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NATURE & CULTURE:NATURE & CULTURE:How Culture is How Culture is

EssentialEssential

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E.g.: Fact/data. USA. E.g.: Fact/data. USA. The South is more The South is more violent than the North.violent than the North.

In the South men are more likely to kill an In the South men are more likely to kill an acquaintance than in the North. Yet the chance acquaintance than in the North. Yet the chance to be killed in a robbery doesn’t differ.to be killed in a robbery doesn’t differ.

Why?Why?

Because Southerners have acquired beliefs Because Southerners have acquired beliefs about about personalpersonal honor honor that are different from that are different from Northerners, i.e. personal reputation is Northerners, i.e. personal reputation is important and worth defending even at great important and worth defending even at great danger. danger.

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Biological differences.Biological differences.

Variations of levels of cortisol and testosterone Variations of levels of cortisol and testosterone hormones. Cortisol level increases in response hormones. Cortisol level increases in response to stress while testosterone level increases in to stress while testosterone level increases in preparation of violence.preparation of violence.

When insulted Southerners show much more When insulted Southerners show much more increase in cortisol and testosterone than increase in cortisol and testosterone than Northerners.Northerners.

Difference in beliefs between southern and Difference in beliefs between southern and northern people can be understood in terms of northern people can be understood in terms of a difference in their culture and economic a difference in their culture and economic histories.histories.

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The difference cannot be explained in terms The difference cannot be explained in terms of contemporary socio-economic differences. of contemporary socio-economic differences.

It rests on an acquired difference in the set of It rests on an acquired difference in the set of beliefs transmitted from one generation to beliefs transmitted from one generation to the other.the other.

Culture is part of biologyCulture is part of biology

We have an evolved psychology that shapes We have an evolved psychology that shapes what we learn and how we think. This in turn what we learn and how we think. This in turn influences the kind of beliefs and attitudes influences the kind of beliefs and attitudes that spread and persist.that spread and persist.

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Fact: Fact: Why people don’t have sex in Why people don’t have sex in public?public?

A penchant for sexual privacy seems to be A penchant for sexual privacy seems to be part of human nature, not culture. Why?part of human nature, not culture. Why?

MindreadingMindreading

Enable people to “see” themselves as others Enable people to “see” themselves as others would see them. Perspective taking capacity.would see them. Perspective taking capacity.

Self-awarenessSelf-awareness

Exploited by culture. It’s detrimental to sex.Exploited by culture. It’s detrimental to sex.

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Human sex has become Human sex has become culturalizedculturalized

Culture shaped nature.Culture shaped nature.

Similarities between humans and animalsSimilarities between humans and animals

Similarities reflect the input of nature while Similarities reflect the input of nature while differences reflect the input of culture.differences reflect the input of culture.

Culture shaped our innate psychologyCulture shaped our innate psychology

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CultureCulture (df.) (df.)

Is information capable of affecting Is information capable of affecting individual’s behavior that they acquire from individual’s behavior that they acquire from other members of their species trough other members of their species trough teaching, imitation, and other forms of social teaching, imitation, and other forms of social transmission.transmission.

It is information-based: importance of It is information-based: importance of knowledge and meaning in culture. knowledge and meaning in culture.

Importance of the use of language.Importance of the use of language.

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Culture is in part a category or aspect of Culture is in part a category or aspect of social life.social life.

Learned and transmission of Learned and transmission of behavior.behavior.

In its essence culture is a world of sharable In its essence culture is a world of sharable and transmissible meanings. It encompasses and transmissible meanings. It encompasses ideas and activities. ideas and activities.

Division of labor.Division of labor.

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It doesn’t make sense to ask whether It doesn’t make sense to ask whether behavior is determined by genes or behavior is determined by genes or environment. environment.

Every organism is the result of interaction Every organism is the result of interaction between genetic information and the between genetic information and the properties of the environment. Genes are like properties of the environment. Genes are like a recipe, but the ingredients (temperature, a recipe, but the ingredients (temperature, cocking time, ….) are set by the cocking time, ….) are set by the environment.environment.

Culture is neither nature nor nurture, but Culture is neither nature nor nurture, but some of both.some of both.

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Not all processes shaping culture do arise Not all processes shaping culture do arise from our innate psychologyfrom our innate psychology

Culture itself is subject to natural Culture itself is subject to natural selectionselection. .

Culturally acquired ideas, values etc. affect Culturally acquired ideas, values etc. affect what happens to people during their lives what happens to people during their lives and in turn affect what gets transmitted from and in turn affect what gets transmitted from one generation to the other.one generation to the other.

Culture of honor arises (at least partly) Culture of honor arises (at least partly) because in lawless societies men who are not because in lawless societies men who are not aggressive in protecting their herd and family aggressive in protecting their herd and family tends to fall victim to ruthless predators.tends to fall victim to ruthless predators.

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Three different worlds in which we Three different worlds in which we livelive

1. 1. Physical environmentPhysical environment: all organism need : all organism need it in order to survive and reproduce.it in order to survive and reproduce.

2. 2. Social worldSocial world: superimposed on the : superimposed on the physical world. It offers a better way to deal physical world. It offers a better way to deal with the physical environment (joint action / with the physical environment (joint action / cooperation: e.g. wolfs hunting). Hence the cooperation: e.g. wolfs hunting). Hence the need of some inner psychological mechanism.need of some inner psychological mechanism.

3. 3. CulturalCultural worldworld: Culture is a better way of : Culture is a better way of being social and a better way for survival and being social and a better way for survival and reproduction.reproduction.

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Evolution and CultureEvolution and Culture

Since culture became such an evolutionary Since culture became such an evolutionary advantage it must be present in other advantage it must be present in other species.species.

Evolution doesn’t produce something out of Evolution doesn’t produce something out of nothing. nothing.

Hence culture must have existed in our Hence culture must have existed in our ancestors. Learned patterns of behavior ancestors. Learned patterns of behavior passed down form one generation to the passed down form one generation to the other (e.g. potato washing pattern among other (e.g. potato washing pattern among Japanese monkeys).Japanese monkeys).

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The beginning of culture can be The beginning of culture can be found in other speciesfound in other species

It is thus plausible that it appeared before It is thus plausible that it appeared before humankind did.humankind did.

The brain evolved to take advantage of The brain evolved to take advantage of society and culture. society and culture.

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There is a mixture of nature and There is a mixture of nature and cultureculture

The brain and culture developed together The brain and culture developed together

The brain must be powerful enough to The brain must be powerful enough to manipulate language and it wouldn’t have manipulate language and it wouldn’t have evolved the way it did if it didn’t had to evolved the way it did if it didn’t had to manipulate language. This offers a huge manipulate language. This offers a huge evolutionary advantage.evolutionary advantage.

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Culture Culture vsvs. Cultural Differences. Cultural Differences

It explains why culture can influence nature. It explains why culture can influence nature. It is a fallacy to equate the two (as many It is a fallacy to equate the two (as many social scientists do).social scientists do).

Cultural differences are not rooted in Cultural differences are not rooted in biological differences. biological differences.

The main difference is between culture and The main difference is between culture and no-culture, not between cultural differences, no-culture, not between cultural differences, i.e. between e.g. the Canadian and the i.e. between e.g. the Canadian and the French populations (cf. language).French populations (cf. language).

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When nature recognized the value When nature recognized the value of speaking, humans appearedof speaking, humans appeared

There are some form of “language” in other There are some form of “language” in other species and it must have been there among species and it must have been there among our ancestors. our ancestors.

Human have been designed to capitalize on Human have been designed to capitalize on it.it.

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Four classical views about the Four classical views about the relationship between the individual relationship between the individual and societyand society

1. Conflicts and struggles1. Conflicts and struggles

Culture is inimical to human nature (e.g. Culture is inimical to human nature (e.g. wars).wars).

Why war?Why war?

Freud’s answerFreud’s answer

People continue to develop culture because People continue to develop culture because they are looking for ways of life which are bad they are looking for ways of life which are bad for them (people have an innate death drive).for them (people have an innate death drive).

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Freud’s view doesn’t match the facts of Freud’s view doesn’t match the facts of history. history.

People are better of when they live in a cultural People are better of when they live in a cultural environment than when they live isolated or environment than when they live isolated or alonealone

The cultural animal theory contrasts The cultural animal theory contrasts Freud’s theory inasmuch as it suggests Freud’s theory inasmuch as it suggests that culture is what we are precisely that culture is what we are precisely suited forsuited for..

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2. 2. Culture as a Defense Culture as a Defense MechanismMechanism

Human are beasts like other species but with Human are beasts like other species but with a superior intelligence.a superior intelligence.

Intelligence produced the knowledge that we Intelligence produced the knowledge that we are mortal which is profoundly upsetting and are mortal which is profoundly upsetting and the source of existential terror.the source of existential terror.

Culture is the antidoteCulture is the antidote: :

We can live beyond our individual bodies and We can live beyond our individual bodies and achieve a sense of immortality.achieve a sense of immortality.

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But people know they’re mortal in But people know they’re mortal in virtue of cultural learning.virtue of cultural learning.

Thus there must be some amount of culture Thus there must be some amount of culture in place before the knowledge of death.in place before the knowledge of death.

Furthermore, existential terror doesn’t suffice Furthermore, existential terror doesn’t suffice to explain the whole of culture since people to explain the whole of culture since people produce culture even when they don’t think produce culture even when they don’t think about death. about death.

Hence the fear of death is not the only Hence the fear of death is not the only mechanism generating culture.mechanism generating culture.

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3. 3. Culture and the Culture and the Tabula RasaTabula Rasa

Culture shape the individual: people Culture shape the individual: people quaqua product of culture and socialization (product of culture and socialization (vsvs. . nativisme). nativisme).

But cultural differences conceals profound But cultural differences conceals profound similarities (remember culture similarities (remember culture vsvs. cultural . cultural differences).differences).

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E.g.: gender differences. E.g.: gender differences.

The feminist movement of the 1960s The feminist movement of the 1960s suggested that gender identity is culturally suggested that gender identity is culturally shaped. This runs against the facts: a boy shaped. This runs against the facts: a boy raised as a girl after a circumcision went raised as a girl after a circumcision went wrong (even with the help of hormones) didn’t wrong (even with the help of hormones) didn’t developed a desire toward men.developed a desire toward men.

E.g.: communism.E.g.: communism.

Even if it got all the tools (propaganda, media Even if it got all the tools (propaganda, media control, education, …) it didn’t succeed to control, education, …) it didn’t succeed to create ideal communist individuals.create ideal communist individuals.

Culture only succeeds insofar as it can Culture only succeeds insofar as it can accommodate the innate tendencies built into accommodate the innate tendencies built into human naturehuman nature..

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4.4. Culture Culture quaqua By-Product of By-Product of IntelligenceIntelligence

Brains evolved to deal with the physical Brains evolved to deal with the physical environment. As a side effect human became environment. As a side effect human became smart enough to generate culture by copying smart enough to generate culture by copying each other’s innovations.each other’s innovations.

For what exactly are big brains designed?For what exactly are big brains designed?

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If brains evolved to solve problems, then larger If brains evolved to solve problems, then larger brains should deal better with those problems. brains should deal better with those problems. This runs against the facts. Species with larger This runs against the facts. Species with larger brain do brain do notnot necessarily solve problems better. necessarily solve problems better.

Bigger brains go with more complex social Bigger brains go with more complex social worlds: this show that the brain evolved mainly worlds: this show that the brain evolved mainly for enabling animals to deal with their for enabling animals to deal with their conspecifics.conspecifics.

The longer the animal spends in social learning The longer the animal spends in social learning the larger the brain is. This suggests that the the larger the brain is. This suggests that the purpose of the large brain is to maximize social purpose of the large brain is to maximize social learning.learning.

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Evolution made us for cultureEvolution made us for culture

Are people better suited for any other form of Are people better suited for any other form of life?life?

NoNo

Our psyches are innately programmed by nature Our psyches are innately programmed by nature specifically to participate in culture and society, specifically to participate in culture and society, i.e. the human psyche emerged because natural i.e. the human psyche emerged because natural selection redesigned the primate psyche to make selection redesigned the primate psyche to make it more suitable for living in a cultural society.it more suitable for living in a cultural society.

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The Biological Advantage of CultureThe Biological Advantage of Culture

The human brain accounts for only the 2% of The human brain accounts for only the 2% of the body mass. Yet it consumes 20% of the the body mass. Yet it consumes 20% of the calories that an average person takes in.calories that an average person takes in.

Since the brain:Since the brain:

(i)(i) is such an expensive organ to have and is such an expensive organ to have and maintain, and maintain, and

(ii) (ii) it co-evolved with culture, it co-evolved with culture,

culture must offer substantial advantages over culture must offer substantial advantages over other mechanisms.other mechanisms.

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Culture must ultimately be Culture must ultimately be measured in biological terms, i.e. measured in biological terms, i.e. survival and reproductionsurvival and reproduction

(i) People have been extremely successful at (i) People have been extremely successful at reproducing.reproducing.

(ii) People success of survival dramatically (ii) People success of survival dramatically improved in industrialized nations.improved in industrialized nations.

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The Advantages of CultureThe Advantages of Culture

1. 1. ProgressProgress: it can be accumulated across : it can be accumulated across generations. generations.

Merely social animals don’t accumulate Merely social animals don’t accumulate knowledge. knowledge.

Big difference between human and other Big difference between human and other species (e.g. highly social species like wolfs species (e.g. highly social species like wolfs didn’t progress in the last 10000 or 100000 didn’t progress in the last 10000 or 100000 years, while we did). years, while we did).

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The The ratchet effect ratchet effect (Tomasello)(Tomasello)

comparison with the tool permitting forward comparison with the tool permitting forward movements while preventing backward ones.movements while preventing backward ones.

For progress to succeed two things are For progress to succeed two things are needed: needed:

(i)(i) innovationinnovation (one must come out with (one must come out with some some novel and better solution to a novel and better solution to a common common problem), andproblem), and

(ii)(ii) preservationpreservation (the solution has to be (the solution has to be

transmitted and remembered).transmitted and remembered).

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Progress: Apes Progress: Apes vsvs. Humans. Humans

Apes are quite good in finding new solutions, Apes are quite good in finding new solutions, but they are incapable of preserving and but they are incapable of preserving and transmitting them.transmitting them.

Cultural knowledge is stored in the collective Cultural knowledge is stored in the collective rather than in the individual minds. Without rather than in the individual minds. Without progress the new generation would have to progress the new generation would have to reinvent everything (e.g. how to make fire, reinvent everything (e.g. how to make fire, how to build tools, …).how to build tools, …).

A natural disaster (e.g. the Black Death in A natural disaster (e.g. the Black Death in Europe) can kill most of the people. Yet the Europe) can kill most of the people. Yet the culture’s stock of information survived culture’s stock of information survived merely because few people did.merely because few people did.

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Division of LaborDivision of Labor

Nonsocial animals cannot profit from the Nonsocial animals cannot profit from the division of labor.division of labor.

Social animals which are not cultural can Social animals which are not cultural can divide up labor in some ways.divide up labor in some ways.

Cultural animals can divide up labor Cultural animals can divide up labor extensively (e.g. assembly line of the extensively (e.g. assembly line of the industrialized society) so that every one industrialized society) so that every one becomes an expert in what s/he does.becomes an expert in what s/he does.

With specialization we have better With specialization we have better performances.performances.

Concerning the division of labor human Concerning the division of labor human uniqueness is a matter of degree, not of kind.uniqueness is a matter of degree, not of kind.

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Culture is a SystemCulture is a System

Insofar as nature designed us for culture, it Insofar as nature designed us for culture, it prepared us to be part of a system.prepared us to be part of a system.

Systems connect multiple individual points Systems connect multiple individual points (nodes).(nodes).

Thus the total is more than the sum of its Thus the total is more than the sum of its parts. If all the nodes were the same, doing the parts. If all the nodes were the same, doing the very same thing, we would not have much of a very same thing, we would not have much of a system. We would have a mere collectivity of system. We would have a mere collectivity of identical nodes.identical nodes.

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Systems linking together nodes doing Systems linking together nodes doing different things can be extremely powerful different things can be extremely powerful and produce huge gains in productivity.and produce huge gains in productivity.

group group vsvs. individual. individual

biological altruism biological altruism vsvs. biological egoism. biological egoism

psychological altruism psychological altruism vsvs. psychological . psychological individualismindividualism (cf. Sober & Wilson’s (cf. Sober & Wilson’s Unto Unto OthersOthers).).

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Language/Meaning and CultureLanguage/Meaning and Culture

Language is not a private activity (cf. Language is not a private activity (cf. Wittgenstein’s private language argument).Wittgenstein’s private language argument).

For one to be capable of using language one For one to be capable of using language one must be part of a culture.must be part of a culture.

Just as language is only possible via a Just as language is only possible via a culture, a culture always involve language. culture, a culture always involve language. For culture relies on meaning and language For culture relies on meaning and language is the principal tool for meaning.is the principal tool for meaning.

Language and culture are just two sides of Language and culture are just two sides of the same coin.the same coin.

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The importance of languageThe importance of language

Language allows the storage and Language allows the storage and transmission of informationtransmission of information

Disputes can be solved in talking rather than Disputes can be solved in talking rather than fightingfighting

Language permits to live in time (to have a Language permits to live in time (to have a time perspective, to distinguish the past from time perspective, to distinguish the past from the future)the future)

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Animals don’t import the past into Animals don’t import the past into the presentthe present

E.g.: rats can only connect the past with the E.g.: rats can only connect the past with the present for few second; they are thus present for few second; they are thus prevented of learning and undertake great prevented of learning and undertake great deal of tasks.deal of tasks.

In contrast a human beings can make In contrast a human beings can make choices based on past information and event choices based on past information and event which occurred before one’s birth. This also which occurred before one’s birth. This also allows to evaluate short term benefits allows to evaluate short term benefits vis-à-vis-à-visvis long terms ones (e.g. agriculture would long terms ones (e.g. agriculture would be impossible without that).be impossible without that).

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Abstract reasoning (e.g. logics and mathematics) Abstract reasoning (e.g. logics and mathematics) would be impossible without language.would be impossible without language.

Without the cultural use of meaning via Without the cultural use of meaning via language, rationality could not be imposed on language, rationality could not be imposed on systems (e.g. division of labor in factories).systems (e.g. division of labor in factories).

Planning would be impossible without language.Planning would be impossible without language.

……

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Cultural ApesCultural Apes

How did Nature designed cultural apes?How did Nature designed cultural apes?

Success and failure is judged in terms of the Success and failure is judged in terms of the survival of the species.survival of the species.

Because of survival, Why are we not Because of survival, Why are we not immortal?immortal?

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Nature choose reproduction over immortality Nature choose reproduction over immortality because aging and death are inevitable. because aging and death are inevitable.

Hence the choice of reproduction for the Hence the choice of reproduction for the survival of the species.survival of the species.

Biology has its limits. Biology has its limits.

It is thus in the need of finding a good It is thus in the need of finding a good balance (e.g. an unlimited intelligence would balance (e.g. an unlimited intelligence would require an unlimited brain which would require an unlimited brain which would consume an unlimited quantity of energy to consume an unlimited quantity of energy to the detriment of other biological organs).the detriment of other biological organs).

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Cultural animalsCultural animals

Must be capable of mindreading.Must be capable of mindreading.

Without it the sharing of knowledge and the Without it the sharing of knowledge and the transmission of culture would be impossible.transmission of culture would be impossible.

Must have a cultural brain, i.e. a brain Must have a cultural brain, i.e. a brain capable of storing a good amount of capable of storing a good amount of information.information.

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Must have a lengthy socialization process Must have a lengthy socialization process enabling them to learn the culture’s enabling them to learn the culture’s knowledge and the rules for behavior in the knowledge and the rules for behavior in the society.society.

Must have an extended childhood permitting Must have an extended childhood permitting the transference of culture by education. the transference of culture by education.

Hence there must be a behavioral plasticity Hence there must be a behavioral plasticity trough life and in particular trough the trough life and in particular trough the juvenile period.juvenile period.

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Must have a sophisticated decision-making Must have a sophisticated decision-making process.process.

Must have free will. Nature must create a gap Must have free will. Nature must create a gap between causes and effects (controlled between causes and effects (controlled processes).processes).

For noncultural animals and organisms automatic For noncultural animals and organisms automatic processes may be sufficient to guide behavior. processes may be sufficient to guide behavior. For us the behavioral outcome must be chosen.For us the behavioral outcome must be chosen.

Must be capable of self-control.Must be capable of self-control.