0835065_Initial Language Teacher Education in Chubut_2009

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Initial Language Teacher Education in Chubut.

Where we are, where to go.

Dario Luis Banegas

Student number: 0835065

Dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

MA in English Language Teaching

Centre for Applied Linguistics

University of Warwick

June 2009


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract i

List of acronyms ii

Chapter 1 Introduction 1

Chapter 2 Literature review 3

2.1 Theory and Practice in LTE 32.1.1 The developmental position 5

2.2 Theory-Practice-Praxis 6

2.3 Types of knowledge in LTE 72.3.1 Content knowledge 8

2.3.1.1 Defining content knowledge 82.3.1.2 Sources of content knowledge 92.3.1.3 Language as subject-matter development 10

2.3.2 General pedagogical knowledge 112.3.2.1 Defining general pedagogical knowledge 11

2.3.2.2 Incorporating other sources 122.3.2.3 General pedagogical knowledge in pre-serviceeducation

13

2.3.3 Pedagogical content knowledge 142.3.3.1 Defining pedagogical content knowledge 142.3.3.2 Broadening the scope and sources of pedagogical content knowledge

16

2.3.3.3 Pedagogical content knowledge in programmes

17

2.4 Models of teaching 192.4.1 The craft model 192.4.2 The applied-science model 202.4.3 The reflective model 20

2.5 ILTE programmes in Chubut 212.5.1 New directions in ILTE programmes 23

2.6 In retrospection 25

Chapter 3 Method 27

3.1 Participants 273.2 Instruments 27


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3.3 Procedures 29

Chapter 4 Data analysis and discussion 30

4.1 ILTE overall view 30

4.1.1 Positive aspects 304.1.2 Negative aspects 33

4.2 Further explorations on programme impact 374.2.1 Content knowledge 384.2.2 Pedagogical content knowledge 404.2.3 General pedagogical knowledge 414.2.4 General methodological aspects 42

4.3 Balance between theory and practice 434.3.1 On theory 434.3.2 On practice4.3.3 Results under the light of models and conceptionsof teaching

4445

4.4 Balance in the knowledge base 464.4.1 Content knowledge 474.4.2 ELT pedagogical knowledge 494.4.3 General pedagogical knowledge 51

4.5 Participants and the future of ILTE 51

4.6 Summary of findings 53

Chapter 5 Conclusions and implications 55

5.1 Conclusions 555.2 Implications 56

Bibliography 58

Appendix 1 Questionnaire 63

Appendix 2 Follow-up questionnaire. Sample. 67


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Abstract

Initial language teacher education programmes continually change. However, thesechanges seldom reflect graduates opinions since programme design is generally a top-down process. The purpose of this study is to understand what foundations ILTEprogrammes in Chubut, Argentina, should feature by investigating the perceptions agroup of teachers had as regards the programmes they completed, their impact in their professional life, and how they perceived programmes could be structured in terms of thebalance between theory and practice and the knowledge base. Fifteen participants wereadministered a questionnaire and two of them also received a follow-up questionnaire for further explorations. Results showed that participants favoured practice over theory, and

that content knowledge was a key component in their teacher education. Followingparticipants perceptions, ILTE programmes could be improved if coherence among allthe components and actors in the programmes were more context-based and exercisedthoroughly. This implies that institutions and programme designers need to create spacesfor a more active participation of trainees and trainers in programme design in order toimprove coherence.


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LIST OF ACRONYMS

AR Action ResearchCLT Communicative Language TeachingEFL English as a Foreign LanguageELT English Language TeachingESP English for Specific PurposesILTE Initial Language Teacher EducationINSET In-service trainingLTE Language Teacher Education

MATESOL Masters in Teaching English to Speakers of Other LanguagesNNS Non-Native Speaker PRESET Pre-service trainingSLA Second Language Acquisition

Chapter 1


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INTRODUCTION

One fundamental aspect to investigate teachers and their practices is to begin byunderstanding their initial language teacher education programmes, that is, the balance

between theory and practice programmes feature, the knowledge base, the models of

teaching those programmes favour and to what extent they respond to trainees/teachers

expectations.

The purpose of this study is to understand what foundations ILTE programmes in

Chubut should feature by investigating the perceptions a group of teachers from this part

of Argentina had as regards the programmes they completed, their impact in their professional life, and how they perceived programmes could be structured in terms of the

knowledge base.

Therefore, the literature review of this dissertation will first focus on the balance

between theory and practice in ILTE and then discuss how this balance permeates

through the knowledge base found in teacher education. Regarding the knowledge base,

particular attention will be given to three types of knowledge: content knowledge, general

pedagogical knowledge, and pedagogical content knowledge. Following the knowledgebase, models of teaching will be analysed under the light of theory and practice in order

to fully understand ILTE programmes in Chubut, the context of this dissertation.

The method chapter will describe the participants, the instruments and how data

will be analysed together with limitations found in the process of this dissertation.

In the section devoted to data analysis and discussion, I will analyse the impact

ILTE programmes had on my participants and explore their perceptions as regards thestructural components of programmes so as to improve them in the province of Chubut,

which is my motivation for conducting such a piece of research. I firmly believe that in

order to introduce meaningful changes in ILTE in my context, we need to be more open to

receiving feedback from trainees and teachers and profit from their perceptions so as to

enhance the programmes offered.

Last, the conclusion and implications chapter will offer some avenues which could

be explored so as to improve ILTE programmes in Chubut considering participants

responses in this study.


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Chapter 2

LITERATURE REVIEW


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In this chapter, I will establish a theoretical framework to understand the features

of ILTE programmes in Chubut and what should be done to improve them.

First, I will discuss the issue of the balance between theory and practice in

programme design as it is one of the major concerns trainees usually refer to. Its purpose

is to offer a framework which will help us understand the constructs behind this debate

and how these permeate through the knowledge base found in ILTE programmes.

Second, taking Shulman (1986, 1987) as our initial step, I will explore three

particular types of knowledge found in the knowledge base: content knowledge, general

pedagogical knowledge, and pedagogical content knowledge. The aim of this section is to

centre our attention on the types of knowledge Chubut has based its ILTE programmes

on, and how their balance is connected with the theory-practice debate and models of

teacher education found.

Last, I will specifically describe ILTE programmes in Chubut in terms of their

features and what needs to be considered for their improvement.

Overall, the aim of this chapter is to move from general aspects of initial language

teacher education to elements which are directly connected with programme design.

2.1 Theory and practice in LTE

An initial word in this divide. Theory here means research-driven theories,

scholarly disciplines, and formal educational scholarship (Shulman, 1987:8-12). Theory is

seen as external, as knowledge which has been codified in terms of seminars in ILTE

programmes. To put it more simply, it comprises the foundations treated in seminars such

as Linguistics, Discourse Analysis, Second Language Acquisition, Philosophy, Pedagogy,

Methodology, Literature, and Psychology among others (Lawes, 2002:2-3).


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On the other hand, practice refers to the what-I-can-do aspect of theories of

teaching and learning. This part may be found in teacher education in the shape of

seminars such as Professional Practice, Methodology and the Practicum or in seminars

which use technology to bridge the gap (Gomez et al ., 2008; Htter et al., 2009).

It has been said that it is teachers who have fuelled the theory-practice divide as

their own craft knowledge is what determines what makes a good teacher. Because of

the way that the profession has been institutionalised, teachers feel context-bound and,

because of the pressure within a certain context, theory seems detached from the real

world. Trainees might see practice as context-bound, limited, and the best way of

acquiring rapid survival techniques. However, it is this very view which limits their

development towards a deeper language teacher education. On the other hand, trainers

regard theory as a living body which facilitates longer term effects, generalisations and

professional development since theory can be seen as context-free and therefore

applicable to more than one situation. This is what Grenfell (1998:10-11) sees as the

theory-practice divide. How can these two views be reconciled? To what extent can

theories of teaching and second language learning (Mitchell and Myles, 2004), be shaped

and made to establish a dialogue with trainees beliefs? These are questions worth

asking when designing ILTE programmes as they will shape the model of teacher

education to be adopted.

It follows then that, when it comes to ILTE programmes, the theory-practice divide

plays a significant role as it shapes trainees teaching to some extent. If programmes

adopt a particular conception, does it mean that such a view of teaching is stronger than

others making it more valid to be followed by trainees and therefore adopt a non-

compatibility position? If programmes, on the other hand, embark on an eclectic position

where all conceptions are equally valid, do they run the risk of creating confusion in

trainees as they might see the programme as lacking cohesion since several viewscoexist simultaneously? Another question could be asked in terms of chronological

development, can programmes go from prescription (science-research, and theory-

philosophy) to creativity? Such a position assumes that trainees views of teaching

develop in a linear fashion over time. As we can see, these conceptions produce a

dramatic impact on trainees as programmes may adopt one of these conceptions

emphasising the theoretical or practical side of the profession. Though Freeman and

Richards (1993) do not claim to have found a solution to this issue, they find that from the

non-compatibility position, the eclectic position and the chronological development


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position in ILTE programmes, this latter is the most intriguing to explore (ibid: 212) as it

adopts a conception of teaching linked to a framework of a professional life-span.

2.1.1 The developmental position

In this section, I will briefly discuss two studies which adopt a developmental

position as regards conceptions of teaching.

In a study carried out by investigating the construction of knowledge of teaching

by pre-service students at an elementary teacher education programme, Kroll (2004)

positions herself within the developmental view. She concludes by saying that to become

effective teachers, student-teachers need to have an understanding of theories of

teaching and learning. However, this understanding needs to be carried out in such a way

that student-teachers progressively connect these theories with their own towards a

constructivist view of knowledge. What is emphasised by Kroll (ibid: 217) is that in order

to fight back this myth of theory as being complicated and inapplicable, trainers should

develop a method of teaching which helps trainees integrate scholarly theory with their

own thinking towards a critical development of their knowledge as regards teaching.

Another study which seems to lean towards a developmental view, thus placing

more emphasis on the theoretical side of the issue, is reported by Cheng et al. (2009).

Pre-service students, though with some mixed and weak positions, seem to move from

nave beliefs at the beginning of their education to more sophisticated beliefs which

constructively integrate discipline-driven theory with their own schema and experience

from the practicum. This shift in thinking may support the idea that programmes should

adopt a developmental view as long as they take into account trainees initial beliefs. Thiscould be reflected in the fact that student-teachers might initially stay in a zone marked by

theory present in different seminars within the programme, and, as they move along they

are able to relate this theoretical or philosophical view of teaching with their own field

experience enabling them to create their own theories.

Initially, it could be concluded that the theory-practice debate may be understood

as a continuum developed over time in which student-teachers move from a conception

of teaching heavily influenced by theory to a conception in which theory and practice


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inform each other. However, another construct such as praxis, may be included in ILTE.

The theory-practice-praxis relationship is the focus of the next section.

2.2 Theory-Practice-Praxis

The theory versus practice debate in ILTE is taken further by Johnson (2006:239-

241) who asserts that this division might be better understood if we see it as

theory/practice versus praxis since this latter construct captures how theory and practice

inform each other. Praxis, then, is the sum total of experiences lived in the field, in the

practicum, when student-teachers teach a number of lessons. Praxis realises the ongoing

dialogue in trainees minds between expert knowledge and experiential knowledge in

order to achieve a better understanding of themselves as teachers and their classroom

practices.

Thus, the task for ILTE programmes is to create public spaces which legitimise

these processes so that future teachers might recognise as equally valid their praxis

understanding under the light of theory in its philosophical-scientific sense. However, this

creation of new spaces should not undermine the presence of SLA, applied linguistics or

language learning as subject-matter in ILTE programmes, for the creation of a zone which

might be termed as the anti-research approach where anything might go (Bartels,

2004:128-129; Tarone and Allwright, 2005:8-10).

As we can see, the balance between theory and practice towards praxis could be

ethereal in teacher education. We must be aware that a noticeable disparity of strands

(Tarone and Allwright, 2005:12-13) will respond to a particular conception of teaching andconsequently to a specific model of language teacher education from a whole array of

possibilities. This poses interesting questions: How do ILTE programme designers see

the field? Is it training and therefore practice/praxis supported by what efficient teachers

do the core of the curriculum? Or is it seen as development and education, and therefore

programmes will be based on a deeper understanding of issues which transcend a

particular context (Lawes, 2002:42)? These questions entail a balance in the knowledge

base in terms of content and pedagogical knowledge. This is the concern of the following

section.2.3 Types of knowledge in LTE


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This section will discuss the features of three main aspects of knowledge in LTE:

content knowledge, general pedagogical knowledge, and pedagogical content

knowledge. The aim will be to situate our discussion within a matrix which moves from

contemplating the knowledge base to how this is actually crystallised in the context of this

dissertation.

In two seminal articles, Shulman (1986, 1987) presents his position about the

knowledge base in teacher education after observing how knowledge of pedagogy and

content evolve in the minds of novice teachers. Shulman argues that the knowledge base

cannot be founded only on research on effective teaching (Freeman and Johnson,

1998:399) or on a view of teaching which sees the teacher as able to understand what

needs to be taught and how it is to be taught (Shulman, 1987: 7). Therefore he proposes

a set of categories which might illuminate what underlies teachers understanding of how

to promote and enhance learners intellectual capacity.

His categories are:

content knowledge ; general pedagogical knowledge , with special reference to those broad principles and

strategies of classroom management and organization that appear to transcend subjectmatter; curriculum knowledge, with particular grasp of the materials and programs that serve as

tools of the trade for teachers; pedagogical content knowledge , that special amalgam of content and pedagogy that is

uniquely the province of teachers, their own special form of professional understanding; knowledge of learners and their characteristics; knowledge of educational contexts, ranging from the workings of the group or classroom,

the governance and financing of school districts, to the character of communities andcultures; and

knowledge of educational ends, purposes, and values, and their philosophical andhistorical grounds.

(Shulman, 1987: 8, my bold type)

As stated at the beginning of this section, I will only focus on content knowledge,

general pedagogical knowledge, and pedagogical content knowledge. It could be argued

that curriculum knowledge might be a source of pedagogical knowledge whether it is

general or content specific. Moreover, knowledge of learners, educational contexts

together with educational ends could also be interpreted as part of pedagogical

knowledge since the how we teach will be deeply rooted in our understanding of our learners, who they are and how they behave in the general educational matrix.


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2.3.1 Content knowledge

In this section, I will define this type of knowledge and the sources which play a

crucial role in its constitution. In addition, I will focus on the issue of subject matter and

how this could be further divided into three vital aspects: knowledge of the language,

improvement of the target language, and cultural knowledge.

2.3.1.1 Defining content knowledge

Content knowledge refers to the amount and organisation of knowledge per se in

the mind of the teacher and which makes the distinct subject matter of the profession

(James, 2001:5; Shulman, 1986:9; 1987:9). As regards teachers of EFL, Roberts (1998:

105) points out that having content knowledge means that teachers show knowledge of

the systems of the target language and competence in it. This means that teachers

should have declarative knowledge of the language (Bailey et al., 2001: 23; Day

1990:43), i.e. knowledge about English grammar and phonetics, for instance, and be

simultaneously proficient and confident users of it as they will become language models

for their learners (Barnes, 2002:199).

Although it is asserted that well founded content knowledge provides ground for

authority and supports the fact that teaching is a profession (Ball, 2008:404), it is

essential that we acknowledge that, in ELT, English may be a foreign language taught as

a subject (Widdowson, 2002:67-68). This means that teachers will present a pedagogical

construct of the language as a real entity, which should not be equated to the languageas experienced by its native speakers. Thus, we might suggest that teachers in

Argentina, for example, should not be expected to know English as if it were their L1.

Such an expectation would fail to recognise the numerous contextual features which

might go against this goal in language teacher education.

The following sections will look at the issue of sources of content knowledge with

special attention to subject matter and its improvement since such an aspect is crucial in

contexts such as Argentina where English holds a foreign language status.


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2.3.1.2 Sources of content knowledge

The sources for this type of knowledge will come from, as Shulman (1987, 8-9)

describes, scholarship content disciplines related to English as a system. However, when

we refer to content knowledge, we mean not only knowledge about the language but also

the development of the different components of communicative competence. Needless to

say, some of the sources, such as Linguistics, Phonetics, and Grammar, will enhance the

linguistic competence of prospective teachers. With reference to Linguistics, Bartels

(1999:46-56) adopts a cautious stance. He believes that linguistic knowledge will become

meaningful to student-teachers provided it shows them how this knowledge can be used

for language teaching. Linguistics teaching, Bartels continues, should be for developing

knowledge of interlanguage analysis, and developing skills in analysing second language

learning in specific students. I believe this may be a rather functional view of Linguistics

as it is expected to be applied to teaching only. In my view, Linguistics needs to be

explored both for its own sake and for language teaching purposes since teachers, as in

my experience, may become involved in projects which deal with language studies

without direct educational implications.

On the other hand, it is also claimed that communicative competence will be best

achieved if intercultural understanding is included in programmes (Byram, 1999:73;

Woodgate-Jones, 2008:2-3). Also, Davies (2002:63) states that a social component in the

shape of sociolinguistics offers ILTE both knowledge about the complexities of speech

communities found in the English language, and skills which will inform curriculum

choices among varieties of English. This sociolinguistic source within content knowledge

applies to both subject matter knowledge, the language as a system, and cultural

awareness. To speak about communities of practice in this matrix is to includeinformation about World Englishes as another source for knowledge-base whose origin is

not American or European (Brown, 2002:446).

Therefore, this interest in the social aspect of content knowledge can be seen

under what we might call general cultural knowledge whose sources could be History,

Geography and Literature among others which see language in society. Thus, we can

make a distinction between subject-matter knowledge , i.e., knowledge of the languageconnected with linguistic competence, and general cultural knowledge , which aims at


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expanding student-teachers cultural capital in their ILTE. Such a distinction should be

remembered throughout this dissertation as these two aspects will be seen as vital

components in ILTE programmes.

2.3.1.3 Language as subject matter development

Initially, we might consider the fact that once a certain level of proficiency has

been achieved, it is necessary to improve that level. For instance, Berry (1990:97-98)

asserts that this language improvement can be achieved if two components are solidly

shaped in LTE programmes: content knowledge and language improvement.

Both Berry (1990) and Cullen (1994: 164-165) stress that this emphasis in

language improvement is mostly felt in EFL contexts where teachers do not have many

opportunities of interaction with speakers whose English is their L1. Berry (1990), for

instance, conducted a study in Poland where teachers were asked to rank Methodology,

Theory (theories of language and teaching) and Language Improvement in order of

importance according to their needs. Language Improvement was ranked first followed by

Methodology. Theory did poorly in participants ranking as they felt they had had enough

of it.

Another example of the impact of language improvement comes from a study in

which supervisors from MATESOL programmes in the US and Canada were interviewed

about the connections between being a good teacher and having a proficient level of

English. Llurda (2006) concludes that there is a strong belief that NNS teachers with a

high language proficiency level will be better prepared to teach at more contexts and all

levels as language proficiency is thought to be closely linked with self confidence in ateaching situation. This expected degree of knowledge depends on the type of ELT model

advocated since some might focus on linguistic competence while others will emphasise

language awareness (Woodgate-Jones, 2008:2). All in all, this study suggests that

language improvement as one aspect of content knowledge should be reinforced in

programmes.

When ILTE programmes need to enhance the content knowledge of prospective

teachers, there are some suggestions to follow. First, language can be improved if mostcomponents of a programme are taught through the medium of English. Second, both


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language and methodology components can be integrated if the concept of loop input

(DelliCarpini, 2009) is explored as it will combine content with communicative strategies

at the same time. In a nutshell, loop input refers to the combination of content of what is

to be learnt with the process on how to learn about it, i.e., an alignment of content and

process (Woodward, 2003:301). For instance, if trainers need to introduce the concept of

dictogloss, they can use the very same technique to present its procedures and benefits

so that trainees enhance their professional vocabulary and use the language in new

situations.

Before moving on, one crucial aspect should be remembered from this section.

Knowledge about the language is vital in ILTE programmes in Argentina (Zappa-Hollman,

2007) since it will provide prospect teachers with more professional opportunities.

2.3.2 General pedagogical knowledge

This section will define general pedagogical knowledge and will outline its sources

considering their influence in the knowledge base of teacher education.

2.3.2.1 Defining general pedagogical knowledge

By general pedagogical knowledge, Shulman (1987:8) means aspects about

pedagogy in general regardless of the content knowledge teachers are to be specialised

in. The sources of this type of knowledge come from philosophy, pedagogy, psychology

and research interested in capturing a general framework of teaching and learning.

Following Richards and Farrell (2005:9-10), general pedagogical knowledge

empowers prospective teachers with self-awareness of the educational system as a

whole together with an understanding of learners supported by studies in psychology and

pedagogy. In addition, this type of knowledge paves the way to build in pedagogical

expertise as well as an understanding of curriculum and materials which do not

necessarily come from the realm of ELT. I particularly favour this concept of teacher

empowerment through general pedagogical knowledge as it allows teachers to have abetter understanding of their educational context which transcends the ELT classroom. In


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other words, teachers of English are teachers who have specialised in ELT and therefore

they need to be aware of the dynamics of the educational system as a whole.

2.3.2.2 Incorporating other sources

In the development of general pedagogy, there has been an expansion as regards

the sources which feed in this field. Though at the beginning, as it was outlined above,

philosophy, pedagogy and history of education together with research-driven knowledge

were the bases for a context-free view of education, it has been pointed out that during

the 1980s a new body of research emerged: teacher cognition (Crandall, 2000:38;

Freeman and Johnson, 1998:400). Broadly speaking, by teacher cognition we mean

general pedagogy taking into account teachers beliefs together with their experiences as

teachers and students. Based on this view of pedagogical construction, Wilson and

Cameron (1996:182) indicate that student-teachers also start education programmes with

established perceptions of what teaching is based on their experiences as learners at

previous stages. Johnson (2006:236) states that teacher cognition research has been

able to present a more complex picture of who they are, what they believe in, and how

they understand the processes of teaching and learning guided by their own experience.

This new conceptualisation of teacher cognition has opened up the exploration of

a sociocultural turn in teacher education. Here then, the social activities student-teachers

engage in become crucial as this learning with others will impact tremendously on their

development (Johnson, 2006:237-238). This impact will validly generate teachers as

users and creators of knowledge derived from their own social activities in their history.

General education research informs us that once the notion of teachers as theorisers in

their own right has been acknowledged, this recognition has to permeate through thedifferent components of a teacher training programme in such a way that teachers

knowledge, as it were, can be articulated with scholarly sources present in general

pedagogical knowledge (ibid:241-242).

2.3.2.3 General pedagogical knowledge in pre-service education

Within the realm of beliefs in the development of general pedagogical knowledge

we can look at studies carried out in general pre-service education. The following studies

discuss how general pedagogical knowledge impacts on trainees.


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One study which could shed some light regarding general pedagogical knowledge

in pre-service education is Cheng et. al . (2009). Bachelor of Education students were

administered a questionnaire followed by a semi-structured interview so as to explore to

what extent knowledge derived from research and other sources could change student-

teachers beliefs on teaching and learning. Results show that participants possess mixed

beliefs and inconsistencies between epistemological beliefs, i.e., beliefs regarding how

knowledge can be acquired, and conceptions of teaching. These views underpin their

tendencies to favour teacher-centred or student-centred approaches. The study

concludes by highlighting that conceptions of teaching are belief-driven and therefore a

relational pedagogy and holistic approaches (Korthagen, 2004) should be included in pre-

service programmes so as to create a new dialogic space among trainers and

prospective teachers. This suggestion seems to confirm what Gutirrez Almarza

(1996:73-74) asserts. He stresses that teacher education programmes should allow

student-teachers to examine their own beliefs and pre-training experiences to understand

how these can relate to education knowledge. It is believed that teachers beliefs do not

try to undermine ILTE; on the contrary, they can contribute to make it more meaningful. In

other words, these beliefs will not clash with content coming from scholarly sources since

trainees will not find theories of learning and teaching as distant from them but rather as a

powerful source which will help them reach a better understanding of their own

conceptions of teaching and learning.

Another study which looks at the way student-teachers construct their knowledge

of pedagogy is reported by Cheng (2005). In a longitudinal study, Bachelor of Education

students at Hong Kong Institute of Education were interviewed so as to understand their

construction of knowledge during the field experience component of the programme.

Findings show that participants construction of pedagogical knowledge is enhanced by

working in interaction with peers and supporting teachers. The study concludes that by

adopting a view of learning and knowledge of teaching as socially shared to supportstudent-teachers, their initial development will be characterised by an integral vision of

their learning and field experience. Learning with others will lead to deeper individual

learning. This study may also be compared to another study conducted by Van Zoest and

Stockero (2008). They report that a systematic use of reflection helps student-teachers

revisit their conceptions of teaching and support their exploration of self-as-teacher.

Needless to say, this self-as-teacher will feed in both general pedagogical knowledge as

well as pedagogical content knowledge.


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As a preliminary framework, we might see that this type of knowledge is crucial in

ILTE, in any teacher education in fact, as it provides student-teachers with a view which

integrates scholarly theories with their own beliefs and experiences.

General pedagogical knowledge also needs to infuse other aspects of a

programme. When content knowledge, i.e. subject-matter knowledge and situated cultural

knowledge, intersects with general pedagogical knowledge, a new element for the

knowledge-base becomes essential. This new type of knowledge will make all the

difference between teachers of English and other areas. We are referring to pedagogical

content knowledge.

2.3.3 Pedagogical content knowledge

To provide a picture of pedagogical content knowledge together with its source is

a risky enterprise. To put it simply, it is to outline English Language Teaching, since

pedagogical content knowledge for us means how to teach English as a foreign

language. Here, I will particularly focus on the macroaspects and the sources which

inform this strand in a curriculum since they will determine how pedagogical content

knowledge is realised in ILTE programmes.

2.3.3.1 Defining pedagogical content knowledge

First, let us consider what Shulman understands by pedagogical content

knowledge:

A second kind of content knowledge is pedagogical knowledge, which goes beyondknowledge of the subject matter per se to the dimension of subject matter knowledgefor teaching . () the particular form of content knowledge that embodies aspects of content most germane to its teachability.

(Shulman, 1986:9)


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His conceptualisation of this particular type of knowledge is central to teacher

education as it will establish the difference between a teacher who teaches English

because this is his first language, and university student who studies English from

another who studies how to teach English.

For Shulman (1987:9), pedagogical content knowledge is core as

() it identifies the distinctive bodies of knowledge for teaching. It represents theblending of content and pedagogy into an understanding of how particular topics,problems, or issues are organized, represented, and adapted to the diverse interestsand abilities of learners, and presented for instruction. Pedagogical content knowledgeis the category most likely to distinguish the understanding of the content specialistfrom that of the pedagogue.

From this quote we can detect a converging zone where general pedagogy,

subject-matter and the teaching of a particular content interact to distinguish one teacher

from another in terms of specialisation. This aspect of teacher education will provide

trainees with examples, illustrations, explanations, demonstrations, and essential topics

to deal with the content their learners are supposed to learn at school.

The sources which will contribute to this portion of the knowledge-base will come

from scholarship in content disciplines, education material and structures, and action

research as understood by Widdowson (1990) and Smith (2004), all under the scrutiny of

what Shulman (1987:11) calls wisdom of practice, that is, procedural knowledge informed

by experience.

Pedagogical content knowledge assumes that student-teachers understand that

they will teach English as a subject and therefore they need to initially explore what has

been called pedagogic valency (Widdowson, 2002:79-80). This could be interpreted as

the ability to deconstruct our knowledge of the language in such a way that we make it

accessible for learners to approach. However, a word of caution can be found in Richards

(1987:3) as regards how trainees are taught English in their programmes. He calls for an

approach which truly connects subject-matter knowledge and practice in terms of

procedural knowledge as preparation for language teachers. This means that trainers

who are in charge of teaching the language should use those methods being taught in

Professional Practice, for instance. Basically, the point he is advancing here is the

apparent lack of internal coherence inside ILTE programmes since a possible

contradiction in the approaches being advocated can also be found within the strand


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which represents pedagogical content knowledge. One of the main challenges or

expectations that pedagogical content knowledge faces when realised in seminars is this

practise what you preach idea or congruence between what teacher educators claim and

what they actually do in their classes (Swennen et al ., 2008). Especially in this strand,

trainers are expected to reflect the methodologies taken on board and claimed to be in

favour of (Wallace, 1991), a fact which seems to be neglected in Chubut.

2.3.3.2 Broadening the scope and sources of pedagogical content knowledge

As this type of knowledge also deals with the restructuring of content knowledge

for the purposes of pedagogy to our learners benefit, we could also include here

knowledge of our learners. Their needs, characteristics and expectations will very much

influence the decision-making processes teachers engage in when in practice. Due to

these factors, Ball et al. (2008) distinguish two subdomains within pedagogical content

knowledge: knowledge of content and students, and knowledge of content and teaching.

This awareness as regards subdomains needs to be systematically introduced at an initial

stage of teacher education since this understanding will illuminate the relationship

between teacher-learners or peers. Pedagogical content knowledge should inform

trainees that their actions transcend the classroom dimension influencing more than their

learners lives inside the classroom.

Thus, this influence needs to be seen within a social matrix that is crystallised in a

context-responsive curriculum. If general pedagogical knowledge needs to take care of

trainees expectations, so does pedagogical content knowledge. It is not enough to know

who trainees are. It is also vital to recognise the context for which these trainees are

being educated. Pedagogical content knowledge needs to be rooted in the context future-teachers will deal with in their immediate experiences. To begin with, ILTE programmes

should always have in mind that, as in the case of Argentina, they need to be responsive

in terms of the status of English as a foreign language (Carrier, 2003; Liyanage and

Bartlett: 2008). Second, programmes need to be aware of the following fact: to what

extent the methodologies, approaches, techniques being offered as tools are feasible in

the trainees contexts.

All in all, the sources explored above will inform ILTE programmes in the form of seminars or modules student-teachers are supposed to follow throughout their education.


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The next section will look at how pedagogical content knowledge permeates through

components such as Methodology and the Practicum.

2.3.3.3 Pedagogical content knowledge in programmes

In this section I will emphasise how pedagogical content knowledge is first

reflected in the practicum with special reference to collaborative work and teacher

cognition during this period in pre-service teacher education.

Pedagogical content knowledge can be channelled by means of subjects such as

Applied Linguistics, Professional Practice, and Methodology among other labels to teach

the how of the profession.

One vital component in most programmes is the practicum or field experience,

that is, the teaching of a number of classes at a school or different schools depending on

the goals and programmes student-teachers are taking. Crookes (2003:12) views the

practicum as an opportunity to develop self-directed behaviour towards independence,

which does not have to be confused with individuality. Either in PRESET or INSET

courses, teachers are encouraged to work collaboratively to explore peer coaching and

peer observation, mentoring, or team teaching like in ILTE programmes in Argentina.

Collaboration, as Knezevic and Scholl (1996:79) and Richard and Farrell (2005) put it, is

a powerful vehicle for developing knowledge of teaching.

So far we can see how the concept of teacher cognition inevitably permeates

through pedagogical content knowledge as another source which informs this base.

Together with a general belief on pedagogy, student-teachers also enter ILTEprogrammes with preconceived ideas about foreign language pedagogical knowledge.

The goal of a programme will be to develop a richer theoretical framework for future

teachers to resort to (Watzke, 2007).

Nonetheless, there is still some suspicion concerning the real extent of the impact

of teacher cognition and sociocultural theory in the construction and enactment of ILTE

programmes. As Freeman and Johnson (1998:402) put it, there is still the conviction that

trainees need to be filled qua empty vessels with content knowledge and theories of teaching and exposed to a range of different practices in the belief that those experiences


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will be automatically transferred to real classroom situations once trainees obtain their

first teaching post. They also suspect that even though programmes may offer three

different strands, there is little cohesion since what is reflected in one strand seems

virtually nonexistent in another (Berry, 1990:102). These suspicions have raised another

issue, the balance of sources of pedagogical content knowledge. Yates and Muchisky

(2002, in Freeman and Johnson, 2004:119-120) fear that the whole interest in teacher

cognition and focus on trainees might be detrimental to Second Language Acquisition as

a vital source of information in this knowledge type. In other words, it is thought that

theories of learning and teaching languages might be discarded and replaced by what

prospective teachers believe as regards how languages are learnt and therefore should

be taught.

In addition, there has been an interest in the inclusion of a third language in ILTE

programmes as another informing source. According to Flowerdew (1998), the

incorporation of a third language into the curriculum makes trainees aware of the

experience of foreign language learning as they learn a new language. This experience

seeks to help trainees reflect on the complexities underlying language learning as they

become students again, a situation which they need to be familiarised with as their

students will undergo the same process. Inevitably, such an experience produces a

remarkable impact on trainees as they see pedagogical content knowledge in action

through the learning of another language. How this module is carried out in terms of

lesson procedures may have a greater impact than a vast amount of time devoted to

Applied Linguistics as a separate module within the curriculum.

As regards pedagogical content knowledge as a whole, it may be agreed that its

presence in curricula should be greater as compared to general pedagogical knowledge

as the latter will inform the former about pedagogy applied to a specific subject matter.

Also, it may be agreed that the practicum should be a vital component within this type of knowledge as it will allow student-teachers to build bridges between their education as

teachers and classroom practices provided context-responsive methodologies are

encouraged (Hayes, 2009; Richards and Lockhart, 1994).

We may say that, regardless of knowledge type, the knowledge base has common

sources for planners to exploit: scholarly disciplines connected with research, action

research, professional practice and teacher cognition. These mayor sources interact with

each other and inform each other making the base develop towards a deeper understanding of the field as a profession in its own right. Furthermore, we may say that


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these strands of knowledge also show the tension between what could be seen as the

everlasting division between theory and practice and models of teaching. In our next

section, we will briefly look at this issue within ILTE programmes.

2.4 Models of teaching

In this section, I will show how the balance of theory and practice together with the

knowledge base are realised in the models of teacher education curriculum designers

may favour.

Wallace (1991) explains that professional expertise in language teacher education

can be reached through three models:

The craft model

The applied science model

The reflective model

Let us begin our discussion by looking at the features and assumptions behind the

craft model.

2.4.1 The craft model

This model, according to Wallace (1991), leans towards practice and praxis and

the concept of learning by demonstration. In other words, this model represents the

concept of apprenticeship of observation (Grenfell, 1998:7-8; Randall and Thornton,

2001:35) by which a novice or trainee learns from observation and talking with a more

experienced teacher who is assumed to be of the effective kind, whatever that means.

Thus, the emphasis of this model is on the practical aspects of teaching supporting that

this observation will lead to explore the underlying reasoning for the actions observed.


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In addition, this model includes some knowledge of the context, and learners and

material, but then this knowledge is absolutely context-bound as what the novice learns is

effective only in the context of observation. There is no room for generalisations or

trainees beliefs, and if these are imbued, the danger is that trainees may trial the very

same techniques they observe with other classes obtaining unexpected results, let alone

other surprises.

2.4.2 The applied science model

The applied science model, which can be found in ILTE in Chubut, is heavily

based on the transmission of knowledge from language educators to student-teachers.

The kind of knowledge to be imparted comes from research findings. These findings are

used to develop theories of learning, general pedagogical knowledge, which are then

applied to practice of a particular field, pedagogical content knowledge.

Once again, in this model, teaching is perceived as training and therefore student-

teachers are provided with prescribed exercises and know-how technicalities to enable

learners to practise. This view, though in contrast with the craft model as it is context-free,

also falls short in the sense that it tends to overgeneralise principles of teaching and the

foundational research behind them. It is a top-down model by which trainees are

transmitted expertise from western wisdom (Bax, 1997:233; Hayes, 2009).

2.4.3 The reflective model

The reflective practitioner model with the central role of reflection (Crandall,

2000:39) has had a major influence since the 1980s. In a nutshell, Grenfell (1998:14)

explains that in this model problems encountered in the praxis are framed for reflection

and understanding of action.

Grenfell (1998:14-15) feels that this stress on reflection is very much dependenton personal experience, something which trainees may lack and therefore find it difficult


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to draw connections between reflection and theory either derived from research or

disciplines which make up the body of pedagogical knowledge. Other limitations of this

conception can be found in Roberts (1998:51). In his view, this capacity for creative

problem-solving appropriate to the context the teacher is in falls short as it neither applies

to expertise as a whole, nor does it offer empirical evidence which supports the

processes which are supposed to be found in reflection in action.

One example of this concern can be exemplified through a study carried out in

Taiwan (Liou, 2001). Observation reports and practice teaching reports of prospective

teachers at an EFL teacher education programme were analysed to see the development

of critical reflection over a six-week period. Though they showed a progress from

description to reflection, their contributions were not as substantial as expected.

Therefore, the study concludes that more reflection should be encouraged so as to trigger

a deeper critical reflective development. Again, we might feel that this implication is purely

top-down rather than bottom-up as it only sees the issue from the trainers viewpoint.

As regards the reflective model as a whole, it might be concluded that, though this

model assigns great importance to teacher cognition and seeks to establish solid

connections between ILTE with classroom practices, it is feared that it may discourage

prospective teachers from becoming more involved in knowledge coming from scholarly

sources. It may be due to this fear that the model of teacher education adopted in Chubut

is closer to the applied-science model than the reflective model.

2.5 ILTE programmes in Chubut

This last section will discuss how the issues presented so far are evidenced in the

programme the participants of this study completed.

First, let us consider how this ILTE programme is structured in terms of strands,

i.e., the knowledge base:

STRAND YEAR SUBJECT PERCENTAGE of hours allocated to the strand in

the programme


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General Formation 1 Professional Practice IResearch in Education I

27.9 %

2 Professional Practice IIResearch in Education II

3 Professional Practice III (in English)Research in Education III

4 Professional Practice IV (in English)Specialised Formation 1 Learner, Learning and Context I 7.2 %

2 Learner, Learning and Context II3 Learner, Learning and Context III4 Sociocultural Issues and Diversity

Subject OrientedFormation

(all in English exceptL3)

1 English IMorphology and Syntax IPhonetics IEnglish Culture

64.9 %

2 English IIMorphology and Syntax IIPhonetics IIIntroduction to English Literature

3 English IIIPhonetics IIIEnglish Literature ISecond Language Acquisition

4 English IVEnglish Literature IIAmerican Literature

Discourse AnalysisPragmaticsL3: Portuguese

Figure 1: New curriculum for English teacher education programmes (Ministerial Resolution 323/03, my translation)

What may be found particularly confusing here is the weak correlation between

the names of each strand and the subjects which constitute them. What the Ministry of

Education of the province of Chubut (2003:28-30) has termed General Formation

covers those seminars and subjects which are related to pedagogical content knowledge

and the practicum together with action research in education. Consequently, there seems

to be confusion between general pedagogical knowledge and pedagogical content

knowledge. The Ministerial Resolution (RES M 323/03) emphasises that the contents to

be covered in this strand are closely linked to research in ELT and the practice in the

profession towards the practicum experience.

Second, the specialised formation strand groups those aspects of general

pedagogical knowledge which are common to all initial teacher education programmes.

This strand is also interested in creating a reflective dimension in the programme.


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Therefore it seems that there is a movement from a pure applied science model of

teaching to a model which also takes into consideration the reflective model.

Third, the last strand is the only one which seems to be closely related to what is

understood as content knowledge. However, compared to past programmes, the content

within each subject remains virtually untouched and ways of delivering, that is, the

methodology adopted by trainers rather unchallenged or framed.

Even though the programme is welcomed, there is still certain dissatisfaction with

to what extent these changes are trainee-responsive in the sense that the official

documents do not acknowledge any participation of trainees, teachers or trainers actively

involved in the realisation of these programmes in the province.

2.5.1 New directions in ILTE programmes

Since each province voiced the dissatisfaction of graduates and teacher trainers,

the Ministry of Education of Argentina released in 2007 a document called Lineamientos

Curriculares Nacionales (National Curricular Guidelines) in order to unify criteria and

curricula as each province had interpreted past releases in very different ways. These

new guidelines for initial teacher education in general are based on the conception of

strands from a very different standpoint. They give more attention to the pedagogy behind

each strand and reinforce the idea of loop input, and collaborative work both intra-

institution as well as inter-institution with universities and schools where student-teachers

will eventually carry out their practica.

Strands have been redefined and this time, percentages of hours allocated toeach strand have been suggested. Each province, then, is expected to reflect these

guidelines in each programme designed. So far, there are no new programmes for ELT in

Chubut, that is, what is missing is the adaptation of current programmes to these new

guidelines.

The strand which is given between 50-60 % of total hours is Specific Formation and

encompasses both subject-matter knowledge and specific didactics for that knowledge

field. The document strongly advises designers and trainers to reflect on their teaching


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the content being taught by making use of not only lectures, but seminars, and modes of

learning that consider learners and what they bring into the classroom.

The second strand as regards percentages, 25-35%, is General Formation. It is

thought as a solid theoretical framework for the humanities and general principles in

Education. It is recommended that subjects such as History, History of Education,

Philosophy, Intercultural Communication, Pedagogy and New Educational Technologies

be taken into account when designing the curriculum for a particular programme. The

document emphasises that these subjects should be mainly theoretical and offer

moments of reflection after student-teachers have acquired sound theoretical knowledge

of the field. It may seem clear that the Ministry of Education is trying to infuse more theory

rather than reflection in this particular strand.

Last, the Professional Practice Formation strand is allocated between 15-25% of

contact hours. This strand is thought as oriented towards the learning of specific skills for

the teaching profession at educational institutions through the progressive participation

and involvement in different socioeducational contexts in the city where the teacher

training institution which runs different initial teacher education programmes is located.

Furthermore, teacher education institutions should establish solid relationships with

schools and school-based mentors for student-teachers to carry out observations,

tutorials and micro teaching sessions as a process which will culminate in the extended

practicum.

Under the light of our discussion, it may be perceived that the new official

guidelines attempt to organise ILTE programmes following the knowledge base discussed

in this dissertation. In addition, the guidelines suggest a more concrete dialogue between

theory and practice and attempt to achieve a more balanced approach in terms of theory-

practice since it is felt that previous programmes tended to favour practice and reflectionat the expense of scholarly sources in programmes. However, what this new proposal

seems to disregard is prospective-teachers needs and assess the impact that ILTE

programmes have in graduate teachers as they leave the institutions which run those

programmes to obtain their first teaching positions (Zappa-Hollman, 2007).

2.6 In retrospection


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In an attempt to summarise some key issues, we may look back at what we have

discussed so far.

We started by establishing the importance of theory and practice together with the

knowledge base stemming from Shulman (1986, 1987). First, we offered an overview of

content knowledge which we divided into subject matter knowledge and cultural

knowledge. Second, an outline of general pedagogical knowledge and pedagogical

content knowledge was presented with their sources and development in time. In

connection to sources, Crandall (2000) acknowledges the cornerstone place that applied

linguistics, education theory, languages and literature have in the knowledge base of

teacher education. However, she also is aware of the greater focus on practical

experience, classroom-centred research and teacher cognition. These changes have

resulted in a move to process oriented theories of learning, teaching, and teacher

learning as teachers prior learning experiences have been accepted to play a role in the

picture. Underlying these changes, there exists the concern that teaching be viewed as a

profession which has a defined knowledge base at the start but which can be further

developed by sustained in-service programmes.

Here we can see how all elements come to a dialogue with each other and how

one conception of teaching, of education in general in fact, impinges on other aspects.

One conception of teaching will activate certain types of knowledge more than others,

impacting on the way theory and practice are perceived. Likewise, this conception

together with a particular framework of knowledge base will dictate the model of teaching

to be implemented in ILTE programmes. Yet, some questions remain. To what extent do

these programmes and endeavours truly reflect what teachers expect or believe to be the

most effective ways of initial teacher education? If we claim to be trainee-centred, are

their interests considered to a degree where programmes change their macrostructures

to suit the trainees needs or their perceptions after graduating? Overall, how can weimprove our ILTE programmes in Chubut following teachers perceptions in terms of the

balance in theory-practice and the knowledge base so that they really respond to the

particular context of situation where English language teaching and learning takes place

in Chubut? This is the research question which guided the present investigation.


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Chapter 3

METHOD

This chapter will present a description of the participants who took part in this

study and the instruments used to collect and analyse the data obtained.


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3.1 Participants

The participants in this study were 15 teachers graduated from ILTE programmes

in Chubut. Initially, seventy teachers of English were sent electronic mails asking them toparticipate in this study. Thirty-four teachers responded positively and consequently they

received a questionnaire (Appendix 1). However, only less than half of this initial

population sent the questionnaire completed, a fact which may be considered a limitation

when data collection is exclusively done electronically due to geographical constraints of

the researcher.

The programmes the fifteen participants attended were four years long and run by

teacher training institutions in different cities of Chubut. Most participants obtained their

EFL teacher training degree 10 years ago and started their teacher career afterwards.

3.2 Instruments

As regards instruments, participants were sent a questionnaire in March 2009

concerned with their views and experiences with reference to the programmes they had

taken. Since the research question of this study was how ILTE programmes in Chubut

could be improved following graduated teachers perceptions in terms of the knowledge

base, this questionnaire attempted to measure teachers attitudes, opinions and beliefs

about their ILTE programmes. The scope of this dissertation will only allow reporting on

the data collected through questions 1, 2, 4, 6 and 8.

Following Drnyei (2003:25-47) and Nunan (1992), the questionnaire combined

closed-ended question items which had to be rated in terms of intensity of agreement,

and open-ended questions which took the form of sentence completion so as to guide

participants responses.

Questions 1 and 2 asked participants about their years of teaching experience and

how long their programmes had been. Question 4 sought to analyse further ILTE

programmes in terms of impact according to the knowledge base they featured.


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As regards the knowledge base teacher education programmes should feature,

question 6 asked participants to divide 100% into four areas according to the balance

they believed ILTE programmes could offer. The areas given responded to the divisions

studied in this dissertation: content knowledge was in fact divided into two areas, subject-

matter knowledge related to knowledge of/about the language and, general cultural

knowledge in the sense that components such as Literature and History introduce cultural

knowledge as well promote language improvement since they are expected to be taught

in English. Content knowledge was divided as such so as to facilitate participants

understanding of the components that represent this type of knowledge in the

programmes they followed. Therefore, the percentages given to these two areas will be

added and appear in our discussion under content knowledge. The next area was general

pedagogical knowledge and the remaining area was pedagogical content knowledge

which was termed ELT (English Language Teaching) pedagogical knowledge in order to

help participants notice the difference between these two types of pedagogical

knowledge.

In order to explore further the answers directly linked to the role of trainers and

general pedagogical knowledge, two participants, who will be quoted using numbers 12

and 15, were sent a follow-up questionnaire (Appendix 2) based on their answers to

questions 3 and 4. Both participants were singled out for this set of open-ended questions

since their answers in general offered a negative perception of programmes. I only

focused on the negative perceptions so as to centre my attention on the aspects that

need to be addressed first by the institutions running the ILTE programmes.

This method of triangulation (Cohen and Manion, 1980) helps combine two

instruments so as to obtain more insightful perceptions from participants. On the one

hand, the closed-ended questions in the questionnaire presented a tendency which

lacked depth in terms of quality of the data collected. On the other hand, the open-endedquestions in the follow-up questionnaire two participants agreed to answer, allowed me

and the participants to reflect and understand more deeply some of the issues under

analysis. This improvement in quality of data impacts on the validity of the study by

enriching the research findings. (Cohen and Manion, 1980; Grix, 2004).

3.3 Procedures


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The data collected through the questionnaire will be presented in the next chapter

following the same order as it appeared in the instrument afore mentioned. In addition,

the data gathered by means of two follow-up questionnaires will be used to support the

data analysis and interpretation of the questions and answers which motivated such

further explorations.

As regards how data will be analysed and presented to facilitate their

interpretation, different approaches are to be adopted.

Categorisation has been chosen for the analysis and discussion of the items in

question 4, and the reasons suggested by participants for questions 6 and 8. Answersgrouped under the categories proposed have been treated by means of scores. These

scores represent the number of answers found in each category. Only question 6 has

received a slightly different treatment. In the first place, results obtained by mean

calculation are shown using a pie chart (Figure 5). In addition, modes, i.e., the score that

occurs most frequently in a set (Brown, 1988:67), are given together with the highest and

lowest scores which some participants provided so as to show the range of answers

some items obtained.

All in all, results have been categorised when answers were open and treated, in

some cases, to show the central tendency of responses.

Chapter 4

DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

In this chapter I will present the results obtained from each question and discuss

these findings under the light of the literature review in this dissertation.


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4.1 ILTE overall view

The fifteen participants of this study, according to their answers in questions 1 and

2 had an average of ten years working as teachers and their ILTE programmes were four

years long.

Since the purpose of this study is to find out what aspects need to be improved in

ILTE programmes in Chubut, participants were asked to mention at least three positive

and three negative aspects of their experience. This was the aim of question 3 in the

main instrument of this study.

4.1.1 Positive aspects

Participants were asked to list at least two positive aspects. Their forty responses on

positive aspects may be grouped under four categories:

- Methodological aspects

- Pedagogical content knowledge

- Content knowledge

- Trainers

Figure 2 below shows that most answers (Y=number of answers) reflected an interest

in highlighting content knowledge (subject-matter and cultural knowledge), followed by

trainers, methodological aspects and pedagogical content knowledge.

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

Contentknowledge

Trainers Pedagogicalcontent

knowledge

Methodologicalaspects

Serie1

Figure 2: Positive aspects in ILTE


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The programmes interest in offering a solid base for content knowledge was

acknowledged by most participants. In their responses, it is clear the distinction between

subject matter concerning knowledge of the language, and cultural knowledge as a

means to language improvement (Berry, 1990). Most participants expressed views which

could be represented through these quotes:

Learning Grammar and Phonetics (P1) 1

Learning Linguistics (P3)Intensive syllabi in English Language and Grammar (P6)Learning about English culture (P10)Learning about other countries through Literature and History (P11)Improving my language skills through Literature (P12)Learning about other cultures through Portuguese (P13)

It is clear from these quotes that participants valued their exposure to differentaspects of and about the target language. It was their view that mastering English was

paramount in their professional education, a position which is similar to Berrys study

(1990). This mastery was not only associated with the language itself but also with the

cultural aspects that entail learning a language that is to be taught as a subject in the

educational system in Chubut. One particular aspect to observe is that some participants

also valued the presence of an L3 in the programme, in this case Portuguese. One

participant who expanded on this positive aspect asserted that

It was very enriching to our training since we had the opportunity to experience howlearning a new language feels on the side of the student. (P13)

The study of another language may have helped participants reflect and

experience again how a language may be learnt (Flowerdew, 1998) and, to some extent,

share what their own learners may undergo in the process of learning a foreign language.

The next category to be interpreted is trainers. Participants mostly valued their

attitudes. However, trainers knowledge of content was considered within the following

responses:

Inspiring and dedicated trainers (P6)Demanding trainers (P11)

These views seem to encompass all the positions that are derived from the

conceptions of teaching present in Freeman and Richards (1993:209). However in1 The P and number in brackets represent participants in the study.


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participants responses concerned with negative aspects, it is trainers who received most

of their attention.

As regards pedagogical content knowledge in its varied components, participants

viewed the practicum, classroom observation, and learning ELT methodology as positive

aspects:

Observing classes and imitating older teachers (P11)Creating your own way of teaching instead of following books (P12)

These contributions seem to emphasise teachers interest in practice and

experience rather than in theories which inform this type of knowledge. This tendency

may show that the participants of this study possessed and art-craft conception of

teaching which could fuel the dichotomy between theory and practice.

As for methodological aspects, this category covers all those responses which

were related to overall features of the programmes. Most participants commented in

positive terms about the following features:

- Cooperative work

- Written and oral final exams

- Writing assignments and papers- Making presentations

- Reading input

Since the most acknowledged aspect was cooperative work, we might assume

that participants valued learning with their peers. This fact supports the belief of learning

as a social activity (Johnson, 2006) which can be encountered and explored at all levels

of education.

All in all, this initial exploration of positive aspects in ILTE programmes shows that

what participants valued the most as trainees was the learning of the English language,

and their trainers. It is interesting to notice that even though this was a programme to

obtain a teaching degree, participants answers did not place this aspect over others. To

them, it appears, the key is subject-matter knowledge. This assumption could reflect the

belief that good models of the language entail good teachers of the language, that is,

teachers effectiveness, whatever that means, is derived from their language proficiency.


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4.1.2 Negative aspects

Participants were also asked to list at least two negative aspects. Their thirty

responses on negative aspects have been grouped under the following categories:

- General pedagogical knowledge

- Pedagogical content knowledge (including the practicum)

- Subject-matter knowledge

- Theory-Practice

- Trainers

The figure below shows (Y=number of answers) that most participants were

concerned with trainers, followed by general and pedagogical content knowledge, the

theory-practice balance, and last, subject matter knowledge.

0123

456789

T r a

i n e r s

G e n e r a

l

p e

d a g o g

i c a

l

k n o w

l e d g e

P e d a g o g

i c a

l

c o n

t e n t

k n o w

l e d g e

T h e o r y -

P r a c

t i c e

S u

b j e c

t

m a

t t e r

k n o w

l e d g e

Serie1

Figure 3: Negative aspects in ILTE

Regarding the category trainers, participants greatest concern was with theseemingly lack of pedagogical preparation of trainers to carry out the programme. This

negative aspect was also supported by the fact that, according to the participants, some

trainers tended to focus solely on their subject-matter and showed certain disparity

between content and methodology. This might suggest that they expected loop input from

their trainers, that is, a closer relationship between content and methodology to introduce

that content (DelliCarpini 2009; Woodward, 2003:301).

Participants expected to find in their trainers a model of teacher for their ownprofessional education. This expectation could be exemplified by one response:


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1998), a position which may clash with trainees own theories (Wilson and Cameron,

1996:182).

Another aspect that appeared recurrently was the fact that this type of knowledge

was mainly taught in Spanish, the participants L1. This could be interpreted as a

shortcoming in the programmes since participants seemed to favour that all subjects were

taught in English as a way of improving their English proficiency (Berry, 1990). One

participant expanded on this issue by expressing that

I had very little time to study and improve my English. I ended up dedicating 70 % tothe Spanish subjects and 30% to the subjects in English. Spanish teachers were muchmore interested in how many pages the assignments had than on how good our assignments were. (P12)

Even though this quote also shows some methodological concerns which will be

explored below, this participant felt that subjects in Spanish acted in detriment of those

taught in English, implying that if these had been in English, her attitude towards them

might have been more positive as the target language was the medium of instruction. All

in all, it could be said that due to the fact that Spanish was the language used,

participants did not benefit from general pedagogical knowledge as much as they would

have desired if English had been used. It could be argued, then, that language choiceacted as a barrier which prevented them from benefiting from subjects such as

Psychology or Philosophy.

With reference to negative aspects which can be grouped under pedagogical

content knowledge, the practicum is the most problematic. Those participants who

mentioned this aspect expressed that on the one hand, the practicum period was rather

short and only at the end of their programme and that they were expected to produce

several lesson plans and follow them closely. This concern seems to be related to the

next category, theory-practice. However, if we consider both positive and negative

aspects of this category, not all participants viewed the practicum, for instance, similarly.

What can be concluded is that while they found the experience fruitful, it could have been

extended over a longer period of time.

As stated above, the theory-practice debate over balance covers the three types

of knowledge present in figure 3. First, some of the negative comments belonging to

general pedagogical knowledge bear an intimate relation to this category. The


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participants felt that not only there was more emphasis on scholarly disciplines, but also

lack of relationship between input and opportunities to experience content or feeding back

the theoretical stance of a course into their own explorations.

Regarding the last category of negative aspects, subject-matter knowledge was

thought to be threatened by the fact that, according to some responses, there was not

enough feedback on language improvement from trainers, and Grammar and Phonetics

were only present as separate subjects in two years of the programme.

No feedback for language improvement (P7)I had Grammar and Phonetics in years 1 and 2 only (P8)

It follows that participants would have liked to receive more L2 input not only

through general pedagogical subjects taught in English but also by increasing their

exposure to studies about the English language. So far we may say that participants

stressed the importance of subject-matter knowledge in their initial teacher education.

This could be understood if we bear in mind that opportunities to use the target language

are scarce and teachers usually believe their level is not good enough to be teachers of

English in a foreign language context. Although the programmes the participants attended

did have content knowledge as a priority in terms of hours allocated, there is a need to

have this strand increased together with a more extended use of English as medium of

instruction.

Initially, it may be argued that the most positive aspect of ILTE programmes in

Chubut stems from the content knowledge strand. This attitude reveals participants

adherence to a conception of teaching where knowledge of the subject is paramount in

their education. On the other hand, trainers and pedagogical knowledge appear to be

more controversial than other aspects. First, participants responses revealed that trainers

were thought to be responsible for the success of a programme and that they were

expected to show the connections that there exist between theory and practice in

teaching. When trainees cannot see such links in theory-practice, the former may be

discarded, and reliance on the latter appears to increase.

4.2 Further explorations on programme impact


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The positive impact of the programmes was further explored in question 4 of the

questionnaire which asked them to rate a set of items (Figure 4) according to positive

influence in their teacher education.

The items participants had to refer to could be categorised as follows:

- Content knowledge: a, b, c, d, k.

- Pedagogical content knowledge: f, g, h, j, m, n, o, q, u, x.

- General pedagogical knowledge: s, t.

- General methodological aspects: e, i, l, p, r, v, w.

The following figure (Figure 4) shows the number of responses under each item and

intensity in the scale. The order of the items reproduces the table participants had to

complete.


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Figure 4: Impact of ILTE programmes in participants

4.2.1 Content knowledge

Let us begin our analysis by focusing on the content knowledge category. This

category encompasses knowledge of the system and competence in it (Roberts,

1998:105), cultural knowledge (Woodgate-Jones, 2008: 2-3) and how this knowledge was

effectively explored by the trainers in charge of this strand and the impact it caused onparticipants.

S t r o n g

l y

a g r e e

A g r e e

P a r

t l y a g r e e

P a r

t l y

d i s a g r e e

D i s a g r e e

S t r o n g

l y

d i s a g r e e

a- Learning English Grammar and Phonetics. 14 0 0 0 1 0 b- Learning Linguistics. 9 3 1 0 2 0c- Learning Literature. 12 3 0 0 0 0d- The way trainers taught me a b c above. 4 5 4 0 0 2e- Feedback from trainers. 4 3 7 0 0 1f- The way trainers taught Methodology and Professional Practice. 4 0 5 0 5 1

g- The way the practicum was organised. 2 3 5 0 4 1

h- The theoretical aspect of Methodology. 4 4 4 1 0 1i- Taking final exams (written and oral). 7 3 2 0 3 0

j- The practical aspect of Methodology. 6 4 4 0 1 0k- Learning Culture, History and Geography of English speaking

countries.5 6 2 0 2 0

l- Working on my own. 8 4 2 0 1 0m- Observing classes. 7 5 3 0 0 0n- The practicum. 8 3 3 1 0 0o- Learning Methodology. 7 4 2 0 1 1

p- Feedback from other student-teachers. 7 6 2 0 0 1q- Studying Second Language Acquisition. 8 5 1 0 0 1r- Working collaboratively. 8 6 0 0 0 1

s- Learning general pedagogy and psychology. 5 7 1 0 0 2t- Learning theories of education in general. 2 7 4 0 0 2u- Reading about how to teach skills, grammar, pronunciation 8 2 3 0 1 1v- Writing assignments, papers. 8 4 2 1 0 0w- Making presentations. 10 3 1 0 0 1x- Evaluating and designing material. 10 3 0 1 0 1


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Regarding knowledge of language, this can be recovered from items a and b .

Almost all participants strongly agreed that learning English grammar and phonetics in

the first place and Linguistics in the second place had a positive influence in their teacher

education. These results support what participants expressed as one of the most positive

aspects of programmes as a whole. Therefore, the stress on subject-matter knowledge

stands unchallenged by other components in the programme. Within content knowledge,

cultural knowledge was also acknowledged as positive. Learning Literature, and, to a

lesser extent, learning Culture, History and Geography were seen as having a positive

impact on teacher education.

However, this positive attitude seemed to disperse along the intensity scale when

it came to evaluating the methodologies trainers adopted to teach content. Even though

all answers were located within the positive side, participants tended to consider this item

differently. It follows that, one the one hand, participants reflected positively towards

content but were able to draw a distinction between content and methodology. This

distinction, in my opinion, seems to be connected with some of the negative aspects

highlighted above, mainly those concerning trainers ability to teach in this strand.

In one of the follow-up questionnaires, participant 12 was asked to expand on her

dissatisfaction with item c . She said that

Some teachers did not teach us how to analyze a book. On Linguistics we were onlygiven books

Documents

0835065_Initial Language Teacher Education in Chubut_2009