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PUBLIC POLICY FORMULATION
A policy is typically described as a principle or rule to guide decisions and
achieve rational outcome(s). The term is not normally used to denote what is
actually done; this is normally referred to as either procedure or protocol.Whereas a policy will contain the 'what' and the 'why', procedures or
protocols contain the 'what', the 'how', the 'where', and the 'when'. Policies
are generally adopted by the Board of or senior governance body within an
organization where as procedures or protocols would be developed and
adopted by senior executive officers.
This study analyzes the manner in which social science analysis is
developed and utilized by legislators and policy makers to formulatesocial policy. The initial charge for this study was to determine whether
information about social and economic behavior was more likely to be used
in policy development if it was developed from a classical experimental
as distinct from a quasi-experimental method of analysis.
Based on the way policy makers behave, this charge proved to be too narrow
a focus. While it is certainly true that data on behavior derived from properly
designed social experiments are more believable and do allow unambiguous
assertions of cause and effect, it requires more than random assignment to a
treatment and control group to make experimental data usable and reliable.
In this paper, we will define the policy formulation on poverty alleviation in
Indonesia. As we know, the number of poor people in Indonesia is increasing
in the past few years, and this problem, in fact, is happened due to some
policy formulation which ignored the safety and prosperity of people in this
country.
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Table of Contents
PUBLIC POLICY FORMULATION................................................................1
Table of Contents...................................................................................2
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION......................................................................4
Background.............................................................................................................4
CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW.............................................................8
2.1. Policy................................................................................................................8
2.2. Policy Formulation..........................................................................................11
2.2.1 Actors in Policy Formulation......................................................................11
2.2.2. Model in Policy Formulation.....................................................................12
CHAPTER III PROGRAM DESCRIPTION.....................................................15
3.1. What are KDP and UPP?.................................................................................15
3.2. Implementation Form and Pattern.................................................................16
3.3.Learning Process and Capacity Improvement.................................................17
3.4.Support from Millennium Declaration..............................................................18
3.5. Vision, Mission and Object of The Program....................................................19
3.5.1. Vision of KDP and UPP..............................................................................19
3.5.2. Mission of KDP and UPP............................................................................19
3.6. Programs Objective.......................................................................................20
3.7. Decision Formulation Process in KDP and UPP...............................................22
3.7.1. Inter-Village Socialization and Deliberation (MAD Socialition)..................22
3.7.2. Socialization Village Deliberation (Musdes Sosialisasi).............................23
3.7.3. Idea Probing Deliberation.........................................................................23
3.7.4. Female Special Deliberation (MKP)...........................................................23
3.7.5. Planning Village Deliberation...................................................................23
3.7.6. Proposal Verification................................................................................23
3.7.7. Priority Inter-Village Deliberation (MAD Prioritas Usulan).........................243.7.8. Funding Inter-Village Deliberation (MAD Penetapan Usulan)...................24
REFERENCES
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Background
Indonesia was once known as one of the Asian Tiger1 in economic field before
financial crisis hurricane came in 1998. The Indonesias GNP reaches
approximately $ 1,000 and between 1965 and 1990 the economic growth
average was 5.5%. Unfortunately, because the planning in the new order was
based on the economic growth that was influenced by Trickle Down Effect
Theorywithout strengthening the economic foundation. As a result, when the
global financial crisis arose, Indonesias economic collapsed.
It can be analyzed that by apllying such model, government depended
on capital and loan from abroad that when the capital was withdrawn, we
cannot do anything. Many banks were liquidated whereas some factories
were closed down while the others were transferred abroad. These
conditions led to the increasing number of unemployed and poor people.
Base on World Bank report (2006), there are five factors that can be
considered as having relations with poverty. These factors include education,
job, gender, access to basic service and infrastructure, and geographic
situations.
1 Asian Tigers are called to the eight best performers -- Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan, Korea, China,Malaysia, Thailand, and Indonesia -- grew at an average of over 5.5% per year in per capita termsbetween 1965 and 1990. See Steven Radelet, Jeffrey Sachs, and Jong-Wha Lee.1997.Paper:EconomicGrowth in Asia. http://www.cid.harvard.edu/hiid/609.pdf
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A study conducted by Suryahadi et.al (2006) indicated that during the period
of 1984 until 2002, farming sector, whether in rural or urban area, is the
main cause of poverty. Moreover, the study also pointed out that farming
sector has contributed more than 50 percent of the total poverty number
and this is very contradictive when compared with service and idustry
sectors. The high level of poverty in farming sector has consequently caused
poverty rate increase to those who work as farmers than to those who work
in other sectors.
Gender; In Indonesia, there is gender dimension of poverty in which
from some poverty indicators like illiteracy, number of unemploymnet, and
informal workers. Women acquire more unfavorable positions than men (ILO
2004). Furthermore, People Development Report 2004 showed that the
figure in Human Development Index was higher than Gender-related
Development Index (GDI) and Gender Empowerment Measurement (GEM)
(MDGs Report, 2005). The fact that HDI was higher than the two gender
measurements showed that in general there is gender gap followed by the
low level of participation and opportunity for women in politic, economy, and
decision making processes. This MDGs report also points out that in GDI
achievement, Indonesia remains in 90th and is still left behind compared
with some ASEAN countries.
Access to basic services and infrastructure; A good infrastructure
system will directly and indirectly improve the poor peoples income through
the better provisions of health services, education, transportation,
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telecommunication, energy access, water and sanitation (Sida: 1996). A
study conducted by World Bank (2006) indicated that infrastructure
improvement in villages are not good. This study also stated that
infrastructure in villages needs more attention because only 48 percent of
poor people in villages can get access to clean water compared to 78
percent of poor people in city who can get the access.
Geographical location; Geographic position correlates with poverty
for two factors; Firstly, natural condition in which there is potency in soil
fertility and natural resources. Secondly, development equality, either to
thos which has relationship with rural and urban development, or inter-
provincial development. In some provinces especially in eastern area of
Indonesia, the development is still left behind compared to the development
in Java. According to a data in 2004, people who live in Papua tend to have
poor probability four times bigger than those who live in rich natural
resources region like Kalimantan (World Bank 2006). Furthermore, non-
income dimension like low achievement in education and provision of basic
service access in several areas especially in eastern Indonesia clarifies the
gap based on geographic location.
Regarding to the explanation above, the writers conclude that if
Indonesia government want to overcome the poverty, it should consider to
the factor of poverty. Today, government has the most popular program that
adopting the concept Community-Driven Development (CDD)3. They are
3 Ke Fang, Designing and Implementing a Community-Driven Development Programe inIndonesia in Development in Practice, Vol. 16, Number 1, February 2006: RoutledgePublishing. P.1
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Kecamatan Development Program (KDP) and Urban Poverty Program (UPP).
Through these programs, government and all of the stakeholders hope,
Indonesia can improve the quality life of majority people particularly in
poverty alleviation.
In this paper, the writers are interested to analyze the policy
formulation process of Kecamatan Development Program (KDP) and Urban
Poverty Program (UPP). The question that we propose: what are the process
reflecting the people needs, problem, and involving the stake holder?
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Policy
Anderson4 said that policy is a purposive course of action followed by an
actor or set of actors in dealing with a problem or matter of concern. This
concept of policy focuses attention on what is actually done as against what
is proposed or intended, and it differentiates a policy from decision, which is
a choice among competing alternatives. As a result public policies are
policies that are developed by governmental bodies and officials.
In public policy process, there are five steps and in each steps there
are some key question that must be answered to understand what the
activities in each steps are as follows:
4 James E. Anderson,1979, Public-Policy Making, Second Edition, Holt, Rinehart andWinston.p.3
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1. Problem identification, what is a policy problem? What makes it a public
problem? How does it get on the agenda of government?
2. Formulation: how is policy alternatives for dealing with the problem
develop? Who participates in policy formulation?
3. Adoption: How is policy alternative adopted or enacted? What
requirements must be met? Who adopts policy? What processes are
used? What is the content of the adopted policy?
4. Implementation: Who are involved? What is done, if anything, to carry a
policy into effect? What impact does this have on policy content?
5. Evaluation: How is the effectiveness or impact of a policy measured? Who
evaluates policy? What are the consequences of policy evaluation? Are
there demands for change or repeal?5
Meanwhile, Lester and Steward explained there are six stages of policy
process, as follows:
1. Agenda setting
Agenda setting is describe as a set of political concerns meriting the
attention pf the polity, and it included both systemic agendas and
institutional agendas.
2. Policy Formulation
Policy formulation or policy adoption usually defined as the passage of
legislation designed to remedy some past problem or prevent some future
public policy problem. Originally, policy formulation was explained in
5 Ibid, p.24
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terms of an elitist or pluralist model. More recently, however, policy
formulation is viewed as the result of multitude of forces that affect policy
outputs, such as historical/geographic condition, socioeconomic
conditions, mass political behavior (including public opinion, interest
groups, and political parties), governmental institutions (including
legislature, courts, and the bureaucracy), as well as elite perceptions and
behavior.
3. Policy Implementation
It has been described as what happens after a bill becomes law. Simply
enacting legislation is no guarantee that action will be taken to put the
law into effect or that the problem will be solved. Law must be translated
into specific guidelines therefore the federal, state, or local bureaucracy
can see to it that the intent of the legislation is achieved at the point
where the policy is to be delivered. The implementation process can be
defined as a series of governmental decisions and actions directed toward
putting an already decided mandate into effect.
4. Policy Evaluation
Policy evaluation is concerned with what happens as a result of the public
policy, that is, what happens after a policy is implemented. It is concerned
with the actual impacts of legislation or the extent to which with the
policy actually achieves its intended result.
5. Policy Change
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budgetary power of legislature to affect the state budget. These policy
solutions can be in the form of congressional legislation, executive orders,
judicial decisions, or others forms of policy outputs7.
2.2.1 Actors in Policy Formulation
In the policy formulation, many actors are involved. Lester and Stewart8
explained that many actors are involved:
a. Governmental Agencies
Government agencies are the government institution (bureaucracy), the
duty of them is to provide information to congress and executive branch
that later becomes the basis for legislation.
b. The Presidency
The president and/or executive offices are often involved in the policy
formulation. Such involvement includes presidential commission, task
forces, interagency committees, and other arrangements.
c. Congress
Congress is the institution that is most commonly associated with policy
formulation, either through the development of new legislation or through
the oversight and legislative review.
d. Interest Groups
7 Ibidp. 878 Ibid. p. 88-90
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Interest groups are extremely important in the process of policy
formulation, essentially in the pluralism model. In this model public policy
is shaped by bargaining, negotiation, and compromise among interest
groups and other components.
2.2.2. Model in Policy Formulation
In USA, and followed by many countries, there are three models in analyzing
policy formulation process9.
a. Rational-Comprehensive Model
This model based on the assumption that individuals make decisions on
the basis of a rational calculation cost and benefits. It includes the
following component:
1). The decision maker is confronted with a given problem that can be
separated from other problems;
2).The goals, values, or objectives that guide decision maker are clarified
and ranked according to the their importance;
3).A complete set of alternative policies for dealing with the problem are
prepared;
4).The consequences (costs and benefits, advantages and disadvantages)
that would follow from selection of each alternative are investigated;
5). Each alternative and its consequences, can be calculated and
compared with the other alternative;
9 Ibid, p. 89-96.
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6). The decision maker chooses that alternative that maximizes the
attainment of his or her goals, values, or objective.
b. The Incremental Model
The key components of the incremental model are:
1). The selection of goals or objectives and the empirical analysis of the
action needed to attain them are closely intertwined with, rather than
distinct from, one another;
2). The decision maker considers only some of the for dealing with a
problem, which will differ only incrementally for existing policies;
3). For each alternative, only a limited number of important consequences
are evaluated;
4). The problem confronting the decision maker is continually redefined;
5). There is no single best solution for a problem;
6). Incremental decision making is essentially remedial and is geared
more to the amelioration of presents, concrete social imperfections
than the promotion of future social goals.
c. The System Model
The system model, originally developed by biologist and then applied to
the study of politics by David Easton, suggest that public policy
formulation is initially affected by demands for new policies or support for
the existing policy.
This model propose that inputs (demands and supports) are converted by
the process of the political system (legislatures, the courts, etc) into
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outputs (policies or decision), and these in turn have consequences both
for the system and for environment in which the system exist. Demands
may be internal to the system (e.g., political parties or interest groups) or
external to the system (e.g., ecology, the economy, culture, and
demography). Support includes action that help the system operate and
help to sustain it. Support is derived from: the political community, the
regime or rules of the game, and the government itself.
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CHAPTER III
PROGRAM DESCRIPTION
3.1. What are KDP and UPP?
Kecamatan Development Program (KDP) and Urban Poverty Program (UPP)
are the programs which adopt the concept of Community Driven
Development (CDD). KDP and UPP are community empowerment based
national programs on poverty prevention. It is implemented through the
harmonization and development system, as well as mechanism and
procedure of program, provision of assistance and stimulant funds to support
the communitys initiatives and innovation in the sustainable poverty
prevention program. The community empowerment is intended to create and
increase the community capacity, both individually and in group, in solving
many problems relating to the effort to increase life quality, independency,
and welfare.
Community empowerment requires significant involvement of the
regional governments instrument as well as many parties to provide
opportunity and secure the continuity of many results already attained. The
goals to attain in the program are: First, to increase the poors welfare and
job opportunity independently; Second, to increase participation of all
community, including the poor, female group, hinterland traditional
community and other susceptible and frequently marginalized community
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groups into the decision making process and the development management;
Third, to increase the rooted, representative and accountable community
institution capacity; Fourth, to increase the governments capacity in
providing service to the community, especially for the poor, through propoor
policy, program and budgeting. Fifth, to increase the synergy of the
community, regional government, private, association, university, non
government organization, community organization and other care groups in
order to make effective the poverty prevention programs; Sixth, to increase
the existence and independence of the community as well as regional
government capacity and local care group in preventing poverty in their
region; Seventh, to increase the social capital of the community
development in accordance with the social and cultural potential as well as
to preserve the local wisdom; Eighth, to increase innovation and utilization of
effective technology, information and communication in the community
empowerment.
3.2. Implementation Form and Pattern
In the implementation of this community based program, the district
becomes the focus of program and harmonizes the program planning,
implementation and control, then providing position to the community as
policy determinant or maker as well as the main agent of the development in
local level. In this context, the program always gives priority to the universal
values and local culture in the participatory development process as well as
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using community empowerment approach according to the local social,
culture and geographical characteristics.
The scope of KDP and UPP are basically open for all poverty prevention
programs proposed and agreed upon by the community, covering provision
and repair of dwelling area, social, and economic infrastructure/facilities on
labor intensive basis and provision of financing source through funding and
micro-credit to develop the poor economic activities. The greater attention is
paid to the female group to utilize the revolving funds as well as other
activities relating to the improvement in the human resources quality,
especially intending to accelerate the attainment of MDGs target. The scope
of this activity covers the efforts to increase the communitys and local
governments capacity through making critical awareness, training on
business skill, organization and finance management as well as application
of good governance.
3.3.Learning Process and Capacity Improvement
To support the series of activities currently conducted, the fund is made
available to support the community learning, volunteer development and
community assistance operational activities as well as for facilitator, capacity
development, mediation and advocacy. The role of Facilitator is especially
crucial in early stage of empowerment, while the community volunteer is
especially as the motor of community movement in their region. The
component of Direct Community Aid (BLM) is as the stimulant fund of self
support, provided for the community group to finance part of activities
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planned by the community, and to increase the communitys welfare,
especially the poor.
The increase in capacity of local government and actors is the series of
activities carried out to increase the capacity of regional government and
local actors /other care group, in order to be able to create conducive
condition as well as positive synergy for the community (especially the poor
group) in undergoing their life prosperously. The activities relating to this
component are among others seminar, training, workshop, field visit
conducted selectively. Program management and development aid, cover
the activities to support government and many other care groups in the
activities management; that it include provision of management consultant,
quality control, program evaluation and development.
3.4.Support from Millennium Declaration
In international and global context, KDP and UPP are also directed to support
the target already formulated and determined in the Millennium declaration.
The Declaration signed in New York, on September 2000 in Millennium
Summit momentum, attended by 189 countries being the member of United
Nations; where 147 countries were represented directly by the State Head or
Government Head. The Millennium Declaration covered the problems
relating to the peace, security development, including therein environment
protection to the weak groups, human right and governance that was then
developed to become the objective of development correlated to each other
as global agenda that is known as Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).
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There are eight objectives/targets of development to attain during this
Third Millennium covering:
(1) Eradicate Extreme Poverty and Hunger,
(2) Achieve Universal Basic Education,
(3) Promote Gender Equality and Empower Women,
(4) Reduce Child Mortality,
(5) Improve Maternal Health,
(6) Combat HIV/AIDS, Malaria and Other Diseases,
(7) Ensure Environmental Sustainability,
(8) Develop Global Partnership for Development.
The seven of first range of MGDs above have been translated into
target with measurable attainment and the result can be used as
standarization as well as international comparison. The development target
outlined in MDG not only merely serve as goal that must be attained by the
central government of each country, but also must serve as the development
goals for all stakeholders including Regional Government, Parliament, civil
society, mass media and others stakeholders.
3.5. Vision, Mission and Object of The Program
3.5.1. Vision of KDP and UPP
The long-term vision developed in KDP and UPP, are to attain the poor
prosperity and independency in rural areas. Prosperity is defined as
fulfillment the communitys basic need and independency is defined as the
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capability to organize themselves in mobilizing the resources in their
environment, the capability to access the resources available outside their
environment and finally manage all resources to settle the existing poverty
problems.
3.5.2. Mission of KDP and UPP
Mission of KDP and UPP, in timephase of 5 (five) to 6 (six) years to come, are
to assist and facilitate the programs as follow:
(a) Developing the communitys capacity/capability and communitys
institutions therein.
(b) Institutionalization of participatory development system.
(c) Strengthening the role and function of Regional Government.
(d) Increasing the communitys socialeconomy made basic infrastructure.
(e) Expanding the work network for development partnership.
The Mission above constitute the translation of the vision already
outlined by KDP and UPP areas within certain time limit from period of 5 6
years, until 2015, and expectedly able to be realized consistently and
gradually within such period. This Mission can be viewed and reevaluated
within period of maximum 2 to 3 years, as well as may be subjected to
change or revision if the environmental condition supports or desires the
same due to no longer relevant to the development and dynamic occurring.
3.6. Programs Objective
The general objective of KDP and UPP are to increase the welfare and job
opportunity for the poor in the rural areas through the enforcement of
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community independency in decision making and development
management. The specific goal of KDP and UPP covers:
Increasing the communitys participation especially the pure group and
female in planning decision making process implementation,
monitoring and maintenance of development result.
Institutionalizing participatory development of the management, by
utilizing available local resources.
Encouraging regional government capacity in facilitating development
management.
Dividing socio and economic basic infrastructures by constituting the
higher priority according to the community decision.
Institutionalizing revolve fund management.
Supporting/promoting intervillages cooperation.
Developing cooperation among stakeholder, relating to prevention of
poverty in rural area.
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3.7. Decision Formulation Process in KDP and UPP
3.7.1. Inter-Village Socialization and Deliberation (MAD Socialition)
Inter-Village Socialization and Deliberation is an inter-village meeting for
early socialization about the objectives, principles, policies, procedures and
other matters relating to the KDP and UPP as well as to determine the
agreements between villages in how to carry out the KDP and UPP.
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ocialization Inter-Village Deliberation
Priority Inter-Village Deliberation
Funding Inter-Village Deliberation
Socialization Village Deliberation
Planning Village Deliberation
Female Special Village Deliberation
Idea Probing Village Deliberation
Designing and Budgeting Proposal
Result Information Village Deliberation
Program/Project Implementation
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3.7.2. Socialization Village Deliberation (Musdes Sosialisasi)
Socialization Village Deliberation is a village community meeting as a venue
for dissemination of information, the KDP and UPP in the village.
3.7.3. Idea Probing Deliberation
Idea Probing Deliberation is a meeting among groups in the village
(Dusun/RW) to find the ideas fit the needs of the community, especially Poor
Households. The ideas presented by the community not just the idea of the
proposed activities in order to obtain funds KDP and UPP, but such ideas in
terms of direct poverty reduction.
3.7.4. Female Special Deliberation (MKP)
Special Female Deliberation attended by women and carried out in order to
discuss the ideas of women's groups and set the proposed activities that are
needed by the village.
3.7.5. Planning Village Deliberation
Planning Village Deliberation is a community meeting in the village that aims
to discuss the whole idea of projects, results of the probing process ideas
among groups.
3.7.6. Proposal Verification
Proposal Verification is a step that aims to examine and assess the
feasibility of the project proposal of each village to be funded KDP and UPP.
Verification of project proposal carried out by the Verification Team
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established in districts with a member of at least 5 people who have
appropriate expertise of project proposal.
3.7.7. Priority Inter-Village Deliberation (MAD Prioritas Usulan)
Inter-Village Deliberation priority is a meeting in the district that aims to
discuss and rank the project proposals. Ranking is based on eligibility criteria
as those used by the Verification Team in assessing the project proposals.
3.7.8. Funding Inter-Village Deliberation (MAD Penetapan Usulan)
Funding Inter-Village Deliberation is a meeting to make decisions on the
proposals to be funded through the KDP and UPP. Funding decisions should
be based on the ranking of proposals being made at the time of MAD Priority.
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financial crisis came to Indonesia the number of poverty increased
dramatically up to 80 million and income per capita slightly decrease
significantly beyond U.S. $ 1,000 until $ 250. It led Indonesia as poor country
under Bangladeshposition. If observed by location, the largest poor
population living in rural areas reaches 45.6% of all population11.
Referring to the explanation above, some problems that trapped
Indonesia into crises can be identified resembling from global financial crisis,
inappropriate development strategy, and development policy models.
Responding this situation, during reformation era, Indonesia government
tries to formulate and implementt development strategies and policies based
on the public/citizens interest. The government applies pluralist model12 in
public policies with bottom up approach in the development planning.
Agenda setting
According to Cobb and Elder, agenda setting is a set of political controversies
that will viewed by as falling within range of legitimate concerns meriting
attention by a decision making body13. During the post-financial crisis,
government in transition era sought out solutions to overcome problems of
the withdrawal of capital from abroad, liquidated banks, relocation of some
factories and the increasing number of unemployment and poverty.
11Tempo edition 19/03 11 July 1998 on http://www.tempo.co.id/ang/min/03/19/ekbis3.htm12 To know more about pluralist model, see James P. Lester and Joseph Stewart, JR. op.cit,p.5513 Roger W. Cobb and Charles D. Elder.1992. Participation in American Politics: TheDynamic of Agenda-Building. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press.
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Among these issues liquidated banks and the increasing number of
unemployment and poverty became two big issues surround the elite level of
Indonesian government. Lester and Stewart said that an issue will receive
attention from public policy makers if (1) it has reached crisis proportions
and can no longer be ignored, (2) it has achieved particularity, in which the
issues exemplifies and dramatizes a larger issue, (3) it has an emotive
aspect, or attracts media attention because of a human interest angle,(4)
it has wide impact, (5) it raises questions about power and legitimacy, (6) it
is fashionable14
.
By utilizing the criteria mentioned above, it can be concluded that the
poverty and unemployment can become the consideration in the policy
agenda and therefore shall be handled optimally. Otherwise, it will be a time
bomb that could topple the government which ends up like de javu (as new
order experience).
Alternative Choices
In this stage, government needs to consider many policies that can also
reduce the number of poverty rate. The alternative programs are:
1. Counter Gas Subsidies: Bantuan Langsung Tunai (BLT) Direct
Cash Subsidy;
2. Counter Health: Jamkesmas (Jaminan Kesehatan Masyarakat)
Community Health Assurance;
14 James P. Lester and Joseph Stewart, JR. op.cit, p.66
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3. Counter the capital lack: KUR (Kredit Usaha Rakyat) still
improperly distributed-, helping infant industry and small business on
expand their business.
4. Counter weak empowerment: PNPM Mandiri constructing
highway- lowering production cost;
5. Program Keluarga Harapan (PKH) increasing student presence
rate in school and raising number of baby.
In the end, from many programs alternative, KDP and UPP are seen as the
appropriate ones. We know that KDP began in 1998 meanwhile UPP began in
1999 and those still carried out until now.
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CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1. Conclusion
KDP and UPP as a policy of poverty alleviation has been trying to implement
democratic values. In the concept of policy formulation, the government uses
the pluralist models involves four main components in making policy, that is:
government agencies, president, legislative, and interest groups.
In the Rational-Comprehensive Model, those programs that adopt the
World Banks program, --Community-Driven Development (CDD)-- are the
best choice. We argue that those programs are the best among the other
alternatives, because in the process of formulation, government following the
steps in the Rational Comprehensive Model.
The steps are: search the subject problem; setting goals, values, or
objectives of the program; compare with others alternative programs;
calculating the cost and benefit.
In the context of balance of interest, those programs give benefit to all of the
components: government, interest groups (private sector), and society. The
implementation of the programs must be recognized, can increase the
income of the poor people, although the increasing does not significant.
This is good for political imagery of a president. Private sector or
interest groups also get a benefit from the projects particularly in the building
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of infrastructures. And the last beneficiary group that is poor people gets also
benefit, though they can really leave the poverty trapped. In the condition of
poverty, poor people will very happy to receive any number of money and
assistance. They will not care on the motive behind the assistance.
5.2. Recommendation
As the program that needs a lot of money, the government should be careful
in the formulation of policy. So that, poverty alleviation programs actually
have a long-terms result and actually be able to alleviate poor people from
poverty mud.
Thus in the future, in the policy formulation particularly related to
poverty alleviation, the government (and also all of actors) needs to consider
the factors that cause poverty. Base on World Bank report (2006), there are
five factors that can be considered as having relations with poverty. These
factors include education, job, gender, access to basic service and
infrastructure, and geographic situations.
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REFERENCES
Anderson, James E., 1979, Public-Policy Making, Second Edition, Holt,
Rinehart and Winston
Cobb, Roger W. and Elder, Charles D.,1992, Participation in American
Politics: The Dynamic of Agenda-Building. Baltimore: John Hopkins
University Press.
Fang, Ke, Designing and Implementing a Community-Driven Development
Programe in Indonesiain Development in Practice, Vol. 16,Number 1, February 2006: Routledge Publishing
Radelet, Steven et al,1997,Paper:Economic Growth in Asia. (online)
http://www.cid.harvard.edu/ hiid/609.pdf
Sudaryanto, Tahlim and Rusastra, I Wayan, Strategies for Increasing
Production and Alleviating Poverty in Agriculture, in Journal
Litbang Pertanian,, 25(4),2006.
Tempo edition 19/03 11 July 1998 (online) http://www.tempo.co.id/ang/min/
03/19/ekbis3.htm
http://www.tempo.co.id/ang/min/http://www.tempo.co.id/ang/min/