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8. Ethical Issues in Biodiversity

Larry D. Sanders Spring 2002Dept. of Ag Economics Oklahoma State

University

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INTRODUCTION• Purpose:

– to understand the ethical issues related to biodiversity

• Learning Objectives:

1. To review the key issues related to biodiversity.

2. To understand the concept of species and extinction.

3. To understand the ethical dimensions of biodiversity

and loss of biodiversity.

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Biodiversity: Key Issues

• Significance of species• Significance of

ecosystem• Keystone species• Cost of waiting• Cost of acting• Valuation• Technological fix

(zoos, reintroduction, cloning)

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The Concept of Species

• Determining categories of distinction can matter (kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species, members of species)

• Moral rights for the species, or members of the species, or not at all

• Legal rights for the species, or members of species, or not at all

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Prospective Extinction

• Extinction: “the death of birth”

• Charismatic megafauna: tiger, blue whale, whooping crane, giant panda, gorilla, orangutan, cheetah, northern spotted owl

• Perhaps more significant: likely loss of dozen/day, accelerating in 20th century

• Human activity and/or natural cyclical processes?

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Extinction: Rate is Accelerating (estimates vary)

• 1600-1900: 1 species became extinct every 4 years

• 1900-1960: 1 species became extinct every year

• 1960-2000: 100-40,000 species become extinct each year

Human Population

Extinction Rate

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Extinction: Scientific & Ethical Questions

• How do we know if extinction is the result of natural processes or human activity?

• Is human activity a part of the “grand scheme” of the natural process?

• Should a species be saved for its own sake, for human sake, for the ecosystem sake, or not at all?

• What benefits & costs should be considered & how should they be measured?

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Number of Threatened Mammal Species by Country, 1996 *

128

75 75 71 64 58 57 49 46 46 43 42 38 38 35 35 35

020406080

100120140

IND

ON

ES

IA

CH

INA

IND

IA

BR

AZ

IL

ME

XIC

O

AU

ST

RA

LIA

PA

PU

A N

G

PH

ILIP

PIN

ES

PE

RU

MA

DA

GA

SC

AR

KE

NY

A

MA

LA

YS

IA

ZA

IRE

VIE

TN

AM

US

A

CO

LO

MB

IA

ET

HIO

PIA

* Source:World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, England

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Number of Threatened Bird Species by Country, 1996 *

10410390 86

7364 64

53 50 47 45 45 44 44 41 38 36 34 33 31

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

* Source:World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, England

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Number of Threatened Reptilian Species by Country, 1996 *

37

28

20 19 19 18 17 16 16 15 15 15 14 14 13 12 12 12 11 10 10

05

10152025303540

* Source:World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, England

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Number of Threatened Fish Species by Country, 1996 *

123

86

60

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

USA MEXICO INDONESIA* Source:World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, England

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Number of Threatened Invertibrate Species by Country, 1996 *

594

281

101

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

USA AUSTRALIA SOUTH AFRICA* Source:World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, England

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Biodiversity: So What?

• Humans need other species in the ecosystem?– For physical survival

(current &/or future)

– For psychic, intrinsic survival

• Human duty to the ecosystem called “Earth”?

• Irrespective of humans, all species have moral standing?

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Biodiversity: So What?

“…[D]iversity, the property that makes resilience possible, is vulnerable to blows that are greater than natural perturbations. It can be eroded away fragment by fragment, & irreversibly so. . . .

“…’biodiversity’ …is the key to maintenance of the world as we know it.”--E. O. Wilson

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Biodiversity: So What?

“By grasping the objective status of species as real units in nature…, we may better comprehend the moral rationale for their preservation. …But when a species dies, an item of natural uniqueness is gone forever.

“Species are living, breathing items of nature. We lose a bit of our collective soul when we drive species, prematurely and in large numbers, to oblivion.”

--Stephen Jay Gould

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Measuring Biodiversity Value is Problematic

• Genes or phenotypic characters to preserve genetic diversity?

• Genetic diversity can be used both for species diversity & ecosystem diversity

• Massive undertaking; genetic composition not known for most species

• Species definition often the proxy for determining biodiversity

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Measuring Biodiversity Value is Problematic (continued)

• Individual and comparative valuation of species and among species is hotly debated

• Result is oversimplification:– Intrinsic value approach suggests

proper level of biodiversity is to save all species (but leave unstated at what level to consider harm to humans)

– Utilitarian approach suggests proper level is whatever is economically efficient

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Habitat/Biodiversity Policy

• Endangered Species Act (ESA) of 1973 under review

• Criticisms:– Species over Humans– Ignores Economics– “Taking” of Property Rights

• Response– Species Critical to Ecosystem– Economics may favor Species– Property Rights Evolve

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ESA (1973)--Background

• Primary Goal: Conservation of endangered, threatened species & their ecosystems

• Key Elements:– Listing;– Protections, Prohibited Activities & Enforcement;– Relief/exemption from sanctions

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ESA--Process

1. Listing: – Species based solely on biological considerations– Requirement of designation of “critical habitat” must

consider economic impacts; potential sites may be excluded if opportunity costs too hi

2. Regulatory Constraints– Protects listed species against “taking” (harming or

degrading habitat); private land not protected– Prohibits federal actions that jeopardize species or

adversely modify habitat– Can’t consider economics

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ESA--Process (cont.)

3. Regulatory Relief

--Allows granting of permits to take listed species

--Incidental/conditional to approved conservation plan

--Economics may be considered

--Exemption possible

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ESA--Property Rights

• Some claims that ESA is unconstitutional “taking” private property rights w/o compensation (violates Fifth Amendment of Constitution)

• Property rights always evolving, subject to limitations, & not inalienable nor absolute

• Current ESA reform bills may ignore historic precedence, but do contribute to debate on redefinition of rights by society

• ESA was amendment of property rights; standard practice to not compensate when prohibiting a “bad”; courts very cautious

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References

The Natural History Museum, London:

http://www.nhm.ac.uk/science/projects/worldmap/diversity

World Conservation Monitoring Centre: http://www.wcmc.org.uk/species/animals

VP