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Addressing Discrimination:Development of the Disability Rights Laws

Sherrie BrownDennis LangLSJ 332/CHID 332Session 6 Fall 2006

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Topics

• Discussion of the Early History• American Disability Policy Development• American Law

– Rehabilitation Act of 1973 – Developmental Disabilities Assistance and Bill of

Rights Act (DD Act)– Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)– Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)

• Writing a Disability Rights Law: Step 1

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Reading Questions…

• Arthur Shapiro makes apparent contradictory statements about the historical (current?) attitude or belief about disabled people in monotheistic religions (Judaism, Christianity, Islam). How do you think these three religions understood disability?

 • In discussing the treatment of disability (particularly

disabilities other than physical ones) in the American colonies, Shapiro quotes Ferguson as saying the major concern was over dependency not disability. What does this mean? 

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Continued…

• Shapiro refers to Goffman’s definition of the “total institution” and the inherent differences with it and the typical lifestyle. What is the total institution and why it is contrary to a mainstream life?

• How did the belief that disabled people require the care of social institutions, services and care lead to development of a national welfare society and charitable organizations?

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Continued…

• How has disability has been used to justify the differences in treatment of women, African-Americans, and immigrants in this country?

• And how has disability has been used to argue against the inequities towards members of these three “groups?”

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American “Disability” Policy Development

• Historically—some would say currently—

• Disabled people were treated as second class citizens.

• Pitied, abused, and objects of charity; not afforded the fundamental rights of others.

• Power differentiation created devaluation and dehumanization.

• Victimization resulted in increased segregation and self-fulfilling prophecies of dependency.

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Nineteenth Century

• So-called “Ugly Laws” common– “No person who is diseased, maimed, or in any way deformed so as to be

an unsightly or disgusting object is to be allowed in or on the public ways or other places in the city. If such a person exposes himself to public view, he shall be subject to a fine for each offense.” Chicago ordinance

• Beginning of the institutionalization movement with establishment of the Massachusetts School for Idiotic Children and Youth in 1849.

• Washington Territory opened school for “defective and feeble-minded youth” in 1886.

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Twentieth Century

• Exclusion from public education– It is claimed, on behalf of the school board, that his physical condition and ailment

produces “a depressing and nauseating effect upon the teachers and school children, that by reason of his physical condition he takes up an undue portion of the teacher’s time and attention, distracts the attention of other pupils, and interferes generally with the discipline and progress of the school.” State ex rel. Beattie v. Board of Education of City of Antigo, 169 Wis. 231, 172 NW 153 (1919)

• Institutionalization and forced sterilization became the policy after the US Supreme Court’s Buck v. Bell decision in 1927.

– Holmes wrote “in order to prevent our being swamped with incompetence, it is better for all the world, if instead of waiting to execute degenerate offspring for crimes, or to let them starve for their imbecility, society can prevent those who are manifestly unfit from continuing their kind.”

– Eugenics movement supported the sterilization policy. By 1938, 33 states had sterilization laws.

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Revolution

• After WWI there was growing reaction by people with disabilities and others to this treatment.– Blind veterans formed American Foundation of the Blind.– Parents of children with disabilities developed national advocacy

groups—e.g., Children’s Benevolent League (now the ARC)

• After WWII, other new groups developed—e.g., the Paralyzed Veterans of America.

• People with disabilities became involved in the civil rights movement for African Americans in 1960s.– Objective was to change society—not the person.– Civil Rights Model as way to interpret disability develops.

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Courts begin to reflect changing attitudes

• Justice Marshall in Clebourne decision (1984) summarized the treatment of people with disabilities as follows:

– a regime of state-mandated segregation and degradation soon emerged that in its virulence and bigotry rivaled, and indeed paralleled, the worst excesses of Jim Crow. Massive custodial institutions were built to warehouse the retarded for life; the aim was to halt reproduction and nearly extinguish their race. Many disabled children were categorically excluded from public schools, based on the false stereotypes that all were uneducable and on the purported need to protected nondisabled children from them. State laws deemed the retarded “unfit for citizenship.”

• He concluded that persons with developmental disabilities have been subject to a lengthy and tragic history of segregation and discrimination that can only be called “grotesque.”

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Twenty-first Century?

• Our nation’s policymakers have slowly begun to reject the old approach and adopt a new approach (disability paradigm) that recognizes:

– Disability is a natural and normal part of the human experience that in no way diminishes a person’s right to fully participate in all aspects of society. (DD Act 101(a))

– In order for disabled people to fully participate in all aspects of society, our nation’s policies must ensure that society “fixes” the natural, constructed, cultural, and social environment.

• In times of limited resources and competing priorities, existing policies can change, new policies may be limited, and the status of the policy becomes critical.

– Is the policy based in law?– Is the law a right or a benefit?– Is the policy based on charity?

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Disability Law Development

• Civil Rights Statutes– Prohibit discrimination on basis of disability

• Entitlement Programs (open and closed types)– Open types guarantee eligible persons certain level of benefits—cost

dependent on number of eligible individuals. (mandatory spending programs)

• Social Security Disability Insurance (SSDI)• Supplemental Security Income (SSI)• Medicare• Medicaid

– Closed types do not create individual guarantee or entitlement to assistance—states given certain amount of money and to extent there is funding, people are served.

• Vocational Rehabilitation Program• Children’s Health Insurance Program (CHIP) money to states for low-income who don’t

qualify for Medicaid, including children with disabilities.

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Major “Civil Rights” Statutes

• Urban Mass Transportation Act of 1964

• Architectural Barriers Act of 1968 Rehabilitation Act of 1973 RCW 49.60--Washington State Law Against Discrimination Education for all Handicapped Children Act of 1975 Developmental Disabilities Assistance and Bill of Rights Act of 1975

• Voting Accessibility for Elderly & Handicapped Act of 1986

• Air Carrier Access Act of 1986

• The Fair Housing Amendments of 1988 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990

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Laws in a Nutshell

• Urban Mass Transportation Act of 1964 requires systems accepting federal funds be accessible to the elderly and people with disabilities.

• Architectural Barriers Act of 1968 requires that all buildings built with federal funds be accessible.

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Laws continued…

Rehabilitation Act of 1973: §§ 501, 503, 504 protect persons with disabilities from discrimination in federal government, federally funded programs, and by recipients of federal funds.

RCW 49.60 -- Washington State Law Against Discrimination (disability added 1973).

Education for all Handicapped Children Act of 1975 (renamed IDEA in 1990) mandates free appropriate public education for all qualified children.

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Laws continued…

Developmental Disabilities Assistance and Bill of Rights Act of 1975 provides funding for services, state DD councils, P&A programs and Bill of Rights.

• Voting Accessibility for the Elderly and Handicapped Act of 1986 requires all polling places in federal elections be accessible for elderly and people with disabilities.

• Air Carrier Access Act of 1986 prohibits discrimination against any otherwise qualified handicapped individual, by reason of such handicap, in the provision of air transportation.

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Laws continued…

• Fair Housing Amendment of 1988 provides protection in housing.

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990 protects qualified people with disabilities from discrimination in the areas of employment, transportation, access to public services and facilities, and communication.

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Selected Entitlement Programs

• Supplemental Security Income (SSI) Program (Title XVI of the Social Security Act)– Enacted in 1972– Authorizes cash benefits for individuals and couples who are aged, blind, or

disabled and children under age 18 with disabilities or blindness who meet a financial needs test (income and resource limitations)

• Medicaid Program (Title XIX of the Social Security Act)

– Enacted 1965 with significant amendments since then– Major public financing program for health and long-term coverage to low-income

persons (significant for individuals with disabilities)– State administered, means-tested program financed by both federal and state

governments– Within certain federal guidelines, state set their income and asset eligibility criteria– Broad range of services—some federally mandated, some optional

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Rehabilitation Act of 1973

• Nondiscrimination and affirmative action sections passed in lieu of amendment to Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

• Requires affirmative action by federal government (Section 501) and recipients of federal contracts (Section 503) in hiring and promotion of people with disabilities in employment.

• Prohibits discrimination towards people with disabilities by all entities receiving federal funds (Section 504).

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Section 504

No otherwise qualified individual with a disability . . . Shall, solely by reason of her or his disability, be excluded from the participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance. 29 USC Section 794(a)

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Section 504 requires

• Program accessibility (physical as well as criteria for participation)

• Reasonable accommodation for employees with disabilities

• Reasonable modifications for participants (eg., students)

• Effective communication• Accessible new construction and alterations

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Impact of Section 504?

• Minimal attention paid by covered entities under 504—i.e., state governmental services.

• Some attention paid by covered entities under 503—i.e., federal contractors when Federal government was investigating complaints.

• But … bottom line was that few individuals with disabilities or attorneys understood the implications of the law AND minimal governmental monitoring of compliance.

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Developmental Disabilities Assistance Act and Bill of Rights (DD Act)

• Signed by President Ford in 1975—largely as a response to media attention and series of court decisions.

• States that individuals have a right to appropriate treatment, services, and habilitation.

• Declares that funding for institutions only if they:– Provide appropriate treatment, services and habilitation;– Meet minimum standards of adequate food, sufficient medical and

dental care;– Use physical restraints only when absolutely necessary and avoid

excessive use of chemical restraints;– Allow relatives the right to visit at reasonable hours without prior

notice; and – Comply with adequate fire and safety standards.

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American with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990

• Comprehensive, broader coverage than Rehabilitation Act of 1973

• Same definition for “person with disability,” “reasonable accommodation,” etc.

• Covers – Employers (Title I) with more than 15 employees,

– Public Services of local and state government (Title II),

– Public Accommodations (Title III) covers private entities open to the public—e.g., restaurants, theatres, health care providers;

– Telecommunications Relay Services (Title IV).

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Basic Provisions

• Thou shall not discriminate against qualified people with disabilities.

• Thou shall provide 1) reasonable accommodation or modification as necessary in order to allow the person to participate/benefit; 2) auxiliary aids and services; and 3) physical access.

• Defenses to these duties: undue hardship; fundamental alteration to programs or services; or direct threat.

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Terms of Art…

• Person with disability is an individual– With a Physical or Mental Impairment, that

– Substantially Limits

– A Major Life Activity

• Qualified individual with a disability is one who– Can perform the essential functions of the job with or

without reasonable accommodations or

– Meets eligibility requirements for the program or service in question.

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Reasonable Accommodation/Modification

• Modification or adjustments to the job or school application process, work or school environment, manner under which job or tasks are performed

• Modification or adjustment that allows an employee or student to enjoy same benefits and privileges– Case by case analysis required

– Undue burden/hardship or substantial modification not required

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Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)

• Federal Government provides financial assistance to states if they agree to follow the extensive due process procedures included in the IDEA.

• IDEA provides rights to children with one of 13 disabilities who require special education and related services in order to benefit from public education.

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Basic Principles of IDEA

• States must provide a free, appropriate public education (FAPE) to eligible children.

• FAPE must be provided in the least restrictive environment (LRE) appropriate to the educational needs of the child.

• FAPE includes specialized instruction and related services designed to meet the unique needs of each child--i.e., individualized.

• Zero reject—i.e., no child is “too disabled” to benefit from services.

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Please Consider These

• Your committee task is to write a Disability Rights Law. • Step 1– discuss the following two questions:

– What is discrimination and how do we define it in terms of enforcement?

– Who are we covering in the law—i.e., how do we define disability?

• Keep in mind:– Concerns that have been expressed in the

implementation of the ADA– Examples from other statutes

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Selected examples…

• The right to be free from discrimination because of . . . the presence of any sensory, mental, or physical disability or the use of a trained dog guide or service animal by a disabled person is recognized as and declared to be a civil right. (Washington State RCW 49.60)

• For the purposes of this law, a person is considered disabled if he has a permanent or long-term physical or mental functional impairment, which, in relation to his age and social context, implies considerable disadvantages for his family, social, educational an work integration. (Argentina)

• A disabled person means a person who is unable to see hear or speak or suffering from injuries to his limbs or from mental retardation, due to natural or man-made causes; provided, however, that the term does not include persons who are alcoholics, drug addicts and those with psychological problems due to socially deviant behaviors. (Ethiopia)