which help to achieve

a smooth carry-over within sentences, between sentences, and between paragraphs)

o Pronoun reference (the use of a pronoun in one sentence or clause to refer to a noun in a preceding sentence or clause)

o Repetition of a key word o Parallel structure (ideas presented in a series or list having

the same grammatical form [ie: I like swimming, running, and singing])

Full development of thoughts and opinions

- Conclusiono “echoes” the thesis statement without simply repeating it.o May pose a questions for future thought or suggest a course of actiono Include a detail or example from the introduction to “tie-up” the essay

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o 5 techniques/methods for concluding essays: Climax Call to action Summary Thesis restatement Closing by return

Appendix D – EVIDENCE

Evidence – details, facts or statistics to support statements of opinion or belief

Evidence comes from a variety of sources:a) Thinking and observingb) Discussingc) Reading and viewing

It has to relevant, up-to-date, accurate, and complete.

Two basic types of evidence: A fact is a statement that can be proven to be true An opinion is a statement which cannot be proven to be true

Some statements can be a combination of fact and opinion.

Specific Types of Evidence

1. Statistics – numerical facts2. Authorities – people who are considered experts in their field3. Brief narratives4. Description5. Examples6. Analogies – extended comparisons in which you compare the complex with the

simple, the abstract with the concrete, or the unfamiliar with the familiar

Counter arguments – be prepared to deal with them, attempt to discredit them to show your point of view has been carefully thought out.

Induction – is the process of reasoning whereby you evaluate a number of specific examples of evidence and from there draw a general conclusion.

Deduction – begins with an accepted general statement that is supported by specific illustrations and ends with a specific conclusion.

Errors in reasoning – a logical fallacy occurs when there is a breakdown or error in the reasoning process.

Sweeping generalization

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False analogy Mistaking the cause Ignoring the question Attacking the person not the argument Begging the question/circular reasoning Arguing from ignorance Misusing statistics

Appendix H – GRAMMAR

Antecedent – the noun that a pronoun refers back to in a sentence or closely related sentences.

Asyndeton. The omission of conjunctions that ordinarily join coordinate words and phrases. “See no evil, hear no evil, speak no evil.”

Complement. The part of the sentence that comes after a subject and verb and completes the thought.

Conjunction. A part of speech used to link words, phrases, and clauses. Coordinate conjunctions (and, but, or, nor) connect independent clauses. Subordinate conjunctions connect a subordinate clause to an independent clause, a complete thought.

Connective/Transition. A word or phrase that links ideas, sentences, or paragraphs together to create logical organization in writing---may be one word “also”, a phrase “ along with---,“ or a subordinate clause.

Cumulative Sentence. A sentence that starts with an independent clause, then adds on more and more with other explanatory phrases and/or subordinate clauses. Complete sentence is at the beginning---you can stop it at any place. The added phrases and clauses just add depth and explanation: The family to gather around the hearth, doing such chores as polishing shoes, mending ripped clothing, reading, chatting, always warmed by one another’s presence as much as by the flames.

Direct Object. Noun complement that comes after an action verb in an English sentence. He went home.

Epithet. An adjective or adjective phrase appropriately qualifying a subject (noun) by naming a key or important characteristic of the subject, as in "laughing happiness," "sneering contempt," "untroubled sleep," "peaceful dawn," and "life-giving water." Sometimes a metaphorical epithet will be good to use, as in "lazy road," "tired landscape," "smirking billboards," "anxious apple." Aptness and brilliant effectiveness are the key considerations in choosing epithets. Be fresh, seek striking images, pay attention to connotative value.

A transferred epithet is an adjective modifying a noun which it cannot logically modify, yet which works because the metaphorical meaning remains clear:

At length I heard a ragged noise and mirth of thieves and murderers. . . . --George Herbert

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Blind mouths! that scarce themselves know how to hold/ A sheep hook . . . --John Milton In an age of pressurized happiness, we sometimes grow insensitive to subtle joys.

The striking and unusual quality of the transferred epithet calls attention to it, and it can therefore be used to introduce emphatically an idea you plan to develop. The phrase will stay with the reader, so there is no need to repeat it, for that would make it too obviously rhetorical and even a little annoying. Thus, if you introduce the phrase, "diluted electricity," your subsequent development ought to return to more mundane synonyms, such as "low voltage," "brownouts," and so forth. It may be best to save your transferred epithet for a space near the conclusion of the discussion where it will be not only clearer (as a synonym for previously stated and clearly understandable terms) but more effective, as a kind of final, quintessential, and yet novel conceptualization of the issue. The reader will love it.

Appendix I - SENTENCES

Sentences: a group of words that express a complete thought. There are two parts to a sentence, subject and predicate.

Subject Predicate – word or words (noun or pronoun) that describe who or what a sentence is about; part of a sentence that describes what the subject is doing (verb or verb phrase). The verb in the sentence may be followed by an object that completes the verb’s meaning. There are two kinds of objects: direct objects and indirect objects and they are always a noun or pronoun. To determine if a verb has a direct object, isolate the verb and make it into a question by placing “whom?” or “what?” after it. The answer, if there is one, is the direct object. An indirect is the recipient of the direct object. To determine if a verb has an indirect object, isolate the verb and ask “to whom?,” “to what?,” “for whom?,” or “for what?,” after it. The answer is the indirect object.

1. Direct Object Eg: Her boss drives a fancy car.

(What does her boss drive? A fancy car.)

Eg: Her boss drives to work. Notice that the same verb takes a direct object in the first sentence (so it is a transitive verb) and doesn’t take a direct object in the second sentence (intransitive verb).

2. Indirect Object Eg: Her boss gave Mr. Allen a promotion.

The sentence also contains an indirect object.

Sentence Structures – there are four kinds of sentence structures. This has nothing to do with sentence length; rather these sentence structures are created by the use of transition words (or the lack of transition words).

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Simple – a complete sentence that does not use conjuctions or subordinators. Eg: “It is raining.”

Compound – formed when two complete sentences joined with a conjunction "and," "but," "or," "so," "yet," and "for."

Eg: “It stopped raining, or so I thought.”

Complex – formed when subordinators are used.

Eg: “As long as it’s raining, it doesn’t matter if it is cold.”

Compound-complex – formed when both a conjunction and a subordinator are used.

Eg: “Lightning flashed and the rain fell as Bob drove home from work.”

Sentence Types – there are four sentence types: declarative, exclamatory, interrogative, and imperative

Declarative sentences state an idea and end with a period.Eg: “Today marks the end of the quarter.”

Exclamatory sentences show strong emotion and end with an exclamation point.Eg: “Wait for me!”

Interrogative sentences ask a question and end with a question mark.Eg: “Where is the bathroom?”

Imperative sentences give orders or directions.Eg: “Be quiet! Extinguish your cigarette in the ashtray on the table.”

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Academic English Senior High Handbook

Prose UnitSt. Michael’s Regional High

School

Coherence Pages 1

Unity Pages 2-4

Emphatic Devices Pages 4

Essays & Essay Development Pages 7

Evidence Page 12-13

Grammar Pages 13

Sentences Page 14