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11
A BRIEF GUIDE TO RESEARCH A BRIEF GUIDE TO RESEARCH
ON IMMERSION PROGRAMSON IMMERSION PROGRAMS
Fred GeneseeFred Genesee
McGill UniversityMcGill University
French Immersion in Manitoba ConferenceFrench Immersion in Manitoba Conference
WinnipegWinnipeg
Feb. 6, 2009Feb. 6, 2009
22
PERILS OF BILINGUALISMPERILS OF BILINGUALISM
33
IS BILINGUAL ACQUISITION IS BILINGUAL ACQUISITION EXCEPTIONAL?EXCEPTIONAL?
Chapters:Chapters:• Children with AutismChildren with Autism• Children with Down’s Children with Down’s
SyndromeSyndrome• Children with William’s Children with William’s
SyndromeSyndrome• Hearing-Impaired ChildrenHearing-Impaired Children• Children with Visual Children with Visual
ImpairmentImpairment• Hearing children of deaf Hearing children of deaf
parentsparents
Bishop & Mogford 1989
44
THE GLOBAL VILLAGETHE GLOBAL VILLAGE
55
ENGLISH IN THE GLOBAL VILLAGEENGLISH IN THE GLOBAL VILLAGE(Niall Ferguson, Los Angeles Times)(Niall Ferguson, Los Angeles Times)
66
COGNITIVE ADVANTAGESCOGNITIVE ADVANTAGES
BIALYSTOK BIALYSTOK (2004/2007)(2004/2007)
selective attention selective attention (executive functions of (executive functions of the brain)the brain)
focus on relevant task focus on relevant task information, screen out information, screen out irrelevant informationirrelevant information
a result of managing 2 a result of managing 2 languageslanguages
persists into adulthoodpersists into adulthood
77
CULTURAL UNDERSTANDINGCULTURAL UNDERSTANDING
88
ROAD MAPROAD MAP
brief review of Canadian Immersion programs
lessons from research:
1. value of content-based L2 instruction 2. age3. time4. students with learning challenges +5. simultaneous bilingualism
opportunities & challenges
99
PROGRAM MODELS: PROGRAM MODELS: early total immersionearly total immersion
0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%
100%
% t
ime
in e
ach
lan
gu
age
L2 L1
1010
PROGRAM MODELS: PROGRAM MODELS: delayed immersiondelayed immersion
0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%
100%
% ti
me
in e
ach
lan
guag
e
L2 L1
1111
PROGRAM MODELS:PROGRAM MODELS:Two-Year Late ImmersionTwo-Year Late Immersion
0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%
100%
% t
ime
in e
ach
lan
gu
age
L1
L2
1212
PROGRAM MODELS:PROGRAM MODELS:Double ImmersionDouble Immersion
0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%
100%
% t
ime
in e
ach
lan
gu
age
L2-b
L1
L2-a
1313
1. CONTENT-BASED LANGUAGE 1. CONTENT-BASED LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION IS EFFECTIVEINSTRUCTION IS EFFECTIVE
meaningful content & communicative use of language to promote L2/L3 acquisition:
• promotes acquisition of authentic language proficiency
• pedagogically efficient – 2 for the price of 1• takes advantage of children’s natural language
learning abilities• research evidence …
1414
Research evidenceResearch evidence (Genesee, 2004)(Genesee, 2004)
• English language development
• academic achievement
• French proficiency
1515
ENGLISH LANGUAGE OUTCOMESENGLISH LANGUAGE OUTCOMESSpeaking, Listening, Reading, WritingSpeaking, Listening, Reading, Writing
Immersion Students = Non-immersion students
• Students in enriched immersion scoreStudents in enriched immersion score betterbetter than students in than students in all- all- English programs on English language testsEnglish programs on English language tests
1616
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENTACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT mathematics, science, othermathematics, science, other
Immersion Students = Non-immersion students
1717
FRENCH PROFICIENCYFRENCH PROFICIENCY
Comprehension Skills (Listening & Reading):
Immersion = Native speakers > Non-immersion
Production Skills (Speaking & Writing):
Immersion < Native speakers > Non-immersion
1818
BUT…BUT…
content-based instruction alone is not optimal
Immersion students have significant gaps in their grammatical and communicative competence
language arts instruction is important
focus-on-form can enhance French language competence (Lyster, 2007)
1919
THE CHALLENGE…THE CHALLENGE…
to develop curriculum and pedagogical strategies that promote L2 learning – a curriculum that integrates content and language instruction systematically and explicitly (Cloud, Genesee, & Hamayan, 2000)
2020
2. EARLY L2 INSTRUCTION IS 2. EARLY L2 INSTRUCTION IS GOODGOOD
early exposure takes advantage of young students’ natural language learning ability
early socio-cultural openness
pedagogy and learning styles are compatible in early grades: learner-centered & interactive
2121
BUT…BUT…
early start does not guarantee higher levels of achievement than delayed start
delayed L2 exposure can be equally effective sometimes (Genesee, 2004): late immersion = early immersion sometimes
older students are faster learners
older learners have well developed L1 literacy skills that can transfer & facilitate L2 literacy development
2222
THE CHALLENGETHE CHALLENGE
to develop coherent grade-to-grade curriculum that ensures continuous language development (Cloud, Genesee, & Hamayan, 2000; Met, 1998)
2323
OPTIONSOPTIONS
schools and parents have choices – early or delayed focused on L2
possibility of late L3 instruction, even immersion (Cenoz & Genesee, 1998)
2424
3. TIME on TASK3. TIME on TASK
language acquisition is complex – extended exposure to L2 in immersion is good
more time in school creates more time outside school for L2 learning: expanding students’ repertoires through authentic language use in the community
BUT: no simple relationship between time & learning in school….
2525
TIME & acquisition of majority language TIME & acquisition of majority language
time does not matter so much for English language acquisition
early total immersion = partial immersion early total immersion = delayed immersion Immersion students = non-Immersion students
How is this possible?
Immersion in English outside school
AND
2626
COMMON UNDERLYING PROFICIENCYCOMMON UNDERLYING PROFICIENCY(from Cummins, 2000)(from Cummins, 2000)
2727
TIME & acquisition of minority languagesTIME & acquisition of minority languages
time matters
more time in French greater proficiency in French, generally:
total immersion > partial immersion
more support for L1 of minority language students greater L1 and English language competence
WHY? transfer of minority language literacy skills to English and French literacy
2828
BUT…BUT…
time is not a psycholinguistic variable:
two-year late immersion = early total immersion sometimes
simply providing extended immersion experience is not enough
time must be translated into effective learning opportunities (Cloud, Genesee, & Hamayan, 2000)
educators must have a long term*, coherent plan for spending time – how to link language learning to content over time
2929
4. IMMERSION FOR ALL?4. IMMERSION FOR ALL?
Research on majority language students has shown that it is effective and suitable for students (Genesee, 2004):
• with academic challenges
• with poor L1 skills
• from disadvantaged socio-economic families
• learning typologically different languages (Hebrew, Japanese, Mohawk)
Little research evidence on students with severecognitive, perceptual and socio-emotional challenges
3030
WHAT ABOUT CHILDREN WITH LANGUAGE or WHAT ABOUT CHILDREN WITH LANGUAGE or READING ACQUISITION DIFFICULTIES?READING ACQUISITION DIFFICULTIES?
SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGIST (APRIL 2002)SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGIST (APRIL 2002)
……. . I am a psychologist working in English schools in a very I am a psychologist working in English schools in a very French environment. We are sometimes challenged with French environment. We are sometimes challenged with children who have been diagnosed with SLI and that children who have been diagnosed with SLI and that come from unilingual French homes. My knowledge of come from unilingual French homes. My knowledge of the problematic was leading me to believe that adding the problematic was leading me to believe that adding yet another language on a child having difficulty yet another language on a child having difficulty mastering his mother tongue could be putting mastering his mother tongue could be putting too much too much pressure and setting the child up for failure.pressure and setting the child up for failure.
Immersion students with poor L1 skillsImmersion students with poor L1 skills
☼ ☼ BruckBruck (1984) (1984)
• anglophone immersion students with L1 deficits = anglophone immersion students with L1 deficits = anglophone control students anglophone control students
☼ ☼ Erdos, Genesee Erdos, Genesee & Savage & Savage (2008)(2008)
• strong correlation between L1 and L2 reading skills strong correlation between L1 and L2 reading skills and precursors of reading and precursors of reading
3131
3232
FRENCH-ENGLISH BILINGUALS with FRENCH-ENGLISH BILINGUALS with LANGUAGE IMPAIRMENT LANGUAGE IMPAIRMENT Paradis, Crago, Genesee & Rice (2003)Paradis, Crago, Genesee & Rice (2003)
French-English French-English bilingualsbilinguals with LI with LI**(8 years old)(8 years old)
Fr monos with L IFr monos with L I Eng monos with L IEng monos with L I
** Not in bilingual programsNot in bilingual programs
3333
RESULTSRESULTS
bilingual children with impairment had same patterns of impairment as monolingual children with impairment – in both English & French
bilingual children with impairment had same severity of impairment as monolingual children with impairment – in both English & French
children with language impairment were bilingual
3434
5. SIMULTANEOUS BILINGUALISM5. SIMULTANEOUS BILINGUALISMmyth of the monolingual brainmyth of the monolingual brain
3535
EVIDENCE: EVIDENCE: MONOLINGUAL MILESTONESMONOLINGUAL MILESTONES
word word first vocabulary word grammar/ first vocabulary word grammar/ segmentation babbling words spurt comb. communicat’nsegmentation babbling words spurt comb. communicat’n (7 mths)(7 mths) (10-12 m) (12mths) (18mths) (24mths) (beyond) (10-12 m) (12mths) (18mths) (24mths) (beyond)
bilingual milestones are the samebilingual milestones are the same
bilingual milestones are the samebilingual milestones are the same
3636
Educational ImplicationsEducational Implications
3rd language children and their parents should not be discouraged from using the heritage language at home
even if the child is suspected of having a language learning impairment
they should be encouraged to use it in ways that reinforce literacy skills
this provides a foundation for the acquisition of academic language and literacy in English & French
3737
LAST WORDSLAST WORDS
Immersion education is effective
it is suitable for diverse learner groups
effectiveness depends on many variables – “devil is in the detail”
research findings can guide our efforts in planning effective immersion programs
need more emphasis on professional development so that instruction continues to evolve with our growing understanding of what makes immersion work
3939
Thank YouThank You
4040
REFERENCESREFERENCES
Cenoz, J., & Genesee, F., (1998). Beyond Bilingualism: Multilingualism and Multilingual Education. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters. Christian, D., & Genesee, F. (2001). Bilingual education. Alexandria, VA: TESOL Inc.Cloud, N., Genesee, F., & Hamayan, E. (2000). ). Dual Language Instruction: A Handbook for Enriched Education. Portsmouth, NH: Heinle & Heinle. Genesee, F. (2004). What do we know about bilingual education for majority language students. In T.K. Bhatia & W. Ritchie (Eds), Handbook of Bilingualism and Multiculturalism, pp. 547-576. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Genesee, F., & Nicoladis, E. (2006). Bilingual acquisition. In E. Hoff & M. Shatz (eds.), Handbook of Language Development, 324-342. Oxford, Eng.: Blackwell.
Genesee, F., Paradis, J., & Crago, M. (2004). Dual language development and disorders. Boston: Brookes.Johnson, R.K., & Swain, M. (Eds., 1997), Immersion education: International perspectives. Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press.Lindholm-Leary, K., & Borsato, G. (2006). Academic achievement. In F. Genesee, K. Lindholm-Leary, W. Saunders, & D. Christian (Eds) Educating English language learners,
pp. 176-222. NY: Cambridge University Press. Lyster, R. (2007). Learning and teaching languages through content: A counterbalanced approach. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Met. M. (1998). Curriculum decision-making in content-based language teaching. In J. Cenoz & F. Genesee (Eds), Beyond bilingualism: Multilingualism and multilingual education, p. 35-63. Clevedon, Eng.: Multilingual Matters.