01 Basic Concepts in Archaeology

8/2/2019 01 Basic Concepts in Archaeology

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Basic Concepts inBasic Concepts in

ArchaeologyArchaeology


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AnthropologyAnthropology

The Study of HumankindThe Study of Humankind


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CULTURECULTURE

Culture is that complex whole whichCulture is that complex whole which

includes knowledge, belief, art,includes knowledge, belief, art,

morals, law, custom, and any othermorals, law, custom, and any other

capabilities and habits acquired bycapabilities and habits acquired by

manman [humans][humans] as a member ofas a member of

societysociety

-Edward Tylor (1871)-Edward Tylor (1871)


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4 Fields of Anthropology4 Fields of Anthropology

Cultural AnthropologyCultural Anthropology EthnographyEthnography Applied AnthropologyApplied Anthropology

Biological (Physical) AnthropologyBiological (Physical) Anthropology PrimatologyPrimatology Evolution; Human BiologyEvolution; Human Biology Osteology, Population StudiesOsteology, Population Studies

Linguistic AnthropologyLinguistic Anthropology



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Archaeologists: The MythArchaeologists: The Myth


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Archaeologists: TheArchaeologists: The

RealityReality

Median Salary by Years Experience

Job: Archaeologist


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the study of the past usingthe study of the past using

material remainsmaterial remains Tells us how humans, overTells us how humans, overthousandsthousands of years, haveof years, haveadaptedadapted

Allows us to better see ourAllows us to better see ourplace in the diversity ofplace in the diversity ofhuman societieshuman societies

Humans have always beenHumans have always beeninterested in their pastinterested in their pastand where they cameand where they camefrom.from. Roots of humanityRoots of humanity Justification in (pre-)historyJustification in (pre-)history Learn from pastLearn from past

experiencesexperiences The Roots of ArchaeologyThe Roots of Archaeology

can be found in:can be found in: Anti uarianism


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AntiquarianismAntiquarianismRomanticism, and the growth of publicRomanticism, and the growth of public

museumsmuseums

Charles Townley with hiscollection of Greek

antiquities.

London, 18th Century.


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1919thth Century EvolutionismCentury Evolutionism

1830:1830: Principles of GeologyPrinciples of Geology Author: Sir Charles Lyell (1797-Author: Sir Charles Lyell (1797-1875)1875)

Key concepts: uniformitarianism,Key concepts: uniformitarianism,stratigraphy, an ancient earthstratigraphy, an ancient earth

1856:1856: On the Origin of SpeciesOn the Origin of Species Author: Charles Darwin (1809-Author: Charles Darwin (1809-

1882)1882) Key concepts: variation, naturalKey concepts: variation, natural

selectionselection

Identification of human-made stoneIdentification of human-made stonetools found associated with extincttools found associated with extinctspecies (Mammoths, Woolly Rhinos)species (Mammoths, Woolly Rhinos)

Discovery of the first fossil hominidDiscovery of the first fossil hominid(Neander Valley, Germany)(Neander Valley, Germany)


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1919thth Century Evolution of GeologicalCentury Evolution of Geological

PrinciplesPrinciples

Principle ofSuperposition

Materials at thebottom of a

stratigraphic columnwill be older than thoseat the top

Principle ofAssociation

Materials found in aparticular layer shouldrelate to the sametime period

Principle of IndexFossils Similar


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Domains of ArchaeologicalDomains of Archaeological

InterpretationInterpretation DescriptionDescription

ReconstructioReconstructio

nn

CultureCulture

HistoryHistory

ExplanationExplanation


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1. Description1. Description

Descriptions documentDescriptions documentattributes & associationsattributes & associations

Descriptions are not value-Descriptions are not value-

freefree

Descriptions are strongly tiedDescriptions are strongly tied

to:to:

ExperimentationExperimentation Ethnographic AnalogyEthnographic Analogy

Clovis spear: Fluted lanceolate point

with parallel or slightly concave sides

and concave base. Grinding of the

base and lateral edges for hafting is

apparent. The flutes extend no

longer than one-half the maximum

length


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ExperimentationExperimentation

Replicates ancientReplicates ancienttechnologiestechnologies

Examines the effects ofExamines the effects of

site formation processessite formation processes

ExperimentalExperimentalArchaeologyArchaeology

Experimentally made and hafted Clovis

spear


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Ethnographic Analogy:Ethnographic Analogy:Use of a living culture to formUse of a living culture to form

models to test interpretations ofmodels to test interpretations of

archaeological remains.archaeological remains.Their skill at fishing astonishes

those who are not accustomed tothis kind of fishing. They use a

pole eighteen to twenty feetlong, at the end of which there isa dart made of a flat and sharplypointed bone with teeth to thetop. This dart is pierced andattached with a small cord to the

pole in which it fits. When asavage spears a fish in eight toten fathoms of water this dartleaves the pole and remainsattached by the teeth to the

body of the fish, which he thendraws to him.

Antler harpoons, Mound City

site, Ohio ca. A.D. 1000


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2. Reconstruction2. Reconstruction

General statementGeneral statementabout the lifestyle of aabout the lifestyle of a

society in the past.society in the past.

Similar to theSimilar to theethnographyethnography of theof the

cultural anthropologistcultural anthropologist Study of human culturesStudy of human cultures

through first-handthrough first-hand

observationobservation

Focus is on technology,Focus is on technology,

economy, socialeconomy, social

organization, &organization, &Clovis kill site, Kimmswick,

Missouri, ca. 11,300 B.P.


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Reconstruction of AncientReconstruction of Ancient

LifewaysLifeways TechnologyTechnology

Technology is theTechnology is the

manner in whichmanner in which

people convertpeople convert

natural resourcesnatural resourcesinto products theyinto products they

need or want.need or want.

EconomyEconomy Economy is a broadEconomy is a broad

topic that involvestopic that involves

how people obtainhow people obtain

foods, materials, andfoods, materials, and

goods to sustaingoods to sustain

their lives.their lives.


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Reconstruction of AncientReconstruction of Ancient

LifewaysLifeways SocialSocial

OrganizationOrganization Organization refersOrganization refers

to the roles andto the roles andrelationships inrelationships insociety on a varietysociety on a varietyof levels.of levels.

IdeologyIdeology Ideology refers toIdeology refers to

the means by whichthe means by whichpeople structurepeople structuretheir ideas about thetheir ideas about theuniverse, their placeuniverse, their placein that universe, andin that universe, and

their relationshipstheir relationshipswith one another.with one another.

u ure s oryu u


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. u ure s ory. u uRegional sequence developed byRegional sequence developed by

arranging individual reconstructionsarranging individual reconstructions

in chronological orderin chronological order PhasesPhases ororperiodsperiods MarkMark

continuities incontinuities inlifestyle withinlifestyle within

regionsregions Bring order toBring order to

the recordthe record

Reveal times ofReveal times ofcontinuity orcontinuity orchangechange

A major goal ofA major goal ofarchaeologyarchaeology

Regional sequences for three Midwestern drainages,

USA (Seeman 1992).


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4. Explanation4. ExplanationA set of related propositions that strive toA set of related propositions that strive to

understandunderstandWHYWHYevents occurred throughevents occurred through

the course of timethe course of time

Provide high-order linkagesProvide high-order linkages

Allow ways to interpret the BIG PICTUREAllow ways to interpret the BIG PICTURE: Theory Building: Theory Building

Examples:Examples:

Cultural ecology, agency theory,Cultural ecology, agency theory,

processual archaeology, postprocessualprocessual archaeology, postprocessual

archaeology, etc.archaeology, etc.


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Archaeology Uses the ScientificArchaeology Uses the Scientific

MethodMethod

Define ProblemDefine Problem

EstablishEstablish

HypothesisHypothesis

Collect DataCollect Data

Test HypothesisTest Hypothesis

Against DataAgainst Data EvaluateEvaluate

Hypothesis:Hypothesis:

reject, revisereject, revise


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Two Fundamental Techniques AreTwo Fundamental Techniques Are

Used to Collect Data inUsed to Collect Data in


SurveySurvey

ExcavationExcavation


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Archaeological Information, TwoArchaeological Information, Two

Main Techniques Are Used:Main Techniques Are Used:

Survey and ExcavationSurvey and Excavation SurveySurvey::A systematic searchA systematic searchof the landscape for artifactsof the landscape for artifactsand sites.and sites.

Provide information on siteProvide information on sitelocation, size & conditionlocation, size & condition

Methods include walking, aerialMethods include walking, aerialphotos & geophysical remotephotos & geophysical remotesensingsensing

Minimal investment in eachMinimal investment in eachsite; mapping & notes aresite; mapping & notes arecriticalcritical

Data can be used to selectData can be used to selectsites for excavation and assites for excavation and as

important information inimportant information intheir own righttheir own right

E tiE ti


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the exposure and recording ofthe exposure and recording of

buried materials from the pastburied materials from the past AA research problemresearch problem guide theguide the

investigationinvestigation

AA datum pointdatum pointandand site gridsite gridcontrol the excavationcontrol the excavation

The characteristics of the siteThe characteristics of the siteitself can also affectitself can also affect

excavation strategiesexcavation strategies

The best excavations involve:The best excavations involve: Multiple, staged approaches &Multiple, staged approaches &

a diverse team of specialistsa diverse team of specialists


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Horizontal or Area ExcavationHorizontal or Area Excavation

Santa Elena site (1564-1587), Parris

Island Marine base, South Carolina

Large, singleLarge, singleoccupationoccupation

sites are bestsites are best

approachedapproached

withwithhorizontalhorizontaloror areaareaexcavations.excavations.(Houses or(Houses orcommunities)communities)


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Vertical ExcavationVertical Excavation

Koster site, Illinois

macro-block area

19 cultural components

(7000-1000 B.C.)

DeepDeep stratified,stratified,

multiple componentmultiple componentsites are bestsites are best

approached withapproached withverticalvertical excavationsexcavations

Test pits orTest pits or

trenches are usedtrenches are used

to revealto reveal

stratigraphystratigraphy andandhow materialshow materials

accumulatedaccumulated

E.g., rock sheltersE.g., rock shelters

& caves, shell& caves, shell


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ContextContext

Requires TheRequires The

Documentation OfDocumentation OfIn SituIn Situ & Spatial& Spatial

RelationshipsRelationships


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Survey & Excavations yield:Survey & Excavations yield:

ArtifactsArtifacts Object created or modified byObject created or modified by

humanshumans Artifacts occur in association withArtifacts occur in association with

one anotherone another Associations carry time, space,Associations carry time, space,

functional & social implicationsfunctional & social implications Documenting associations requiresDocumenting associations requires

great caregreat care

EcofactsEcofacts Unmodified materials that resultUnmodified materials that result

from human activityfrom human activity Can provide important informationCan provide important information

on subsistence, health,on subsistence, health,environment and site formationenvironment and site formation

Example: animal bones resultingExample: animal bones resultingfrom butchery or cookingfrom butchery or cooking

Bone fragments,

domesticated

sheep and pig

straight pins & ball

buttons, Santa

Elena site, South

Carolina (ca. 1566A.D.).


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Artifacts Must Be Cleaned, Catalogued,Artifacts Must Be Cleaned, Catalogued,

Classified, Analyzed & CuratedClassified, Analyzed & Curated

Curation of ceramics,

Museum of the AmericanIndian

Reconstruction of 17th

Century ceramics, Lost

Towns Project, Maryland


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Archaeology ofArchaeology ofXuenkal, Yucatan,Xuenkal, Yucatan,

MexicoMexico


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Research


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ResearchQuestion


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MethodologyMethodology

Background ResearchBackground Research ArchivalArchival

Remote SensingRemote Sensing

Survey and ReconnaissanceSurvey and Reconnaissance

Surface CollectionsSurface Collections



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Satellite Imagery


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SurveySurvey


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MappingMapping


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Surface CollectingSurface Collecting


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Test ExcavationTest Excavation


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Horizontal ExcavationHorizontal Excavation


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DataData

ArtifactsArtifacts Any object or item created or modified byAny object or item created or modified by

human action.human action.

EcofactsEcofacts Any of the remains of plants, animals,Any of the remains of plants, animals,

sediments, or other unmodified materials thatsediments, or other unmodified materials thatresult from human activity.result from human activity.

FeaturesFeatures An immovable structure or layer, pit, or post inAn immovable structure or layer, pit, or post in

the ground having archaeological significance.the ground having archaeological significance.

Sites and SettlementsSites and Settlements Places where people lived or carried outPlaces where people lived or carried out

activities (a concentration of artifacts, ecofacts,activities (a concentration of artifacts, ecofacts,


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ArtifactsArtifacts


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EcofactsEcofacts


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FeaturesFeatures


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Sites and SettlementSites and Settlement


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Scientific MethodScientific Method

Define ProblemDefine Problem

Establish HypothesisEstablish Hypothesis

Collect DataCollect DataTest Hypothesis Against DataTest Hypothesis Against Data

Evaluate Hypothesis: reject,Evaluate Hypothesis: reject,

reviserevise


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CONCLUSIONSCONCLUSIONS

ArchaeologyArchaeology isis AnthropologyAnthropology

Archaeologists reconstruct cultureArchaeologists reconstruct culture

from past remainsfrom past remains

Archaeology draws from a wideArchaeology draws from a wide

range of disciplinesrange of disciplines

Research-Driven: Scientific MethodResearch-Driven: Scientific Method

Methodology depends on questionsMethodology depends on questions

askedasked

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01 Basic Concepts in Archaeology