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UNIT 3: SYNTAX

LESSON ONEWords, Phrases and Clauses

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What is syntax? Syntax is the study of the structure of

sentences.

Syntax analyzes how words combinetoform sentences.

Sentences are made up of smaller units,called phrases(which in turn are madeup of words).

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Why is syntax important? We speak in sentences not in words. To understand

the structure of a language it is necessary to study

the structure of sentences. If we learn to analyze the structure of sentences, we

will also learn to analyze their meaning.

The study of syntax is the study of the functionof

words, which is necessary to understand thestructure and the meaning of a language.

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The basic functions Subject:obligatory element; it specifies the entity about

which we will say something (the doer of the action, theentity described, etc.)

Object:obligatory element, it completes the meaning ofa word or sentence.

Subject or Object Complement:obligatory elementthat adds a description of the subject or the object. Thesefunction also receive the names of Attribute and

Predicative. Modifier: optional element; adds additional information

that specifies a noun

Adverbial: optional element; modifies a verb, adjectiveor adverb

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The structure of sentencesword word word word word word word word

phrase phrase phrase

phrase

clause

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What is a sentence?A sentence is basically a string of words that

follow the grammatical rules of a language.

A sentence expresses a complete thought

A sentence is made up of phrases. At thevery least a sentence contains a verb phrase

(also known as the predicate) and a subject. We will use the terms SENTENCEand

CLAUSEindistinctively.

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Types of sentences We can distinguish two types of sentences:

MAIN CLAUSES:they express complete thoughtsand are independent of other words or sentences.

SUBORDINATE CLAUSES:they are dependenton other words and help to complete or modify

the meaning of the complete sentence. Theycannot exist independently of the words theymodify or complete.

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What is a phrase?A phrase is a part of a sentence. It does not

express a complete thought.

A phrase is a group of words that function asa single unit. Usually they can be substitutedby a pronominal form.

All phrases have one word which is the

nucleus, the head. The head of a phrasedetermines the kind of phrase we have: NounPhrase, Adjective Phrase, Adverb Phrase,Prepositional Phrase or Verb Phrase.

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Noun phrases A Noun Phrase (NP) is a phrase that is made up of at

least one noun (or a pronoun). The noun is the head

of the NP. NPs usually function as:

Subjects: THE MANspoke loudly.

Objects: I metYOUR FRIENDyesterday.

Ill see you after THE CLASS. Subject Complements: She isA DOCTOR.

Adverbials:Anna got married LAST MONTH.

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Adjective phrasesAn Adjective Phrase (AP) is a phrase that is

made up of at least one adjective. The

adjective is the head of the NP.APs usually function as:

Modifiers: I saw a SMALLchild.

Subject Complements: She is not HAPPY. Object Complements: I consider Peter

STUPID.

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Adverb phrasesAn Adverb Phrase (AdvP) is a phrase that is

made up of at least one adverb. The adverb

is the head of the AdvP.AdvPs usually function as:

Adverbials:

Andy wasVERYlate.Sally works HARD.

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Prepositional phrases A Prepositional Phrase (PP) is a phrase that is made

up of at least one preposition usually followed by a

NP that functions as the object of the preposition.The preposition is the head of the PP.

PPs usually function as:

Adverbials:Anna got married IN JULY.

Objects: I put the book ON THE TABLE.I bought a ring FOR MY MOTHER.

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Kinds of VerbsVerbs can be classified in many different

ways. We will distinguish different types of

verbs according to the following aspects: according to the meaning and function: lexical,

linkingor auxiliary

according to the number of objects it requires:intransitive, transitiveor ditransitive

according to the form: finiteor non-finite

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Meaning and function Lexical verbs are main verbs that add the primary meaning. A

main clause must have one and only one lexical verb.

I READa novel.

Linking verbs are verbs that do not add much meaning. Theylink subjects and subject complements.

Peter BECAMEbored.

Auxiliary verbs are verbs that are used to help lexical orlinking verbs by adding grammatical information (aspect, tense,

modality). Auxiliary verbs do not add lexical meaning. Auxiliaryverbs need not be present in a main clause, but sometimesthere are more than one auxiliary verb in a single clause.

Andrew MAY HAVE BEENstudying too hard.

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The number of objects Intransitive verbs do not need any objects to complement

their meaning.

Peter had toRUN.

Transitive verbs need one object to complement theirmeaning. The object may be a Noun Phrase or a PrepositionalPhrase.

I readAN INTERESTING NEWPAPER ARTICLE.

Peter looks after HIS BROTHER.

Ditransitive verbs need two objects to complement theirmeaning. The objects may be two Noun Phrases or a NounPhrase and a Prepositional Phrase

I told MY SISTER A SECRET.

Pam gaveA PRESENT TO MY BROTHER.

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The form (I) All verbs have finite and non-finite forms.

Finite verbs are verbs that are inflected for tense, person andnumber. In a complex verb there can only be one finite form

and it is always at the beginning of the complex verb. A mainclause must contain a finite verb.

Sean COMESfrom Ireland.

Laura SHOULD stay home.

Non-finite verbs are verbs that are not inflected for tense,

person and number. In a complex verb there can be severalnon-finite forms. In a main clause the non-finite forms alwaysfollow a finite verb.

John has GONEto London.

Laura shouldSTAYhome.

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The form (II) The non-finite forms of verbs are:

The bare infinitive

go, come, speak

The to-infinitive

to go, to come, to speak

The past participle

gone, come, spoken

Theing form

going, coming, speaking

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Lexical Verbs Lexical verbs can be divided into two major

groups:

Dynamic verbs are verbs that indicateactions, activities, events that have abeginning, a middle and an end

go, come, speak, eat, give, paint,

Stative verbs are verbs that do not indicateactions, but states of being. They usuallyindicate Perception:see, taste, smell, hear

Cognition:understand, know, think

Possession:own, have

Mental states:hate, like, need

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Dynamic vs.Stative Verbs Dynamic verbs can appear in the

progressive. Stative verbs cannot.

I am reading a book*I am needing a favor.

Linking verbs are always stative.

Some verbs may be used, with a

different meaning as dynamic or stativeverbs.

I can see someone right now. (stative)

I am seeing someone right now. (dynamic)