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I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMVA
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
Erlangen−Nürnberg
Friedrich−Alexander−Universität
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMVA
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
X-R
ayA
stro
nom
yI
Gal
actic
X-R
ayA
stro
nom
y
Jörn
Wilm
shttp://pulsar.sternwarte.uni-erlangen.de/wilms/teach/xray1/
Som
mer
sem
este
r20
08
Bür
o:D
r.K
arlR
emei
s-S
tern
war
te,B
ambe
rg
Tel.:
(095
1)95
222-
13
Em
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMVA
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
1–1
Intr
oduc
tion
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMVA
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
1–2
Intr
oduc
tion
1
Sch
edul
eIn
trod
uctio
n
15.0
4.In
trod
uctio
n,H
isto
ryof
X-R
ayA
stro
nom
y
X-R
ayD
etec
tors
22.0
4.P
ropo
rtio
nalC
ount
ers,
Sci
ntill
ator
s
29.0
4.W
olte
rTe
lesc
opes
and
X-R
ayse
nsiti
veC
CD
s
06.0
5.C
oded
Mas
kIm
agin
g,pr
actic
alX
-ray
data
anal
ysis
X-r
ays
and
Ste
llar
Evo
lutio
n
20.0
5.P
lane
ts,C
omet
s,no
rmal
star
s
27.0
5.X
-ray
sfr
omyo
ung
stel
lar
obje
cts
03.0
6.N
ucle
arS
ynth
esis
The
Inte
rste
llar
Med
ium
10.0
6.S
uper
nova
Rem
nant
s
17.0
6.In
ters
tella
rM
ediu
man
dD
ust
X-R
ays
from
Ste
llar
Rem
nant
s
24.0
6.Is
olat
edN
eutr
onS
tars
,Acc
retio
nan
dC
atac
lysm
icV
aria
bles
31.0
6.Lo
wM
ass
X-R
ayB
inar
ies
08.0
7.H
igh
Mas
sX
-Ray
Bin
arie
s
X-R
ays
from
the
Gal
axy
15.0
7.T
heG
alac
ticC
ente
r
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMVA
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
1–3
Intr
oduc
tion
2
Lite
ratu
re
LO
NG
AIR
,M
.S.,
1992
,Hig
hE
nerg
yA
stro
phys
ics,
Vol
.1:
Par
ticle
s,P
hoto
ns,
and
thei
rD
etec
tion,
Cam
brid
ge:
Cam
brid
geU
niv.
Pre
ss,∼
50C
Goo
din
trod
uctio
nto
high
ener
gyas
trop
hysi
cs,t
he1st
volu
me
deal
sex
tens
ivel
yw
ithhi
gh
ener
gypr
ocss
es,t
he2nd
with
star
san
dth
eG
alax
y.T
hean
noun
ced
3rdvo
lum
eha
sne
ver
appe
ared
.U
nfor
tuna
tely
,eve
ryth
ing
isin
SIu
nits
.
TR
ÜM
PE
R,
J.,
HA
SIN
GE
R,
G.
(eds
.),2
007,
The
Uni
vers
ein
X-r
ays,
Hei
delb
erg:
Spr
inge
r,96
.25
CR
ecen
tboo
kgi
ving
anov
ervi
ewof
X-r
ayas
tron
omy
writ
ten
bya
grou
pof
expe
rts
(mai
nly)
from
Max
Pla
nck
Inst
itutf
ürex
trat
erre
stris
che
Phy
sik,
the
cent
rali
nstit
ute
inth
isar
eain
Ger
man
y.
BR
AD
T,H
.,20
04,A
stro
nom
yM
etho
ds:
AP
hysi
calA
ppro
ach
toA
stro
nom
ical
Obs
erva
tions
,Cam
brid
ge:
Cam
brid
geU
niv.
Pre
ss,$
50G
ood
gene
ralo
verv
iew
book
onas
tron
omic
alob
serv
atio
nsat
allw
avel
engt
hs.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMVA
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
1–4
Intr
oduc
tion
3
Lite
ratu
re
CH
AR
LE
S,
P.,
SE
WA
RD
,F.
,199
5,E
xplo
ring
the
X-r
ayU
nive
rse,
Cam
brid
ge:
Cam
brid
geU
niv.
Pre
ss,o
utof
prin
tS
umm
ary
ofX
-ray
astr
onom
y,ro
ughl
ypr
esen
ting
the
stat
eof
the
early
1990
s.
SC
HL
EG
EL,
E.M
.,20
02,T
here
stle
ssun
iver
se,O
xfor
d:O
xfor
dU
niv.
Pre
ss,3
2C
Pop
ular
X-r
ayas
tron
omy
book
sum
mar
izin
gre
sults
from
XM
M-N
ewto
nan
dC
hand
ra.
AS
CH
EN
BA
CH
,B
.et
al.,
1998
,The
invi
sibl
esk
y,N
ewYo
rk:
Cop
erni
cus
Pop
ular
“tab
leto
p”bo
oksu
mm
ariz
ing
the
resu
ltsof
the
RO
SAT
sate
llite
,with
man
ybe
autif
ul
pict
ures
.
KN
OL
L,
G.F
.,20
00,R
adia
tion
Det
ectio
nan
dM
easu
rem
ent,
3rd
editi
on,N
ew
York
:W
iley,
126
CT
hebi
ble
onra
diat
ion
dete
ctio
n.If
you
wan
tone
book
onde
tect
ors,
this
isit.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMVA
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–1
His
tory
ofX
-ray
Ast
rono
my
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMVA
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–2
Obs
erva
tiona
lPro
blem
s
Cha
rles
&S
ewar
d,F
ig.1
.12
Ear
th’s
atm
osph
ere
isop
aque
for
all
type
sof
EM
radi
atio
nex
cept
for
optic
allig
htan
d
radi
o.
Maj
orco
ntrib
uter
at
high
ener
gies
:
phot
oabs
orpt
ion
(∝E
−3),
esp.
from
Oxy
gen
(edg
eat
∼50
0eV
).S
eela
ter.
=⇒
Ifon
ew
ants
tolo
okat
the
sky
inot
her
wav
eban
ds,o
nha
sto
goto
spac
e!
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMVA
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–3
His
tory
ofX
-ray
Ast
rono
my,
I
1946
ff.:
Frie
dman
net
al.
(Nav
yR
esea
rch
Lab)
:S
earc
hes
for
X-r
ays
from
the
Sun
usin
gle
ft-ov
erV
2an
dae
robe
ero
cket
s
and
Gei
ger
coun
ters
.Ty
pica
lmea
sure
men
ttim
es:
few
100
s
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMVA
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–4
His
tory
ofX
-ray
Ast
rono
my,
II
Sol
arX
-ray
s
obse
rved
from
a
rota
ting
rock
et.
Frie
dman
n/N
RL
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMVA
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–5
His
tory
ofX
-ray
Ast
rono
my,
III
Ric
card
oG
iacc
oni
Bru
noR
ossi
1962
June
18:
Sea
rche
sfo
rex
tras
olar
X-r
ays
usin
gro
cket
s.
2002
Nob
elpr
ize
toG
iacc
onif
or“p
ione
erin
gco
ntrib
utio
nsto
astr
ophy
sics
”
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMVA
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–6
His
tory
ofX
-ray
Ast
rono
my,
IV
Atte
mpt
sto
obse
rve
fluor
esce
nce
ofso
lar
X-r
ays
from
the
Moo
nfa
iled,
buta
very
brig
htso
urce
was
disc
over
ed:
Sco
rpiu
sX
-1–
first
extr
asol
arX
-ray
sour
ce.
Not
eth
eX
-ray
back
grou
nd!
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMVA
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–7
UH
UR
U
NA
SA
/GS
FC
12D
ec19
70:
laun
chof
UH
UR
U(s
wah
ili
for
“Fre
edom
”):
Firs
tsat
ellit
ese
nsiti
vein
X-r
ays
Dis
cove
ryof
man
ybr
ight
X-r
ayso
urce
s
(e.g
.,C
ygnu
sX
-1,H
ercu
les
X-1
,etc
.).
Ful
llis
tofs
ourc
essu
mm
aris
edin
the
4th
UH
UR
Uca
talo
g(3
39so
urce
s).
Sou
rce
nam
es:
e.g.
,4U
0115
+63
,
4U19
57+
11,.
..
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMVA
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–8
Ein
stei
n
NA
SA
/GS
FC
Tych
oS
uper
nova
-Rem
nant
with
Ein
stei
n.
12N
ovem
ber
1978
–A
pril
1981
:H
EA
O-2
/Ein
stei
n
(NA
SA
):F
irsti
mag
ing
tele
scop
ein
spac
e(s
oftX
-ray
s;
0.2–
20ke
V)
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMVA
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–9
EX
OS
AT
ES
A
26M
ay19
83–
9A
pril
1986
:
EX
OS
AT
Larg
eE
urop
ean
X-r
ayS
atel
lite,
oper
ated
like
anob
serv
ator
y.
Maj
orst
udie
sof
X-r
aybu
rsts
(the
rmon
ucle
arex
plos
ions
onth
esu
rface
s
ofne
utro
nst
ars)
and
disc
over
yof
Qua
si-P
erio
dic
Osc
illat
ions
(hig
hfr
eque
ncy
osci
llatio
nsin
X-r
ays
from
neut
ron
star
s).
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMVA
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–10
RO
SAT
,I
Uni
v.Le
ices
ter/
MP
E
1Ju
ne19
90–1
2F
ebru
ary
1999
:
RO
SAT
(Rön
tgen
sate
llit)
:
Ger
man
/UK
/US
sate
llite
for
soft
X-r
ays
(0.1
–2.5
keV
).
RA
SS
:RO
SAT
All
Sky
Sur
vey:
Cat
alog
ues
of10
5924
fain
tX-r
ayan
d
1881
1br
ight
X-r
ayso
urce
s
=⇒
Larg
estc
atal
ogue
ofX
-ray
sour
ces
toda
te.
Ear
lym
apof
the
RO
SAT
cata
logu
e(7
5000
sour
ces)
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMVA
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–12
CG
RO
,I
NA
SA
/MS
FC
5A
pril
1991
–4Ju
ne20
00:
CG
RO
(Com
pton
Gam
ma-
Ray
Obs
erva
tory
):
NA
SA
larg
eob
serv
ator
yfo
r
Gam
ma-
ray
astr
onom
y
(30
keV
–30
GeV
)
Stu
dies
ofG
amm
a-ra
ybu
rsts
,Al26
map
ofth
eG
alax
y
NA
SA
/JS
C/S
TS
037-
99-0
98
With
17to
ns,C
GR
Ow
asth
ehe
avie
stas
tron
omic
alpa
yloa
dev
erflo
wn
(laun
chfr
omsp
ace
shut
tle).
NA
SA
/JS
C/S
TS
037-
51-0
06
NA
SA
/JS
C/S
TS
037-
99-0
56
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMVA
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
2–16
X-R
ayA
stro
nom
yTo
day
Cur
rent
lyac
tive
mis
sion
s:
•X
-ray
Mul
tiple
-Mirr
orM
issi
on(X
MM
-New
ton;
ES
A)
•In
tern
atio
nalG
amm
a-R
ayLa
bora
tory
(IN
TE
GR
AL;
ES
A)
•C
hand
ra(N
AS
A)
•S
wift
(NA
SA
)
•R
ossi
X-r
ayT
imin
gE
xplo
rer
(RX
TE
)(N
AS
A)
•S
uzak
u(A
stro
-E2)
(JA
XA
/NA
SA
)
•S
uper
-AG
ILE
(Ita
ly)
Fur
ther
mor
em
any
plan
ned
mis
sion
s(G
LAS
T[U
SA
],A
ST
RO
SAT
[Indi
a],
Spe
ctru
m-X
-Gam
ma
[Rus
sia,
Ger
man
y],S
IMB
OL-
X[F
ranc
e,Ita
ly,G
erm
any]
,
MIR
AX
[Bra
zil],
XE
US
[ES
A],
Con
stel
latio
n-X
[US
A],.
..)
Toda
yis
X-r
ayas
tron
omy’
s“g
olde
nag
e”
=⇒
We
will
look
atso
me
ofth
ecu
rren
tmis
sion
sla
ter
inth
isle
ctur
e.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMVA
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
3–1
X-R
ayD
etec
tors
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMVA
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
3–2
Intr
oduc
tion
1
Intr
oduc
tion
Bef
ore
we
can
look
atin
divi
dual
X-r
ayso
urce
s,w
ene
edto
unde
rsta
ndho
wth
e
radi
atio
nis
dete
cted
:
•N
on-im
agin
gde
tect
ors
Det
ecto
rsca
pabl
eof
dete
ctin
gph
oton
sfr
oma
sour
ce,b
utw
ithou
tany
spat
ialr
esol
utio
n
=⇒
Req
uire
,e.g
.,co
llim
ator
sto
limit
field
ofvi
ew.
Exa
mpl
e:P
ropo
rtio
nalC
ount
ers,
Sci
ntill
ator
s
•Im
agin
gde
tect
ors
Det
ecto
rsw
itha
spat
ialr
esol
utio
n,ty
pica
llyus
edin
the
IR,o
ptic
al,U
Vor
for
soft
X-r
ays.
Gen
eral
lybe
hind
som
ety
peof
focu
sing
optic
s.
Exa
mpl
e:C
harg
eco
uple
dde
vice
s(C
CD
s),P
ositi
onS
ensi
tive
Pro
port
iona
lCou
nter
s
Fur
ther
mor
e,w
ene
edto
unde
rsta
ndho
wim
ages
are
form
ed:
•W
olte
rte
lesc
opes
(sof
tX-r
ays
upto∼
15ke
V
•C
oded
Mas
kte
lesc
opes
(abo
veth
at)
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMVA
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
3–3
Pro
port
iona
lcou
nter
s1
Ioni
zatio
nch
ambe
r
R
++
++
++
−−
−−
Cat
hode
Ano
de
−U
Vol
ume
fille
d w
ithde
tect
or g
as
Sim
ples
tgas
dete
ctor
:ga
s-fil
led
capa
cito
r(io
niza
tion
cham
ber)
•ph
oton
isph
oto
abso
rbed
inde
tect
or
gas
•K
-she
llel
ectr
onej
ecte
dw
ithen
ergy
∝
initi
alE
•th
roug
hco
llisi
onal
ioni
zatio
nN
char
ges
are
prod
uced
•E
lect
rost
atic
indu
ctio
nin
duce
sch
arge
onca
paci
tor
plat
es
•C
harg
esdr
ain
via
R=⇒
Mea
sure
men
t
Pul
sehe
ight
:∆
Q=
−N
e=
C∆
U=⇒
∆U
=−
Ne/
C
Typi
calm
agni
tude
ofsi
gnal
:C
=20
pF,N
e=
2×
105
e−·e
=⇒
∆U
=1.
6m
V.
Pro
blem
:P
ulse
very
wea
ksi
nce
only
prim
ary
char
gem
easu
red.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMVA
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
3–4
Pro
port
iona
lcou
nter
s2
Pro
port
iona
lCou
nter
s
Hig
h vo
ltage
dete
ctor
gas
Ano
de w
ire
Ent
ranc
e w
indo
wC
ylin
dric
al C
atho
deS
olut
ion:
ampl
ifych
arge
Clo
seto
Ano
dew
ire:
E(r
)=
V/(
rln
(b/a
)(3
.1)
(bra
dius
ofca
thod
e,a
radi
usof
anod
e)
=⇒
Str
ong
acce
lera
tion
ofio
nize
d
part
icle
s
=⇒
Col
lisio
nali
oniz
atio
nof
gas
=⇒
casc
ade!
Mea
sure
dvo
ltage
:
∆U
=−
eN C·A
(3.2
)
whe
reA
:am
plifi
catio
nfa
ctor
(typ
ical
ly:A
=10
4..
.106
).
Sin
ceA
∼co
nst.:
Vol
tage
puls
e∝
N,a
ndth
eref
ore
Vol
tage
puls
e∝
dete
cted
X-r
ayen
ergy
!
and
ther
efor
e:“p
ropo
rtio
nalc
ount
er”
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMVA
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
3–5
Pro
port
iona
lcou
nter
s3
Pul
seA
mpl
ifica
tion
1014
Ioni
zatio
n ch
ambe
r
Geigercounter
Number of collected ions/electrons
Pro
port
iona
l−co
unte
rpr
opor
tiona
lity
Lim
ited
glow
dis
char
ge
Rec
ombi
natio
n
025
050
075
010
0012
50V
olta
ge [V
]
102
10106
108
1010
10
412
(afte
rG
rupe
n,F
ig.4
.21)
Pul
seam
plifi
catio
nin
dete
ctor
asa
func
tion
ofan
ode
volta
ge.
Typi
calp
ropo
rtio
nalc
ount
er
volta
ges
are
seve
ral1
00to
1000
V(d
epen
ding
on
dete
ctor
gas)
.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMVA
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
3–6
Pro
port
iona
lcou
nter
s4
Det
ecto
rG
as
Use
iner
tgas
es,e
.g.,
Ar
orX
e,si
nce
requ
ired
volta
gesm
alle
stan
don
lylo
w
loss
esdu
eto
exci
tatio
nof
the
gas
atom
s.
Num
ber
ofio
nspr
oduc
ed:N
=E
/ω,w
here
ωis
give
nby
:
Gas
HH
eN
eA
rK
r
ω[e
V]
36.6
44.4
36.8
26.2
524
.1
Gas
Xe
Air
CO
2C
H4
ω[e
V]
21.9
35.2
34.2
29.1
=⇒
Typi
cally
N∼
1000
elec
tron
-ion
pairs
per
20ke
Vph
oton
.
Not
e:
•pr
obab
ility
for
abso
rptio
nσ
bf∝
Z4.
..5
=⇒
use
Xen
on(Z
=54
)fo
r
astr
onom
ical
dete
ctor
s
•si
nce
σbf∝
E−
3=⇒
prop
ortio
nalc
ount
ers
limite
dto
E<
100
keV
.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMVA
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
3–7
Pro
port
iona
lcou
nter
s5
Cas
cade
,I
Ele
ctro
n
Gas
ions
Ele
ctro
n
Sec
onda
ry e
lect
rons
casc
ade
anod
e w
ire
Gru
pen
(Fig
.4.9
)
Typi
cale
lect
ron
path
s≈
µm
=⇒
Cas
cade
happ
ens
very
clos
eto
anod
ew
ire
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMVA
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
3–8
Pro
port
iona
lcou
nter
s6
Cas
cade
,II
Gru
pen
(Fig
.4.2
7)
Ele
ctro
nsar
eac
cele
rate
dto
very
high
spee
dsto
war
dsw
ire,I
ons
are
acce
lera
ted
away
from
wire
=⇒
Mai
nsi
gnal
from
ions
,not
elec
tron
s,si
nce
ions
have
larg
erpo
tent
ial
diffe
renc
e
typi
cald
urat
ion
ofsi
gnal∼
100µs,
can
reac
hhi
gher
time
reso
lutio
nby
diffe
rent
iatin
gth
esi
gnal
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMVA
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
3–9
Pro
port
iona
lcou
nter
s7
Ene
rgy
Res
olut
ion
Mea
sure
dsi
gnal
:pu
lse
heig
ht=⇒
Ene
rgy
ofth
eX
-ray
Res
olut
ion:
∆E
:W
idth
(=F
WH
M,F
ullW
idth
atH
alfM
axim
um)
ofth
edi
strib
utio
nof
mea
sure
d
ener
gies
.
Poi
sson
stat
istic
s(N
disc
rete
Ele
ctro
n-Io
npa
irs!)
:
∆E
∝2.
35√
N∝
2.35
√E
(3.3
)
Typi
cally
one
uses
∆E
/E
Slig
htco
rrel
atio
nsdu
eto
ampl
ifyin
gdi
scha
rge
=⇒
Wid
thof
dist
ribut
ion
som
ewha
tsm
alle
rth
an
expe
cted
from
Poi
sson
stat
istic
s=⇒
Fano
Fact
orF
:
∆E E
=2.
35
(
F N
)
1/2
(3.4
)
whe
refo
rga
sde
tect
ors
F∼
0.2–
0.3
Mor
ede
taile
dth
eory
yiel
ds∆
E E=
2.35
(
W(F
+A
)
E
)
1/2
(3.5
)
W:
mea
nen
ergy
topr
oduc
ea
pair
(26
eVfo
rA
r+M
etha
ne),
F∼
0.2,
A∼
0.6
=⇒
upto
14%
at5.
9ke
Vdo
able
.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMVA
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
3–10
Pro
port
iona
lcou
nter
s8
Que
nchi
ng
Pro
blem
:E
xcite
dio
nsem
itU
Vph
oton
s
=⇒
form
atio
nof
new
casc
ades
due
toph
oto
effe
ct
=⇒
Tota
lcas
cade
take
sa
long
time
=⇒
larg
ede
adtim
e.
Sol
utio
n:A
dd“q
uenc
hing
gas”
topr
imar
yph
otom
ultip
lier
gas
toab
sorb
UV
phot
ons
casc
ade
<1µs
Ene
rgy
ofex
cite
dqu
ench
ing
gas
ions
isla
ter
dum
ped
via
inel
astic
colli
sion
sw
ithin
the
gas.
Als
odi
rect
quen
chin
gof
casc
ade,
e.g.
,via
Ar+
+C
H4−→
Ar+
CH
+(3
.6)
Typi
calq
uenc
hing
gase
s:C
H4,a
lcoh
ol(C
2H
5O
H),
CO
2,B
F3,.
..(a
bout∼
10%
ofto
talg
aspr
essu
re).
Ofte
nus
ed:
“P10
-gas
”(9
0%A
ran
d10
%C
H4)
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMVA
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
3–11
Pro
port
iona
lcou
nter
s9
Age
ing
Mar
koS
pege
l,19
99(D
iss.
Uni
Wie
n),J
.Vav
ra,S
LAC
-388
2
Cas
cade
:pl
asm
adi
scha
rge
=⇒
Des
truc
tion
ofga
sco
ntam
inan
ts=⇒
form
atio
nof
free
radi
cals
=⇒
poly
mer
izat
ion
Pol
ymer
sha
vehi
ghdi
pole
mom
ent=
⇒at
tach
toel
ectr
odes
=⇒
Red
uctio
nof
puls
ech
arge
s=⇒
“Age
ing”
Typi
calc
onta
min
ants
:ca
rbon
,oxi
de-la
yers
,sili
cate
s,e.
g.,f
rom
oil,
finge
rgr
ease
,Sila
n(S
iH4),
solv
ents
inva
cuum
seal
ants
,...
Res
ults
infie
ldel
ectr
onem
issi
onth
roug
hph
oto-
effe
ct=⇒
disc
harg
e=⇒
wire
dest
roye
d(“
Mal
ter-
Effe
ct”)
Mos
tsen
sitiv
epr
opor
tiona
lcou
nter
gas:
Ar/
CH
4..
.
![舒康雞 HOLSEM · 2020. 4. 3. · : BA]2020/30797 : 2020/03/17 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I Il I Il I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I Il I Il I I I I Ill I I I I I I](https://img.pdfslide.net/doc/110x75/60e1a613faf52e69a51b7862/ee-holsem-2020-4-3-ba202030797-20200317-i-i-i-i-i-i-i-i-i-i.jpg)
