1

16.5 Ludwid Boltzmann 1844 – 1906 Contributions to

Kinetic theory of gases Electromagnetism Thermodynamics

Work in kinetic theory led to the branch of physics called statistical mechanics

2

Kinetic Theory of Gases Building a structural model based on the

ideal gas model The structure and the predictions of a

gas made by this structural model Pressure and temperature of an ideal

gas are interpreted in terms of microscopic variables

3

Assumptions of the Structural Model

The number of molecules in the gas is large, and the average separation between them is large compared with their dimensions The molecules occupy a negligible volume

within the container This is consistent with the ideal-gas model,

in which we assumed the molecules to be point-like

4

Structural Model Assumptions, 2

The molecules obey Newton’s laws of motion, but as a whole their motion is isotropic Meaning of “isotropic”: Any molecule can

move in any direction with any speed

5

Structural Model Assumptions, 3 The molecules interact only by short-range

forces during elastic collisions This is consistent with the ideal gas model, in

which the molecules exert no long-range forces on each other

The molecules make elastic collisions with the walls

The gas under consideration is a pure substance All molecules are identical

6

Ideal Gas Notes An ideal gas is often pictured as

consisting of single atoms However, the behavior of molecular

gases approximate that of ideal gases quite well Molecular rotations and vibrations have no

effect, on average, on the motions considered

7

Pressure and Kinetic Energy Assume a container

is a cube Edges are length d

Look at the motion of the molecule in terms of its velocity components

Look at its momentum and the average force

8

Pressure and Kinetic Energy, 2

Assume perfectly elastic collisions with the walls of the container

The relationship between the pressure and the molecular kinetic energy comes from momentum and Newton’s Laws

9

Pressure and Kinetic Energy, 3 The relationship is

This tells us that pressure is proportional to the number of molecules per unit volume (N/V) and to the average translational kinetic energy of the molecules

___22 1

3 2

NP mv

V

10

Pressure and Kinetic Energy, final This equation also relates the macroscopic

quantity of pressure with a microscopic quantity of the average value of the molecular translational kinetic energy

One way to increase the pressure is to increase the number of molecules per unit volume

The pressure can also be increased by increasing the speed (kinetic energy) of the molecules

11

A Molecular Interpretation of Temperature We can take the pressure as it relates to the

kinetic energy and compare it to the pressure from the equation of state for an idea gas

Therefore, the temperature is a direct measure of the average translational molecular kinetic energy

___22 1

3 2 B

NP mv Nk T

V

12

A Microscopic Description of Temperature, cont Simplifying the equation relating

temperature and kinetic energy gives

This can be applied to each direction,

with similar expressions for vy and vz

___

21 3

2 2 Bmv k T

___

21 1

2 2x Bmv k T

13

A Microscopic Description of Temperature, final Each translational degree of freedom

contributes an equal amount to the energy of the gas In general, a degree of freedom refers to

an independent means by which a molecule can possess energy

A generalization of this result is called the theorem of equipartition of energy

14

Theorem of Equipartition of Energy The theorem states that the energy of a

system in thermal equilibrium is equally divided among all degrees of freedom

Each degree of freedom contributes ½ kBT per molecule to the energy of the system

15

Total Kinetic Energy The total translational kinetic energy is just N

times the kinetic energy of each molecule

This tells us that the total translational kinetic energy of a system of molecules is proportional to the absolute temperature of the system

___21 3 3

2 2 2total BE N mv Nk T nRT

16

Monatomic Gas For a monatomic gas, translational kinetic

energy is the only type of energy the particles of the gas can have

Therefore, the total energy is the internal energy:

For polyatomic molecules, additional forms of energy storage are available, but the proportionality between Eint and T remains

int

3

2E nRT

17

Root Mean Square Speed The root mean square (rms) speed is

the square root of the average of the squares of the speeds Square, average, take the square root

Solving for vrms we find

M is the molar mass in kg/mole

___

2 3 3Brms

k T RTv v

m M

18

Some Example vrms Values

At a given temperature, lighter molecules move faster, on the average, than heavier molecules

19

20

21

16.6 Distribution of Molecular Speeds

The observed speed distribution of gas molecules in thermal equilibrium is shown

NV is called the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution function

22

Distribution Function The fundamental expression that describes

the distribution of speeds in N gas molecules is

mo is the mass of a gas molecule, kB is Boltzmann’s constant and T is the absolute temperature

23

2224

2B

mvk To

VB

mN N v e

k T

23

Average and Most Probable Speeds

The average speed is somewhat lower than the rms speed

The most probable speed, vmp is the speed at which the distribution curve reaches a peak

2

1.41B Bmp

o o

k T k Tv

m m

81.60B B

o o

k T k Tv

m m

24

Speed Distribution The peak shifts to the right

as T increases This shows that the average

speed increases with increasing temperature

The width of the curve increases with temperature

The asymmetric shape occurs because the lowest possible speed is 0 and the upper classical limit is infinity

25

Speed Distribution, final The distribution of molecular speeds

depends both on the mass and on temperature

The speed distribution for liquids is similar to that of gasses

rms mpv v v

26

Evaporation Some molecules in the liquid are more energetic

than others Some of the faster moving molecules penetrate

the surface and leave the liquid This occurs even before the boiling point is reached

The molecules that escape are those that have enough energy to overcome the attractive forces of the molecules in the liquid phase

The molecules left behind have lower kinetic energies

Therefore, evaporation is a cooling process

27

28

29

30

31

Exercises of Chapter 16

6, 17, 28, 33, 43, 48, 52, 55, 59, 60, 69, 78