07 Teaching Science To Children

Module 1: KPLI SR Science Major Unit 1: Teaching Science To Children

UNIT 1 TEACHING SCIENCE TO CHILDREN

SYNOPSIS:

This unit contains four topics. The first topic is about understanding of science in which you will explore the meaning of science and its elements. The second topic describes about current Primary School Science Curriculum in detail. Here you will learn about the aims, objectives and the focus of primary school science curriculum. Primary School Science Curriculum focuses on scientific skills, thinking skills, scientific attitudes, teaching and learning strategies. The third topic explains the learning theories for Primary School Science and the fourth topic is about teaching and learning methods using Inquiry and Discovery approach.

Learning Outcomes:

Upon completion of this unit, you will be able to:

1. explain the meaning of science and its role in daily life;2. describes the main components of Primary School Science Curriculum;3. identify and apply appropriate learning strategies of Primary Science in the

classroom and4. explain the use of various questioning techniques used to promote inquiry5. explain the use of the inquiry methods in the teaching and learning of primary

science

TOPIC 1: Understanding Science

(Fleer.M, 1996. pg 7 )

A class of second year undergraduates gives this interesting collection of ideas. Are some of your ideas included here?

The list certainly suggests that science has a complex nature and is likely to be viewed differently by different individuals.

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SCIENCE IS….

everywhere, using it all the time, scary, can be lethal, discovery, exploration, learning more, theories, hypothesis, interesting, exciting, expensive, profitable, intelligent, status


What is science?

Science is defined differently depending on the individuals who view it.

the layperson might define science as a body of scientific information; the scientist might view it as procedures by which hypotheses are tested; a philosopher might regard science as a way of questioning the truthfulness

of what we know.

All of these views are valid, but each presents only a partial definition of science. In your opinion what does science mean?

Meaning of science

Science is perceived as an inquiry process, observation, and reasoning about the natural world. [K.T.Compton]

Systematic knowledge which can be tested and proven for its truth.[translated from Kamus Dewan]

Science is a set of attitudes and a way of thinking on facts. [B.F Skinner] Science is the system of knowing about the universe through data collected

by observation and controlled experimentation. As data are collected, theories are advanced to explain and account for what has been observed.

(Carin and Sund (1989) pg. 4 )

If you read these definitions of science, you will see three major elements: processes (or methods), products, and human attitudes.

Elements of science can be visualised in this way:

Science as a Process

Learning science information is more important than to memorizing the content of science

Scientific skill is a basic tool in understanding science. Process is emphasis on how the knowledge is gained. Using empirical procedures and analyses to describe the natural world It involves hands-on, mind-on and hearts-on experience It involves the formation of hypothesis, planning, experimenting, collecting

data, and analyses before making a conclusion.

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Science as a Product

Scientists have been collecting data for centuries. From these data, scientists have formulated concepts, principles and theories. The factual data, concepts, principles and theories are the products of science.

Figure 1 shows the hierarchical order of the science products.

Figure 1: Science Products

A scientific fact is the specific statement about existing objects or actual incidents.We can use our senses to get facts.

Two criteria are used to identify a scientific fact:

1. it is directly observable 2. it can be demonstrated at any time.

A concept is an abstraction of events, objects, or phenomena that seem to have certain properties or attributes in common. Fish, for example, possess certain characteristics that set them apart from reptiles and mammals. According to Bruner, (1956), a concept has five important elements:

1. name2. definition3. attributes4. values5. examples

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Theory

Laws and Principles

Concepts

Facts


Principles and Laws also fall into the general category of a concept but in a broad manner. These higher order ideas are used to describe what exists through empirical basis. For example gas laws and the laws of motion.

Theory: Science goes beyond the classification and description of phenomena to the level of explanation. Scientists use theories to explain patterns and forces that are hidden from direct observation. The theory of atom, which states that all matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms. There are millions of atoms, which would be required to cover the period (.) at the end of this sentence. This is the example of hidden observation.

Science as an Attitude

Do you see science as merely lists of facts, concepts, and principles? If yes, then you are overlooking an important aspect of science – attitudes and values. Scientists are persons trained in some field of science who study phenomena through observation, experimentation and other rational, analytical activities. They use attitudes, such as being honest and accurate in recording and validating data, systematic and being diligent in their work. Therefore, when planning teaching and learning activities, teachers need to inculcate scientific attitudes and values to the students. For example, during science practical work, the teacher should remind pupils and ensure that they carry out experiments in a careful, cooperative and honest manner.

Teachers need to plan well for effective inculcation of scientific attitudes and noble values during science lessons. They should examine all related learning outcomes and suggested teaching-learning activities that provide opportunities for the inculcation of scientific attitudes and noble values.

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Is the statement “the earth rotates on its axis” a scientific concept, principle or theory?

Reflect on your earlier days in primary school. What can you still remember about studying science? Can you recall your science teacher teaching you science process skills and scientific values?

With the help of concept map, define science in your own words.


Understanding science and technology and their applications towards the welfare of mankind

Is there any relationship between science and technology?

In general, science can be regarded as the enterprise that seeks to understand natural phenomena and to arrange these ideas into ordered knowledge whereas technology involves the design of products and systems that affect the quality of life, using the knowledge of science where necessary.

Science is intimately related to technology and society. For instance, science produces knowledge that results in useful applications through devices and systems. We have evidence of this all around us, from microwave ovens to compact disc players to computers.

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Select two scientific discoveries that have been used to improve the earth’s environment. Also list some possible negative effects of using these scientific discoveries.

Well done, take a break now! Time for a cup of coffee before you go to the next topic


TOPIC 2: Primary School Science Curriculum

Historical Development of the Primary School Science Curriculum

Do you remember how you learn science while you were in primary school? Are the children learning science the same way today?

After reading this topic you will able to note the changes the Primary School Science Curriculum has undergone since 1968. The “Projek Khas” science curriculum was implemented in schools from 1968 to 1984. Teachers were given guidebooks to help them teach science for all primary levels using the scientific method. Later in 1985, “Projek Khas” science curriculum was replaced by “Alam dan Manusia” which was taught to standard four pupils onwards. This subject integrates knowledge from various fields such as geography, history, science and health science. The main focus of this subject is to relate knowledge to issues concerning society and environment. The present primary school science curriculum, better known as Kurikulum Sains Sekolah Rendah was introduced since 1994. This is in line with the national educational philosophy to produce a progressive society competent in science and technology. Teachers are trained to teach using the constructivism approach, which employs student-based methods. Table 1 outlines the historical development of the primary school science curriculum.

Table 1: Historical Development of the Primary School Science Curriculum

Projek Khas Alam dan Manusia Kurikulum Sains Sekolah Rendah

Year 1968-1984 1985-1993 1994-now

Teacher’s Guide

Panduan Mengajar Sains

Buku Panduan Khas PuLSaR

Teaching-learning strategies

Scientific Method Inquiry-discovery Constructivism

In 2003, English is used as the medium of instruction in standard one. The science curriculum has been designed to provide opportunities for students to acquire science knowledge and skills, develop thinking skills and thinking strategies, and to apply this knowledge and skills in everyday life. It also aims to inculcate noble values and the spirit of patriotism in the students.

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By now, you would realize that the Primary School Science Curriculum is dynamic and changes are made to meet the demands of the society and the nation. Can you identify the main elements of the present Primary School Science Curriculum?After reading this topic, you will be able to understand the key features of the primary school science curriculum. Basically, the Primary School Science Curriculum has two levels

Level One is from Year 1 – 3 Level Two is from Year 4 – 6

Level One

The aim of the Primary School Science Curriculum for level one is to develop students’ interest in science and to nurture their creativity and their curiosity.

The objectives of the Primary School Science Curriculum for level one are to:

1. stimulate pupils’ curiosity and develop their interest about the world around them.

2. provide pupils with opportunities to develop science process skills and thinking skills.

3. develop pupils’ creativity.4. provide pupils with basic science knowledge and concepts.5. inculcate scientific attitudes and positive values. 6. create awareness on the need to love and care for the environment.

Level Two

The aims of the Primary School Science Curriculum for level two are to produce human beings who are experienced, skilful and morally sound in order to form a society with a culture of science and technology and which is compassionate, dynamic, and progressive so that people are more responsible towards the environment and are more appreciative of nature’s creation.

The objectives of the Primary School Science Curriculum for level two are to:

1. develop thinking skill so as to enhance the intellectual ability2. develop scientific skills and attitude through inquiry 3. enhance natural interest in their surroundings4. gain knowledge and understanding of scientific facts and concepts to assist in

understanding themselves and the environment5. solve problems and make responsible decisions6. handle the latest contributions and innovations in science and technology7. practice scientific attitudes and noble values in daily lives8. appreciate the contributions of science and technology towards the comfort of

life9. appreciate arrangement and order in nature

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Do you know the main focus in our primary school science curriculum?Primary School Science Curriculum focuses on:

I. Scientific skillsII. Thinking skills

III. Relationship between thinking skills and science process skillsIV. Scientific attitudes and noble valuesV. Teaching and learning strategies

VI. Content organization

The main elements of the Primary School Science Curriculum are briefly described as follows:

I. Scientific skills

Science emphasizes inquiry and problem solving. In inquiry and problem solving processes, scientific and thinking skills are utilized. Scientific skills are important in any scientific investigation such as conducting and carrying out projects.

Scientific skills encompass science process skills and manipulative skills.

Science Process Skills

Science process skills enable students to formulate their questions and find out the answers systematically. Descriptions of the science process skills are as follows:

OBSERVING USING THE SENSE OF HEARING, TOUCH, SMELL, TASTE AND SIGHT TO FIND OUT ABOUT OBJECTS OR EVENTS.

Classifying Using observations to group objects or events according to similarities or differences.

Measuring and Using Numbers

Making quantitative observations by comparing to a conventional or non-conventional standard.

Making Inferences Using past experiences or previously collected data to draw conclusions and make explanations of events

Predicting Making a forecast about what will happen in the future based on prior knowledge gained through experiences or collected data.

Communicating Using words or graphic symbols such as tables, graphs, figures or models to describe an action, object or event.

Using space-time relationship

Describing changes in parameter with time. Examples of parameters are location, direction, shape, size, volume, weight and mass.

Interpreting data Giving rational explanations about an object, events or pattern derived from collected data.

Defining operationally Defining all variables as they are used in an experiment by describing what must be done and what should be observed.

Controlling variables Naming the fixed variable, manipulated variable, and responding variable in an investigation.

Making Hypotheses Making a general statement about the relationship between a manipulated variable and a responding variable to explain an observation or event. The statement can be tested to determine its validity.

Experimenting Planning and conducting activities including collecting, analyzing and interpreting data and making conclusions.

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Manipulative Skills

Manipulative skills in scientific investigation are psychomotor skills that enable students to:

Use and handle science apparatus and substances. Handle specimens correctly and carefully. Draw specimens, apparatus. Clean science apparatus. Store science apparatus.

Note: If you want to know how to apply scientific skills, please refer to unit 2.

II. Thinking Skills

Thinking is a mental process that requires an individual to integrate knowledge, skills and attitude in an effort to understand the environment.

One of the objectives of the national education system is to enhance the thinking ability of students. This objective can be achieved through a curriculum that emphasizes thoughtful learning. Teaching and learning that emphasizes thinking skills is a foundation for thoughtful learning.

Thoughtful learning is achieved if students are actively involved in the teaching and learning process. Activities should be organized to provide opportunities for students to apply thinking skills in conceptualization, problem solving and decision-making.

Thinking skills can be categorized into critical thinking skills and creative thinking skills. A person who thinks critically always evaluates an idea in a systematic manner before accepting it. A person who thinks creatively has a high level of imagination, is able to generate original and innovative ideas, and modify ideas and products.

Thinking strategies are higher order thinking processes that involve various steps. Each step involves various critical and creative thinking skills. The ability to formulate thinking strategies is the ultimate aim of introducing thinking activities in the teaching and learning process.

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Critical Thinking Skills

A brief description of each critical thinking skill is as follows:ATTRIBUTING IDENTIFYING CRITERIA SUCH AS CHARACTERISTICS,

FEATURES, QUALITIES AND ELEMENTS OF A CONCEPT OR AN OBJECT.

Comparing and Contrasting

Finding similarities and differences based on criteria such as characteristics, features, qualities and elements of a concept or event.

Grouping and Classifying Separating and grouping objects or phenomena into categories based on certain criteria such as common characteristics or features

Sequencing Arranging objects and information in based on the quality or quantity of common characteristics or features such as size, time, shape or number.

Prioritizing Arranging objects and information in order based on their importance or priority

Analyzing Examining information in detail by breaking it down into smaller parts to find implicit meaning and relationships.

Detecting Bias Identifying views or opinions that have the tendency to support or oppose something in an unfair or misleading way.

Evaluating Making judgments on the quality or value of something based on valid reasons or evidence.

Making Conclusions Making a statement about the outcome of an investigation that is based on a hypothesis.

Creative Thinking Skills

A brief description of each creative thinking skill is as follows:GENERATING IDEAS PRODUCING OR GIVING IDEAS IN A DISCUSSION.

Relating Making connections in a certain situation to determine in a certain situation to determine a structure or pattern of relationship.

Making Inferences Using past experiences or previously collected data to draw conclusions and make explanations of events.

Predicting Making a forecast about what will happen in the future based on prior knowledge gained through experiences or collected data

Making Generalizations Making a general conclusion about a group based on observations made on, or some information from, samples of the group.

Visualizing Recalling or forming mental images about a particular idea, concept, situation or vision.

Synthesizing Combining separate elements or parts to form a general picture in various forms such as writing, drawing or artifact.

Making Hypotheses Making a general statement about the relationship between a manipulated variable and a responding variable to explain an observation or event. The statement can be tested to determine its validity.

Making Analogies Understanding a certain abstract or complex concept by relating it to a simpler or concrete concept with similar characteristics.

Inventing Producing something new or adapting something already in existence to overcome problems in a systematic manner.

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III. Relationship between Thinking skills and Science Process Skills

Science process skills are required in the process of finding solutions to a problem or making decisions in a systematic manner. It is a mental process that promotes critical, creative, analytical and systematic thinking. Mastering of science process skills, possession of suitable attitudes and knowledge enable students to think effectively. The mastering of science process skills involves the mastering of the relevant thinking skills. The thinking skills that are related to a particular science process skill are as follows:

Science Process Skills Thinking SkillsObserving Attributing

Comparing and contrastingRelating

Classifying AttributingComparing and contrastingGrouping and classifying

Measuring and Using Numbers RelatingComparing and contrasting

Making inferences RelatingComparing and contrastingAnalyzingMaking inferences

Predicting RelatingVisualizing

Using Space-Time Relationship SequencingPrioritizing

Interpreting data Comparing and contrastingAnalyzingDetecting biasMaking conclusionsGeneralizingEvaluating

Defining operationally RelatingMaking analogyVisualizingAnalyzing

Controlling variables AttributingComparing and contrastingRelatingAnalyzing

Making hypotheses AttributingRelatingComparing and contrastingGenerating ideasMaking hypothesisPredictingSynthesizing

Experimenting All thinking skills Communicating All thinking skills

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Based on your teaching experience, explain why you need to infuse thinking skills and science process skills in your lesson.


IV Scientific Attitudes and Noble Values

Science learning experiences can be used as a means to inculcate scientific attitudes and noble values in students. These attitudes and values encompass the following:

Having an interest and curiosity towards the environment. Being honest and accurate in recording and validating data. Being diligent and persevering. Being responsible about the safety of oneself, others, and the

environment. Realizing that science is a mean to understand nature. Appreciating and practicing clean and healthy living. Appreciating the balance of nature. Being respectful and well mannered. Appreciating the contribution of science and technology. Being thankful to God. Having analytical and critical thinking. Being flexible and open-minded. Being kind-hearted and caring. Being objective. Being systematic. Being cooperative. Being fair and just. Daring to try. Thinking rationally. Being confident and independent.

The inculcation of scientific attitudes and noble values generally occurs through the following stages:

Being aware of the importance and the need for scientific attitudes and noble values.

Giving emphasis to these attitudes and values Practicing and internalizing these scientific attitudes and noble values

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V. Teaching and Learning Strategies

Teaching and learning strategies in science curriculum emphasize thoughtful learning. Thoughtful learning is a process that helps students acquire knowledge and master skills that will help them develop their minds to the optimum level. Thoughtful learning can occur through various learning approaches such as inquiry, constructivism, contextual learning, and mastery learning. Learning activities should therefore be geared towards activating students’ critical and creative thinking skills and not be confined to routine or rote learning. Students should be made aware of the thinking skills and thinking strategies that they use in their learning. They should be challenged with higher order questions and problems and be required to solve problems utilizing their creativity and critical thinking. The teaching and learning process should enable students to acquire knowledge, master skills and develop scientific attitudes and noble values in an integrated manner.

Inquiry-discovery emphasizes learning through experiences. Inquiry generally means to find information, to question and to investigate a phenomenon that occurs in the environment. Discovery is the main characteristic of inquiry. Learning through discovery occurs when the main concepts and principles of science are investigated and discovered by students themselves. Through activities such as experiments, students investigate a phenomenon and draw conclusions by themselves. Teachers then lead students to understand the science concepts though the results of the inquiry. Thinking skills and scientific skills are thus developed further during the inquiry process. However, the inquiry approach may not be suitable for all teaching and learning situations. Sometimes, it may be more appropriate for teachers to present concepts and principles directly to students.

The use of variety of teaching and learning methods can enhance students’ interest in science. Science lessons that are not interesting will not motivate students to learn and subsequently will affect their performance. The choice of teaching methods should be based on the curriculum content, students’ abilities, students’ repertoire of intelligences, and the availability of resources and infrastructure. Different teaching and learning activities should be planned to cater for students with different learning styles and intelligences.

The following are brief descriptions of some teaching and learning methods.

Experiment

An experiment is a method commonly used in science lessons. In experiments, students test hypotheses through investigations to discover specific science concepts and principles. Conducting an experiment involves thinking skills, scientific skills, and manipulative skills.

In the implementation of this curriculum, besides guiding students to carry out experiments, where appropriate, teachers should provide students with the opportunities to design their own experiments. This involves students drawing up plans as to how to conduct experiments, how to measure and analyze data, and how to present the results of their experiment.

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Discussion

A discussion is an activity in which students exchange questions and opinions based on valid reasons. Discussions can be conducted before, during or after an activity. Teachers should play the role of a facilitator and lead a discussion by asking questions that stimulate thinking and getting students to express themselves.

Simulation

In simulation, an activity that resembles the actual situation is carried out. Examples of simulation are role-play, games and the use of models. In role-play, students play out a particular role based on certain pre-determined conditions. Games require procedures that need to be followed. Students play games in order to learn a particular principle or to understand the process of decision-making. Models are used to represent objects or actual situations so that students can visualize the said objects or situations and thus understand the concepts and principles to be learned.

Project

A project is a learning activity that is generally undertaken by an individual or a group of students to achieve a particular learning objective. A project generally requires several lessons to complete. The outcome of the project either in the form of a report, an artifact or in other forms needs to be presented to the teacher and other students. Project work promotes the development of problem-solving skills, time management skills, and independent learning.

Visits and Use of External Resources

The learning of science is not limited to activities carried out in the school compound. Learning of science can be enhanced though the use of external resources such as zoos, museums, science centres, research institutes, mangrove swamps, and factories. Visits to these places make the learning of science more interesting, meaningful and effective. To optimize learning opportunities, visits need to be carefully planned. Students should be assigned tasks during the visit. No educational visit is complete without a post-visit discussion.

Use of Technology

Technology is a powerful tool that has great potential in enhancing the learning of science. Through the use of technology such as television, radio, video, computer, and Internet, the teaching and learning of science can be made more interesting and effective.Computer simulation and animation are effective tools for the teaching and learning of abstract or difficult science concepts. Computer simulation and animation can be presented through courseware or Web page. Application tools such, as word processors, graphic presentation software and electronic spreadsheets are valuable tools for the analysis and presentation of data.

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Briefly explain how does a visit to the museum help in your science lesson.


VI Content Organization

The science curriculum is organized around themes. Each theme consists of various learning areas, each of which consists of a number of learning objectives. A learning objective has one or more learning outcomes.

Learning outcomes are written in the form of measurable behavioural terms. In general, the learning outcomes for a particular learning objective are organized in order of complexity. However, in the process of teaching and learning, learning activities should be planned in a holistic and integrated manner that enables the achievement of multiple learning outcomes according to needs and context. Teachers should avoid employing a teaching strategy that tries to achieve each learning outcome separately according to the order stated in the curriculum specifications.

The Suggested Learning Activities provide information on the scope and dimension of learning outcomes. The learning activities stated under the column Suggested Learning Activities are given with the intention of providing some guidance as to how learning outcomes can be achieved. A suggested activity may cover one or more learning outcomes. At the same time, more than one activity may be suggested for a particular learning outcome. Teachers may modify the suggested activity to suit the ability and style of learning of their students. Teachers are encouraged to design other innovative and effective learning activities to enhance the learning of science.

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Well done, take a break now! Time for a cup of coffee

Select a topic from Curriculum specifications Science Year 1/2/4 and suggest a learning activity other than the suggested learning activities given. Write the relevant learning outcome and predict the scientific skills and values involved in carrying out the activity.

Based on your experience, describe how students benefit when they are involved in science projects?

Briefly explain how technology has made your science teaching more interesting.


Topic 3: Learning theories for Primary Science

Science begins with the child. Questions such as “What is a shooting star?” and “How can birds fly?” have been asked by thousands of children and have, throughout history, elicited a hundred different answers. Can you make the child curious all through his or her life? To maintain the child’s curiosity in science the teacher should know how the child learns and sustain their curiosity throughout the lesson.

Do you know how children learn science?

Research and practical experience tell us a great deal about the factors, which assist effective learning. We learn best when:

We are learning about things which are important and have relevance to us; We are able to discuss our work with our peers – including the problems we

are having alternative approaches to our work; We are able to practise and to make mistakes without being judged; What we are learning is demonstrated and accompanied by clear instructions; We succeed, that is, when we can see an improvement in the quality of our

work

To understand how children learn we have to know the cognitive development of children and cognitive learning theories. The Piaget’s theory offers fresh insight into the child’s cognitive development. Children’s perceptions of the physical world are affected by the limitations of their cognitive structure. Knowing this has helped science curriculum developers to shape experiences for children that are within their ability to perform. Cognitive learning theories like Bruner, Ausubel and Gagne offer various types of learning. The constructivist approach says that children construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world through experiencing things and reflecting on these experiences.

Piaget’s Theory: Cognitive development

Cognitive theorists believe that what you learn depends on your mental process and what you perceive about the world around you. In other words, learning depends on how you think and how your perceptions and thought patterns interact. According to cognitive learning theorists, a teacher should try to understand what a child perceives and how a child thinks and then plan experiences that will capitalize on these. Jean Piaget proposes that children progress through stages of cognitive development.

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Stages of Piaget’s Theories are:

1. Sensorimotor knowledge ( 0 to 2 year )Objects and people exist only if child can see, feel, hear, touch or taste their presence. Anything outside of the child’s perceptual field does not exist.

2. Preoperational (Representational) knowledge ( 2 to 7 years )The ability to use symbols begins. Although the child is still focused on the “there and now” early in this stage, the child can use language to refer to objects and events that are not in his or her perceptual field.The child has difficulty understanding that objects have multiple properties. He or she is not completely aware that a block of wood has color, weight, height and depth all at once. The child does not “conserves” attributes such as mass, weight, or number.

3. Concrete Operation ( 7 to 11 years )The child can group objects into classes and arrange the objects in a class into some appropriate order. The child understands the mass, weight, volume, area and length are conserved. The child has some difficulty isolating the variables in a situation and determining their relationships. The concepts of space and time become clearer.

4. Formal Operation ( 12 years through adulthood )The child is able to think in abstract terms, is able to isolate the variables in a situation , and is able to understand their relationship to one another. The child’s ability to solve complex verbal and mathematical problems emerges as a consequence of being able to manipulate the meanings represented by symbols.

Practical applications: Piaget’s Ideas for Science Classroom

1. Infants in the sensor motor stage ( 0 to 2 years )

Examples: Provide stimulating environment that includes eye-catching displays,

pleasant sound, human voices, and plenty of tender loving care so that the infant becomes motivated to interact with the people and things in his or her perceptual field.

Provide stuffed animals and other safe, pliable objects that the child can manipulate in order to acquire the psychomotor skills necessary for future cognitive development.

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2. Preschoolers and children in the primary grades ( 2 to 7 years )

Examples: Provide natural objects such as leaves, stones, twigs, etc for the child

to manipulate. Towards the end of this stage, provide opportunities for the child to

begin grouping things into classes that is living/nonliving , animal/plant.

Toward the end of this stage, provide experience that gives children an opportunity to transcend some of their egocentricism. For example, have them listen to other children’s stories about what was observed on a trip to the zoo.

3. Children in the elementary grades ( 7 to 11 years )

Examples: Early in this stage, offer children many experiences to use the

acquired abilities with respect to the observation, classification and arrangement of objects according to some property. Any science activities that should include the observation, collection, and sorting of objects should be able to be done in some ease.

As this stage continues, you should be able to introduce successfully many physical science activities that include more abstract concepts such as space, time and number. For example, children could measure the length, width, height and weight of objects or count the number of swings of a pendulum in a given time.

4. The middle school child and beyond ( 12 years through adulthood )

Examples: Emphasize the general concepts and laws that govern observed

phenomenon. Possible projects and activities include the prediction of the characteristics of an object’s motion based on Newton’s Laws, the making of generalizations about the outcomes of a potential imbalance among the producers, consumers, and decomposers in a natural community.

Encourage children to make hypotheses about the outcomes of experiments in absence of actively doing them. A key part of the process of doing activities might appropriately be “pre-lab” sessions in which the child writes down hypotheses about outcomes.

Bruner’s Theory: Discovery learning

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Give three reasons according to Piaget’s theory why teaching and learning aids are important to ensure effective learning.

Select a topic from Year 4 primary science curriculum specification and suggest two learning-teaching activities that suit Piagetian’s learning theory.


Jerome Bruner’s research revealed that teachers need to provide children with experiences to help them discover underlying ideas, concepts, or patterns. Bruner is a proponent of inductive thinking, which means going from the specific to the general. Using ideas from one’s experience and applying it in another situation is also an example of inductive thinking.

Inductive approaches to learning rely more on providing students with a range of experiences, which gradually increase their familiarity with new concepts, before attempting to draw these together into a coherent understanding of the new concept. Rather than being faced with the teacher’s definition of a concept at the beginning of a topic, the student’s understanding of the concept is gradually constructed as a result of exposure to a whole range of activities and experiences.

Figure 2 :Inductive approach to Instruction

Figure 3: Inductive Approach

Role-play Concept formation exercise

Other activities

Practicalactivity

Student definition of concept

Inductive learning

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Experiences with instances of a concept or principle

Discovering and forming a concept or principle


Practical applications: Bruner’s Ideas for Science Classroom

1. Emphasize the basic structure of new material

Examples: Use demonstrations that reveal basic principles. For example

demonstrate the law of magnetism by using similar and opposite poles of a set of bar magnets.

Encourage children to make outlines of basic points made in textbooks or discovered in activities.

2. Present many examples and concept.

Examples: When presenting an explanation of the phases of the moon, have the

children observe the phases in a variety of ways, such as direct observation of the changing shape of the moon in the evening s demonstration of the changes using a flashlight and sphere, and diagrams.

Using magazine pictures to show the stages in a space shuttle mission, have the class make models that show the stages and list the stages on the chalkboard.

3. Help children construct coding system.

Examples: Invent a game that requires children to classify rocks. Have children maintain scrapbooks in which they keep collected leaf

specimens that are grouped according to observed characteristics.

Apply new learning to many different situations and kinds of problems.

Example: Learn how scientist estimate the size of populations by having children

count the number in a sample and estimate the numbers of grasshoppers in a lawn and in a meadow.

4. Pose a problem to the children and let them find the answer.

Examples: Ask questions that will lead naturally to activities-why should wear

seatbelts? And what are some ingredients that most junk foods have ? Do a demonstration that raises a question in the children’s minds. For

example, levitate a washer using magnet or mix two colored solutions to produce a third color.

5. Encourage children to make intuitive guesses.

Examples: Ask the children to guess the amount of water that goes down the

drain each time a child gets a drink of water from a water fountain. Give the children magazine photographs of the evening sky and have

them guess the locations of some constellations.

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Ausubel’s Theory: Reception learning and expository teaching

According to David Ausubel, a child learns as a result of the child’s natural tendency to organize information into some meaningful whole. Ausubel says learning should be a deductive process, i.e. children should first learn a general concept and then move towards specifics.

In the deductive strategy, a concept or principal is define and discussed using appropriate labels and terms, followed by experiences to illustrate the idea. It can involve hypothetical-deductive thinking whereby the learner generates idea to be tested or discovered. The deductive approach can be used to promote inquiry sessions and to construct knowledge. The first phase presents the generalization and rules about the concept or principles under study, and the second phase requires students to find examples of the concepts or principles.

The teacher’s responsibility is to organize concepts and principles so that the child can continually fit new learning into the learning that came earlier. Ausubel’s theories, which stress preparation and organization, have practical applications for science classrooms.

Deductive approaches to learning are appropriate on many occasions. Over-dependence, however, may result in passive learning and an attitude amongst the students that science knowledge is black and white and that there are correct answers to all problems in science. Additionally, these approaches often fail to value the understandings that students bring with them to the classroom which, as research has clearly shown, are difficult to change in cases where students have faulty or non-scientific understandings of concepts. Reliance on deductive approaches also ignores the reality that students, like all other people, learn in a variety of ways and that they have their own preferred learning styles.

Figure 4: Deductive Learning

Practical activity

Problems

Examples

Teacher definition of concept

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Figure 5: Deductive approach to Instruction

Ausubel’s Ideas for Your Science Classroom

1. Use advance organizers.Examples: List, pronounce, and discuss science vocabulary words prior to

lessons that use new science terms Role-play situations that may develop on a field trip.

2. Use a number of examples.Examples: Ask the children to give examples related to the science phenomena

observed in class from their own experiences. Use pictures and diagrams to show various examples of such things

as constellations, animals, clouds, plants, etc.

3. Focus on both similarities and differencesExamples: Discuss how plants and animals are the same and different. Explain what conventional and alternatives energy sources do and do

not have in common.

4. Present materials in an organized fashion.Examples: Outline the content of particularly complicated lessons. Organize the materials needed for a science activity in such a way

that a sign indicates whether they are to be used at the beginning, middle, or end of the activity.

5. Discourage the rote learning of material that could be learned more meaningfully.Examples: Children give responses to questions in activities or textbooks in their

own words. Encourage children to explain the results of science activities to one

another.

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Experiences with instances of a concept or principle

Receiving ideas and explanations of a concept or principle


Gagne’s Theory: Conditions of Learning Theory

A) Description

Although Gagne’s theoretical framework covers many aspects of learning, the focus of the theory is on intellectual skills. Gagne’s theory is very prescriptive. In its original formulation, special attention was given to military training in those days.

In this theory, five major types of learning levels are identified:

verbal information intellectual skills cognitive strategies motor skills attitudes

The importance behind the above system of classification is that each learning level requires a different internal and external condition, that is, each learning level requires different types of instruction.

For cognitive strategies to be learned, there must be a chance to practice developing new solutions to problems; to learn attitudes, the learner must be exposed to a credible role model or persuasive arguments. Gagne also contends that learning tasks for intellectual skills can be organized in a hierarchy according to complexity:

stimulus recognition response generation procedure following use of terminology discriminations concept formation rule application problem solving

The primary significance of this hierarchy is to provide direction for instructors so that they can identify prerequisites that should be completed to facilitate learning at each level. This learning hierarchy also provides a basis for sequencing instruction. Gagne outlines the following nine instructional events and corresponding cognitive processes gaining attention (reception)

1. informing learners of the objective (expectancy) 2. stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval) 3. presenting the stimulus (selective perception) 4. providing learning guidance (semantic encoding) 5. eliciting performance (responding) 6. providing feedback (reinforcement) 7. assessing performance (retrieval) 8. enhancing retention and transfer (generalization)

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B) Practical Application

Gagne’s nine instructional events and corresponding cognitive processes can serve as the basis for designing instruction and selecting appropriate media (Gagne, Briggs & Wager, 1992, as cited in Kearsley 1994a). In applying these instructional events, Kearsley (1994a) suggests keeping the following principles in mind:

1. Learning hierarchies define a sequence of instruction. 2. Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be learned. 3. Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes.

Gagne’s Ideas for Your Science Classroom

1. Verbal information

Examples: Have children recall science facts and concepts orally or in writing. Model the use of advance organizers such as diagrams and lists of

key words prior to children reading science material or observing videotapes of science phenomena.

2. Intellectual Skills.

Examples: Have children “invent” rules that govern processes, find similarities

and differences, and predict outcomes. Emphasize the search patterns and regularities during hands-on

experiences. Whenever possible have children not only compare organisms, objects, and phenomena but also contrast them.

3. Cognitive strategies.

Examples: Encourage children to find their own ways to remember

information and ideas. Model the use of mnemonic devices, diagrams, outlines,

journaling, audio taping, and other techniques for retaining ideas

4. Attitudes.

Example: Select content and experiences that are relevant to the child’s

daily life and intriguing to the child so that the child develops a positive attitude toward science and chooses science-related experiences during leisure time.

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http://www.patsula.com/usefo/webbasedlearning/tutorial1/learning_theories_full_version.html#nine


5. Acquisition of motor skills.

Example: Through the use of discovery-oriented experiences provide

children with opportunities to use hand lenses, simple tools, measuring devices, etc.

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Activity 1:Make a comparison between Bruner’s theory and Ausubel ’s theory.

Activity 2:Choose a topic and describe briefly how you would teach using inductive and deductive approaches.

Activity 3Think of 3 ways to inculcate positive scientific values among students while conducting an experiment in the laboratory.


Constructivist Approach

What is constructivism?

Constructivism is basically a learning theory based on observation and scientific study. It is about how people learn. It says that people construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world, through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences. When we encounter something new, we have to reconcile it with our previous ideas and experiences. In doing so we may have to change what we believe or maybe discarding the new information as irrelevant. The constructivist learners are active creators of our own knowledge. To be constructivist learners, we must ask questions, explore ideas and assess what we know. Constructivism proposes that children learn as a result of their personal generation of meaning from experiences. The fundamental role of a teacher is to help children generate connections between what is to be learned and what the children already know or believe. There are three principles that make up the theory of constructivism:

1. A person never really knows the world as it is. Each person constructs beliefs about what is real.

2. What a person already believes, what a person brings to new situations, filters out or changes the information that the persons’ senses deliver.

3. People create a reality based on their previous beliefs, their own abilities to reason, and their desire to reconcile what they believe and what they actually observe.

In the classroom, the constructivist view of learning can have a number of different teaching practices. In the most general sense, it usually means encouraging students to use active techniques (experiments, real-world problem solving ) to create more knowledge and then to reflect on and talk about what they are doing and how their understanding is changing. The teacher makes sure she understands the students’ preexisting conceptions, and guides the activity to address them and build on them.Constructivist teachers encourage students to constantly assess how the activity is helping them gain understanding. By questioning themselves and their strategies, students in the constructivist classroom ideally become “expert learners”. This gives them ever-broadening tools to keep learning. With a well-planned classroom environment, the students learn how to learn.

Traditional class versus constructivist class

The table below compares the traditional classroom to the constructivist one. In the constructivist model, the students are urged to be actively involved in their own process of learning. One of the teacher’s biggest job is becomes ASKING GOOD QUESTIONS (The constructivists acknowledge that students are constructing knowledge in a traditional classrooms too but its really a matter of emphasis being on the student not the teacher).

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TRADITIONAL CLASS CONSTRUCTIVIST CLASS

Teachers disseminate information to students and students are recipients of knowledge.

Teachers have discussed with their students and help them construct their own knowledge.

Teacher’s role is directive, rooted in authority .

Teacher’s role is interactive, rooted in negotiation.

Knowledge is seen as inert. Knowledge is seen as dynamic ever changing with our experiences.

Students work primarily alone. Students work primarily in groups.

Assessment is through testing correct answers.

Assessment includes student’s works, observations, and points of view, as well as tests. Process is as important as product.

Table 2: Differences Between Traditional and Constructivist Classroom

Alternative Framework

Students enter the classroom with pre-existing ideas about the world which are different to those held by scientists i.e. embody misconceptions.

Research indicates that student misconceptions about things which have a scientific dimension or explanation:

are extremely common (unsurprising given that children have been thinking about and coping with the natural world for many years prior to their exposure to a formal scientific education)

hinder understanding of accepted scientific explanations (until they are discarded by the learner, alternative concepts will not be learned)

are not easily displaced (and will not usually be displaced simply through revelation of the scientific explanation/concept or at the behest of the teacher)

can coexist with scientific concepts (in which case they are only used in situations perceived as requiring a "scientific" answer/response, but not in the student's everyday thinking about the world)

can be found even among the "experts" (research indicates many scientists and teachers unknowingly retain misconceptions e.g. in physics, the impetus model of motion rather than the Newtonian one of inertia)

Techniques To Identify Alternative Frameworks :-

Interview Questionnaires Prediction Observation Explanation

Displacing Misconceptions

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Misconceptions can be displaced and students will accept a scientific conception if : the student understands the meaning of the scientific conception the scientific conception is believable (this means that it must be

compatible with the student's other conceptions. the scientific conception is found to be useful to the student in interpreting,

explaining or predicting phenomena that cannot be satisfactorily accounted for by the formerly held misconceptions (i.e. the scientific concept must be seen to be better than the student's prior belief)

the student progressively gains expertise in using the new scientific concepts (a slow process requiring a long time period and gradual building of knowledge through experience).

Applying Constructivism In The Classroom

The constructivist teachers pose questions and problems, then guide students to help them find their own answers. They use many techniques in the teaching process.

In a constructivist classroom, learning is

Example

Constructed – students come to learning situations with already formulated knowledge, ideas and understandings. This previous knowledge is the raw material for the new knowledge they will create.

An elementary school teacher presents a class problem to measure the length of the “Mayflower”. Rather than starting the problem by introducing the ruler, the teacher allows students to reflect and to construct their own methods of measurement. One student offers the knowledge that a doctor said he is four feet tall. Another says she knows horses are measured in “hands”. The students discuss these and other methods they have heard about, and decide on one to apply to the problem.

Active – students create new understanding for him/herself. The teacher coaches, moderates, suggests but allow the students room to experiment, ask questions, try things that don’t work. Learning activities require students’ full participation and they need to reflect on, and talk about, their activities.

Groups of students in a science class are discussing a problem in physics. Though the teacher knows the “answer” to the problem, she focuses on helping students restate their questions in useful ways. She prompts each student to reflect on and examine his or her current knowledge. When one of the students comes up with the relevant concept, the teacher seizes upon it and indicates to the group that this might be a fruitful avenue for them to explore. They design and perform relevant experiments. Afterward, the students and teacher talk about what they have learned, and how their observations and experiments helped them to better understand the concept.

Reflective – students control their own learning process by reflecting on their experiences.

Students keep journals in carrying out science projects where they record how they feel about the project, the visual and verbal reactions of

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This process makes them experts of their own learning. The teacher helps create situations where the students feel safe questioning and reflecting on their own processes, either privately or in group discussion.

others to the project. Periodically the teacher reads these journals and holds a conference with the student where the two assess (1) what new knowledge the student has created, (2) how the student learns best and (3) the learning environment and the teacher’s role in it.

Collaborative –the constructivist classroom relies heavily on collaboration among students. When students review and reflect on their learning processes together, they can pick up strategies and methods from one another

A group of students carrying out an experiment to determine the melting point of naphthalene. They collaborate by doing different tasks simultaneously. One reads the temperature while another reads aloud the time interval. At the same time another student tabulates the reading and draws the cooling curve. Together they interpret the data and discuss the results.

INQUIRY BASED – STUDENTS USE INQUIRY METHODS TO ASK QUESTIONS, INVESTIGATE A TOPIC AND USE VARIETY OF RESOURCES TO FIND SOLUTIONS AND ANSWERS.

SIXTH GRADERS FIGURING OUT HOW TO PURIFY WATER INVESTIGATE SOLUTIONS RANGING FROM COFFEE-FILTER PAPER, TO A STOVETOP DISTILLATION APPARATUS, TO PILES OF CHARCOAL, TO AN ABSTRACT MATHEMATICAL SOLUTION BASED ON THE SIZE OF A WATER MOLECULE. DEPENDING UPON STUDENTS RESPONSES, THE TEACHER ENCOURAGES ABSTRACT AS WELL AS CONCRETE, POETIC AS WELL AS PRACTICAL, CREATIONS OF NEW KNOWLEDGE.

Evolving- students have ideas that they may later see were invalid, incorrect, or insufficient to explain new experiences. These ideas are temporary steps in the integration of knowledge. Constructivist teaching takes into account students’ current conceptions and builds from there.

An elementary teacher believes her students are ready to study gravity. She creates an environment of discovery with objects of varying kinds. Students explore the differences in weight among similar blocks of Styrofoam, wood and lead. Some students hold the notion that heavier objects fall faster than light ones. The teacher provides materials about Galileo and Newton. She leads the discussion on theories about falling. The students then replicate Galileo’s experiment by dropping objects of different weights and measuring how fast they fall. They see that objects of different weights actually fall at the same speed, although surface area and aerodynamic properties can affect the rate of fall.

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Teaching Models Based On Constructivist Approach

Needham’s Five Phase Constructive Model

This learning model was proposed by Richard Needham (1987 ) in his work ‘Children Learning in Science Project’. It consists of five phases namely the orientation, the generation of ideas, restructuring of ideas, application of ideas and lastly the reflection .

Needham Five Phases Constructivist Model is shown in the table 3 below :-

PHASE PURPOSE METHODSOrientation To attract students attention and

interest.Experiment, video and film show, demonstration, problem solving.

Eliciting of ideas To be aware of the student’s prior knowledge.

Experiment, small group discussion, concept mapping and presentation.

Restructuring of ideas

Explanation and exchanging ideas

Exposure to conflict ideas

Development of new ideas

evaluation

To realize the existence of alternative ideas , ideas needs to be improved, to be developed or to be replaced with scientific ideas.

To determine the alternative ideas and critically assess the present ideas.

To test the validity of the present ideas.

To improvise, develop or to replace with new ideas.

To test the validity of the new ideas.

Small group discussion and presentation.

Discussion, reading, and teacher’s input.

Experiment, project and demonstration.

Application of ideas To apply the new ideas to a different situation.

Writing of individual’s report on the project work.

Reflection To accommodate ones idea to the scientific ideas.

Writing of individual’s report on the project work, group discussion, and personal notes.

Table 3: Needham Five Phases Constructivist Model

Adapted from “Buku Sumber Pengajaran Pembelajaran Sains Sekolah Rendah, Jilid III” ( 1995) ms 15-16.

Further reading:Needham, R & Hill, P ( 1987 ), Teaching Strategies For Developing Understanding in Science. University of Leeds.

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Osborne Generative Model

The generative learning model, developed by Roger J. Osborne and Michael C. Wittrock (1983), is both a model of how children learn and a model of how to teach children. This constructivist model is based on the premise that children come to the classroom with a body of prior knowledge that may or may not be compatible with the new concept being presented in the science lesson. The learner must be able to connect between prior knowledge and new information to successfully construct new meanings. This teaching model outlines a series of steps for a well-designed lesson, the preliminary, focus, challenge, and application phases as shown in the table 4

Interactive Model ( Faire And Cosgrove )

Learning is an interactive process (which actively engages the learner) not a passive exercise in transmission of knowledge. Interactive learning promotes development of scientific process skills, development of conceptual understandings, student ownership of process and products of learning.

Learning begins with an initiating event, which motivates and directs the learner ' s attention to the task of learning e.g.

a question to be answered a problem to be solved a challenge to be met a discrepant event to be explained

Learning proceeds to children actively engaging in the learning process by:

asking their own questions stating their own existing ideas proposing hypotheses designing fair tests investigating and exploring refining their ideas stating and presenting their findings

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Table 4: Phases Of The Generative Model

PHASE ACTIVITY

The preliminary phase - includes any activity that allows the teacher to find out what prior knowledge the students have relevant to the new concept. This can be as simple as a brief pre-test, or it may include a quick demonstration or activity that provides a discrepant event (an activity with a surprising, unexpected results). This is an opportunity for the teacher to find out what prerequisite knowledge the students lack or what misconceptions the students have that may interfere with their understanding of the concept.

In conducting a lesson on buoyancy (sinking & floating), teacher may find that some students may lack a thorough understanding of the concepts density, mass, and volume. A lack of this knowledge will block students’ ability to put together a sound understanding of buoyancy. If the preliminary phase reveals that students lack that knowledge, the teacher then knows she/he will have to include time to develop those prerequisite concepts.

The focus phase - provides an activity (which may be a hands-on inquiry activity or a brain-teaser) that gives the students an opportunity to play around with an example of the concept (such as playing around with objects that sink or float). To create a discrepant event that stimulates the students’ curiosity, we would include objects that students would expect to sink, but which actually float.

Students in small groups conduct an experiment investigating buoyancy of several objects. Conducting these activities in small groups is very effective. The students often automatically experiment with the materials, discuss their results, and challenge and test their explanations/ideas together.

The challenge phase - is a time for the students to compare their own ideas with those of others. Although this can be done individually, it is a powerful group learning activity. Class members are encouraged to debate, challenge, and test each other’s ideas, while the teacher encourages all the students’ ideas and provides them with challenging questions about their explanations. It is up to the students to test the ideas and eliminate ideas that they determine don’t work. The teacher facilitates this by helping them figure out how to test out each idea. When the teacher determines that the students are cognitively ready to understand the scientific version of the concept, the teacher can present the concept.

Students present their findings and exchange ideas; students debate and test out their explanations. Teacher explains the concept of buoyancy.

The application phase - provides students with opportunities to find out whether the concept is applicable to a variety of situations. We suggest that students be given opportunities to examine at least five situations to which the concept can be applied. New examples may provide new twists on the concept that will lead to a new round of discussion and testing

In the lesson on buoyancy, the aluminum foil boat does not appear at first to fit the standard concept. The concept must be re-defined to include boats. Finally, the teacher can refine the students’ understanding by providing one or two non-examples of the concept, i.e., examples that look like they should follow the rule but, on closer examination, do not. This will help deter students from automatically applying the new concept to all situations.

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The teacher 's role in an interactive learning environment

Provide the initiation to learning (by posing the question, challenge, problem or discrepant event and motivating the learners to the learning task).

Facilitate the learning activities by:

defining the learning environment (e.g. grouping, access to materials, setting the time frame, defining expectations)

probing children ' s ideas offering guidance in the formation of hypotheses helping children refine and focus their questions helping children set up their investigations providing feedback and encouragement in the children's design of fair

tests challenging children to test, apply, refine and extend their ideas.

Sequential activities in interactive model are shown in the schematic diagram below :-

Figure 7: Schematic Diagram of Interactive ModelAdapted from “ Buku Sumber Pengajaran Pembelajaran Sains Sekolah Rendah, Jilid III” ( 1995 ), ms 67.

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PreparationTeacher and students choose a topic and

search for information.

Pre-requisite KnowledgeTeacher determines student’s prior

knowledge

Exploratory ActivityStudents investigate the topic through reading ,

asking questions and discussion

Students Ask QuestionsStudents pose questions regarding the topic

Doing ResearchTeacher and students select questions to study

in greater detail.

ObservationStudents present their findings and teacher

observes for changes in students’ concepts.

ReflectionTeacher guides student to reflects on what they have

learned and how they have learned.

Comparison

Additional Questions


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Activity 1:Define constructivism and its attributes in science classroom practices.

Activity 2: Discuss the various techniques to identify children’s alternative framework on the topic electricity.

Activity 3:Choose a topic of your specialize area and discuss briefly the teaching and learning activities using constructivist approach.


Multiple Intelligence

Multiple Intelligence (MI) theory states that there are at least seven different ways of learning anything, and therefore there are "seven intelligences": body/kinesthetic, interpersonal, intra-personal, logical/mathematical, musical/rhythmic, verbal/linguistic and visual/spatial. In addition most all people have the ability to develop skills in each of the intelligences, and to learn through them. However, in education we have tended to emphasize two of "the ways of learning": logical/mathematical and verbal/linguistic.

Much of this material is from: Seven Ways of Knowing: Teaching for Multiple Intelligences by David Lazear. 1991. IRI/Skylight Publishing, Inc. Palatine, IL.

Body/Kinesthetic Intelligence

This intelligence is related to physical movement and the knowing/wisdom of the body. Including the brain's motor cortex, which control bodily motion. Body/kinesthetic intelligence is awakened through physical movement such as in various sports, dance, and physical exercises as well as by the expression of oneself through the body, such as inventing, drama, body language, and creative/interpretive dance.

Interpersonal Intelligence

This intelligence operates primarily through person-to-person relationships and communication. Interpersonal intelligence is activated by person-to-person encounters in which such things as effective communication, working together with others for a common goal, and noticing distinctions among persons are necessary and important.

Intra-personal Intelligence

This intelligence relates to inner states of being, self-reflection, metacognition (i.e. thinking about thinking), and awareness of spiritual realities. Intra-personal intelligence is awakened when we are in situations that cause introspection and require knowledge of the internal aspects of the self, such as awareness of our feelings, thinking processes, self-reflection, and spirituality.

Logical/Mathematical Intelligence

Often called "scientific thinking," this intelligence deals with inductive and deductive thinking/reasoning, numbers, and the recognition of abstract patterns. Logical mathematical intelligence is activated in situations requiring problem solving or meeting a new challenge as well as situations requiring pattern discernment and recognition.

Musical/Rhythmic Intelligence

This intelligence is based on the recognition is based on the recognition of tonal patterns, including various environmental sounds, and on a sensitivity to rhythm and beats. Musical/rhythmic intelligence is turned on by the resonance or vibration effect of music and rhythm on the brain, including such things as the

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human voice, sounds from nature, musical instruments, percussion instruments, and other humanly produced sounds.

Verbal/Linguistic Intelligence

This intelligence, which is related to words and language both written and spoken, dominates most Western educational systems. Verbal linguistic intelligence is awakened by the spoken word, by reading someone's ideas thoughts, or poetry, or by writing one's own ideas, thoughts, or poetry, as well as by various kinds of humor such as "plays on words," jokes, and "twists" of the language.

Visual/Spatial Intelligence

This intelligence, which relies on the sense of sight and being able to visualize an object, includes the ability to create internal mental images/pictures. Visual/spatial intelligence is triggered by presenting the mind with and/or creating unusual, delightful, and colorful designs, patterns, shapes, and pictures, and engaging in active imagination through such things as visualization guided imagery, and pretending exercises.

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Well done, take a break now! Time for a cup of coffee before you move on to the next topic


Topic 4: Teaching Primary Science by Inquiry and Discovery

In science, children are being encouraged to be the discoverers of the nature of things. Children need to be engaged in ‘real experimentation’ and ‘discovering things by themselves. Active participation of children in science lessons is possible through inquiry and discovery methods. What do you understand by teaching primary science by inquiry?

Inquiry

Inquiry is the process of defining and investigating problems, formulating hypotheses, designing experiments, gathering data, and drawing conclusions about problems. The figure 8 illustrates the basic steps in using the Inquiry Model

Figure 8: Basic Steps in Using the Inquiry Model

Source: Lang R.H,& McBeath A. ( ). Strategies and Methods for Student-centered Instruction, pp 280

The steps of inquiry as suggested in the inquiry model are as follows:

1. Ask open-ended and high level questions, solicit and accept divergent responses and probes and redirects;

2. Avoid telling answers or suggesting what students must do next; instead, act only as a clarifier or facilitator;

3. Encourage and reinforce your students in taking more responsibility for making learning discoveries;

4. Be supportive of their responses, suggestions, and deferring views and interpretations, but insist that they back up their comments with logical evidence;

5. Teach students how to phrase or write the concepts, principles or generalization that they are forming;

6. Encourage them to act on current verified “best answer”, understanding that additional evidence may lead to new “best answer”;

Set up the problem situation

Learner applies concepts or generalization

Learner forms concepts or generalization

Set up experiences to bring out contrasting

elements

Provide experiences to bring out essential

elements

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7. Teach and encourage students to distinguish between “healthy “ and “negative” skepticism;

8. Encourage student-student interaction and sharing by stressing support and cooperation rather than competition;

9. Point out any errors in logic, misuse of inferences or generalizations that are too broad but allow your students to make their own correction as far as possible, for if you supply corrections, you may defeat the purpose of inquiry;

10. Be sure to identify errors and verify conclusions and generalizations in non-threatening ways.

The essence of inquiry approach is to teach pupils to handle situation, which they encounter when dealing with physical world by using techniques applied by research scientists. Inquiry means teachers design situations so that pupils are caused to employ procedures research scientists used to recognize problems, to ask questions, to apply investigational procedures, and to provide consistent descriptions, predictions, and explanation which are compatible with shared experienced of the physical world.

Discovery

Discovery is the mental process of assimilating concepts and principles. Discovery processes include

Observing Classifying Measuring Predicting Describing Inferring

A lesson can range from free discovery where the teacher’s role is minimal at one end to pure expository learning where the teacher’s role is maximum at the other. In between this expository-pure discovery continuum lays guided discovery. When both rule and solutions are given, the teaching method is thoroughly expository; when neither is given, it is pure discovery.

Teaching strategy

EXPOSITION (teacher lectures, instructs, demonstrates)

GUIDED DISCOVERY EXPOLARION OR FREE DISCOVERY(INQUIRY)

Teacher role

Active/Dominant Active/facilitator Facilitator

Student role

Passive or active Active Active

Source: Carin. A. and Sund. R. Teaching Science Through discovery (6th Edition) 1989. pp 91.

Figure 9: Dominance/passivity of science-teaching methods

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Guided Discovery

Guided discovery science teaching/learning methods blend teacher-centred and student-centred techniques. The younger the children the more you must present information and guide them; the older children, the less you present, the more they will initiate work with you as a facilitator, resource person, and encourager, and guide. Guided discovery science teaching/learning tries to help students learn to learn. Guided discovery helps students acquire knowledge that is uniquely their own because they discovered it themselves. Guided discovery is not restricted to finding something entirely new to the world such as an invention or theory. It is a matter of internally rearranging data so your students can go beyond the data to form concepts new to them. Guided discovery involves finding the meanings, organization, andstructure of ideas.

Inquiry should not be confused with discovery. Discovery assumes a realist or logical approach to the world, which is necessarily present in inquiry. Inquiry tends to imply a constructionist approach to teaching science. Inquiry is open-ended and on going. Discovery concentrates upon closure on some important process, fact, principle or law, which is required by the science syllabus.

In this section, you will learn three inquiry methods commonly used in Primary School Science. They are experimentation, investigation, and demonstration.

Experimentation

An experiment can also be defined as the setting up of a planned situation; the situation is planned to provide data that will either support or not support your hypothesis. If the manner in which a variable can be manipulated and the type of response expected is clearly stated in the hypothesis, then much of the work in planning how to collect data has been done. After that, you define the variables operationally, specify the conditions under which the work will be carried out and you are set to carry out the experiment. You observe and measure the variables and repeat the procedure if necessary. Later you make inferences in trying to explain the result while you are interpreting the data. Then you relate the data to your hypothesis and then finally, you make another inference to come to the conclusion of the experiment.

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The experimental process can be summarized in the following diagram:

Figure 10: Steps in Experimentation

Students involved in experimentation should follow all the steps as shown in figure 10 so that they will master all the science process skills. However, when students are given the experimental procedures and asked to carry out the activity, we do not consider this as experimentation. This is because students are not undergoing all the steps of experimentation but merely carrying out a learning activity.

Scientific Problem

Theory

Conduct experiment

Hypothesis

Observation and data collection

Data analysis

Findings/Results

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Conclusion


Investigation

Investigations are one of the types of practical learning involved in science education. Other types of practical work in science include demonstrations by the teacher and illustrative work conducted by children. Illustrative is largely predetermined by the teacher with one main route expected to lead to a conclusion. This has previously been the bulk of practical science education in many schools.

In contrast, an investigation is largely determined by the children with many possible routes and outcomes. Therefore, children have to take decisions at many points in the investigation. It is not totally predetermined by the teacher, although the teacher still manages the learning.

Investigations involved a number of interrelated intellectual and manual processes:

Hypothesizing Questioning Planning Experimenting Measuring Recording data Interpreting evidence Evaluating evidence Making inferences Communicating Predicting

Although set out here as a list, these do not form a series of short steps in a linear process. Investigating is more complex and cyclical in nature. More sophisticated investigation will be more complex still, with several internal loops within the overall cyclical process.

Demonstration

Demonstration is one of the common techniques used by primary science teachers.The key feature is the division of the demonstration into three parts: prediction, observation and explanation.

Predict – Observe – Explain (POE)

In a POE activity students are given a situation and are asked to predict what will happen when some change is made. Having made their predictions, the change to the situation is made and the students are asked to make careful observations of the results of the change. Next, the students are asked to sort out and to explain the differences between what they expected to happen and what did actually happen. The strategy is readily applied to many situations in science, although in some biological examples the changes might be slow.

Predictions

During the prediction stage, the purpose is to allow the teacher and the students to become aware of what they are thinking. The wide range of understanding held by the students about the situations emerges in the discussion.

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A number of conditions apply;

1. The situation must be one in which students feel comfortable making a prediction; the situation is sufficiently familiar to allow students to suggest an adequate hypothesis and to offer supporting reasons why it might be true. Situations in which students to guess because they don’t have sufficient pre-knowledge are not useful for the POE technique.

2. Sometimes the teacher will deliberately choose a situation in which the result will be a surprise for the majority of the students. However, this should not be the rule. It is important that on many occasions, situations are selected in which many of the students will be able to make correct predictions.

3. Students should feel able and should be encouraged to take risks in making their predictions and to talk about their reasons without evaluations by the teacher or the class. While students are making their predictions, the ideas of right and wrong are irrelevant.

4. It’s important that commitment to a prediction is sort from every student prior to the observation being made. Often it is appropriate that is be written-reducing the threat for individuals.

Observations

The activity may be done as a teacher demonstration or as a student activity. The teacher must ensure the students observe carefully and that they discuss these observations. Often two students will observe the same event in very different ways, commenting on different aspects of the situations or even seeing quite conflicting things.

Explanations

The process of reconciling students’ predictions and their observations, which is the final stage of the strategy, is usually not an easy task. Students will need a chance to talk with on another about their explanations, the differences between their predictions and observation and often further experiments will need to be suggested.

Explain how experimentation and investigation can promote inquiry learning

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Oral Questioning

Since the age of Socrates, questions have been considered essential to effective teaching. There are many ways you can use questions. You might, for instance, use questions as a pre-test to discover what your students already know about the topic or what aspect of the topic interest them most. You might begin a new lesson by asking a challenging or thought- provoking question to motivate your students.

Questioning Procedures

Although questions vary widely in their content and form of delivery, there are certain commonly used steps in the classroom question-and-answer process.

Figure 11: Basic steps in asking questions

What’s in a question, you ask: Everything. It is the way of evoking stimulating responses or stultifying inquiry. It is, in essence, the very core of teaching.

(Dewey, 1933. p.266 )

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Get attention of all

Ask question

Have students respond to whole class

Wait

Call for response

Avoid Call-outs Chorus answers Repeating

questions Repeating

answers Run-on questions Leading questions

multiple questions Blanket questions Yes/no questions Poor distribution

Student must understand question and know conditions of response

3 – 5 seconds

Spread question among volunteers and non-volunteers alike

Wait briefly after students has responded


The suggestions below can help you frame and use questions productively.

Secure attention

Before you a single question, secure the undivided attention of the whole class. By so doing, you will reinforce your students’ sense that they are part of the classroom teaching/learning process. You can use eye contact, gestures, and changes of position to secure and whole your students’ attention.

Distribute questions widely

Distribute your questions widely, selecting students from among both volunteers and non-volunteers to give answers. Avoid choosing responders to any set patterns (e.g. by rows); if participation is predictable, students will be encouraged to let their attention wander, and management problems are like to ensue.

Distribute questions realistically

Encourage active participation in lesson development by matching the difficulty of the questions to the capability of the students. Do this tactfully, however, to avoid sending negative messages about certain students’ abilities. Treat incorrect responses as “deferred successes” rather than as failures.

Pause productively

When you have asked questions, pause for 3 to 5 seconds before you call on a particular student to respond. This practice provide students with “think time” during which you can look about the room as a signal that you may choose any student to answer, and that no one “of the hook”.

Use “wait time”

Once you have named a respondent, allow 3 to 5 seconds for a response. Learning to use wait time effectively takes courage and perseverance: at first, you may fear that if you wait 3 or more seconds after asking questions, your lesson will drag. In fact, while that wait time may seem long to you, it seldom does to the students. To encourage your students to frame their replies in complete, well-worded and well-constructed statement, you must give them time to think their answers through.

Require courteous group behaviour

Train your students to raise a hand if they wish to volunteer an answer. This courteous behaviour, which gives the floor to one person at a time, allows you to acknowledge correct responses and use them more productively; a student answer may lead to your next question or to a redirect (passing the question along to another student to obtain clarification or comment) and, thus, become part topic’s development. Also train your students to direct their answers to the whole class and not just to you, to emphasize that answering question is part of a cooperative learning experience, and that all students share responsibility for lesson development.

How can you use different kinds of questions for different purposes?

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According to Carin and Sund (1989), there are three classification systems that can serve as a guide to evaluate questions.

1. Convergent and divergent2. Levels of thinking using Bloom’s Taxonomy3. Processes – Critical and Creative Thinking

In this section, you will discuss the convergent and divergent questions only. Further reading on Levels of thinking using Bloom’s Taxonomy and Processes –Critical and Creative Thinking please refer to Carin. A. and Sund. R. Teaching Science Through discovery (6th Edition) 1989. pp 157- 160

Convergent questions (closed questions)

Convergent questions focus on specific, teacher acceptable answers, and reinforce the “correct” answers you may be looking for.

Use convergent questions to guide the student and to evaluate what he or she sees, knows, or feels about the event. Convergent questions help direct the student’s attention to specific objects or events. They also sharpen the student’s recall or memory faculties. These questions evaluate student’s observational and recall skill, allow you to adjust your teaching to present ideas again, or go back to less complicated ideas.

Divergent questions (open-ended questions)

Divergent questions are those that encourage a broad range of diverse responses.

Today’s science/technology/society complex problems often need more than one solution. Therefore, divergent thinking is a particularly important skill. Using divergent question will broaden and deepen your students’ responses and involve them in thinking creatively and critically. Divergent questions stimulate children to become better observers and organizers of the objects and events you present. Many of these questions guide children in discovering things for themselves, help them to see interrelationships, and make hypothesis or draw conclusions from the data.

questions answers

questions

answers

answers

answers

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1. Identify whether the following questions are convergent or divergent

Convergent/Divergent Questions Answers

1. What do you think I am going to do with this material?

2. What conclusions can you from the data/

3. Can anything else be done to improve the design?

4. Is baking powder a producer of a gas

5. Do you think heat caused the plant to wilt?

6. What can you tell me about pollution in this area from

the photograph?

7. Which of these animals would you like to be and why?

8. Would you say you have sufficient information to come

to that conclusion?

9. What ways can you make the lights burn with the wire,

switch, and battery?

10. What thins can you tell me about the world during the

time of the dinosaurs?

2. How do you change the other questions in 1. to make them more divergent?

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TUTORIAL QUESTIONS

1. Construct a concept map to show your overall understanding on the Primary School Science Curriculum by using the following key concepts:

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Concept maps should:Be networks with nodes representing concept terms and lines representing directional relations between concept pairs.Be hierarchical with super ordinate concepts at the apex when the subject domain is clearly hierarchical.Contain labeled links with appropriate linking words.Contain cross links such that relations between sub branches of the network are identified.Be structural representations generated by students freely and not constrained by a given structure.Be labeled by students in their own words.Be based on a few (say 10 or fewer) important concepts in the subject domain.Either permit students to provide their own terms in a subject domain, or provide concept terms in the assessment.Contain sufficiently clear, unambiguous instructions to permit students to search memory in the desired manner and to establish appropriate criteria against which to test alternative responses.

Guidelines on how to construct a concept map

Scientific skills, thinking skills, scientific attitudes, teaching and learning strategies, curriculum specification.


2.

The National Science Education Philosophy aims to develop scientifically and technologically literate Malaysians.

Can you identify the characteristics of a scientifically and technologically literate citizen?

In your opinion, how can a scientifically and technologically literate citizen contribute to a progressive society?

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NATIONAL SCIENCE EDUCATION PHILOSOPHY

In consonance with the National Education Philosophy, science education in Malaysia nurtures a Science and Technology Culture by focusing on the development of individuals who are competitive, dynamic, robust and resilient and able to master scientific knowledge and technological competency.


Summary

Science is the study of natural phenomena in a systematic manner. The three major elements of science are processes, products and attitudes. Science is regarded as ordered knowledge of natural phenomena Technology uses the knowledge of science to design products to improve the

quality of life. Primary School Science Curriculum is divided into 2 levels: Levels 1 year 1-3;

Levels 2 year 4-6. The primary science curriculum focuses on scientific skills, thinking skills,

scientific values, content organization and teaching and learning strategies. According to Piaget’s cognitive theory, children undergo four stages of

cognitive development, namely, Sensorimotor stage (0 – 2 years) Pro-operational stage (2 – 7 years) Concrete-operational stage (7 – 11 years) Formal operational stage (11 – 14 years)

Piagetian Theory implies that all children follow the same developmental pattern regardless of culture and general ability. Children perceive things differently.

In Bruner’s discovery Learning model, students’ involvement is active in the learning process. The teachers’ role as a guide and advisor in the student’s search for information rather than as a giver of information.

Ausubel’s Verbal Learning model says that instructions should be systematic and given in a deductive manner.

Gagne’s Learning hierarchy is based on the idea that all learning must proceed from simple to the complex in well-defined stages.

In constructive approach students tries to make sense of what is taught by trying to fit it with his/her experience. There are three commonly used teaching models using constructivist approach; interactive model, generative model and Needham’s five-phase model.

Multiple Intelligence (MI) theory states that there are at least seven different ways of learning anything, and therefore there are "seven intelligences": body/kinesthetic, interpersonal, intra-personal, logical/mathematical, musical/rhythmic, verbal/linguistic and visual/spatial.

Inquiry in science teaching applies to any procedure where children are involved in problem solving. Inquiry means going beyond the known information to gain new knowledge.

In the discovery approach, children are permitted to manipulate material and to investigate on their own.

In guided discovery lesson the teacher poses questions that lead the children to investigate a common problem.

In the experimental approach the children formulate and test hypotheses. This approach teaches children to define and control variables in experimental situations, to experiment, and to interpret data, as well as to hypothesize.

Basic to student-centred instruction is the teacher’s ability to ask stimulating questions that facilitate creative, critical thinking and the manifestation of multiple talents. Questions can be classified as convergent or divergent.

References

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Carin. A and Sund. R. B (1989), Teaching Science Through Discovery, 6th Ed. Merrill Publishing Company, London

Esler W.K and Esler M.K (1996), Teaching Elementary Science, 7th Ed., Wadsworth Publishing Company, Washington.

Fleer. M and Hardy. T (1996) Science for Children, Prentice Hall, Australia pg 7

Grant. P., Johnson. L and Sanders. Y.(1990), Better Links: Teaching Strategies in the Science Classroom., STAV Publishing, Australia.

Martin. R., Sexton.C and Franklin. T(2001), Teaching Science For All Children, 2nd

Ed., Allyn and Bacon, Singapore.

Ministry of Education Malaysia (2002), Integrated Curriculum for Primary Schools, Curriculum Specifications Science Year 2, Curriculum Development Centre, Kuala Lumpur.

Trowbridge.L.W, Bybee. R.W and Powell J.C (2000) Teaching Secondary School Science: Strategies For Developing Scientific Literacy, 7th Ed., USA.

http://www.ppk.moe.my

http://www.exploratorium.edu/IFI/resources/res.../constructivism.htm

http://www.learningmatters.co.uk

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http://www.learningmatters.co.uk/

http://www.exploratorium.edu/IFI/resources/res.../constructivism.htm

http://www.ppk.moe.my/

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07 Teaching Science To Children