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Anne S. Tsui

Arizona State UniversityPeking University

Xi’an Jiaotung UniversityInternational Association for Chinese Management Research

Management and Organization Review

Scientific Process and Research Design

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1. The scientific process 2. Types of empirical studies3. Purposes of research design4. Contribution to global management

knowledge5. Research ethics and IACMR values

Topics of this Session

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Readings for this session

Required readings: Wallace, Walter. 1971. The Logic of science in sociology. Chicago:

Aldine, pp. 11-25. IACMR Statement of “Commitment to Excellent”Tsui, A.S. 2006. Contextualization in Chinese management research.

Management and Organization Review, 2(1): 1-13.

Supplemental readings:Tsui, A.S., Jone L. Pearce, Lyman W. Porter, and Angela M. Tripoli.

1997. "Alternative Approaches to the Employee-Organization Relationship: Does Investment in Employees Pay Off?” Academy of Management Journal, 40(5): 1089-1121.

Xiao, Z.X. & Tsui, A. S. 2007. “Where brokers may not work: The culture contingency of social capital”. Administrative Science Quarterly, 53: 1-31.

Yan, A. & Gray. B. 1994. Bargaining power, management control, and performance in the United States-China joint ventures: A comparative case study. Academy of Management Journal, 37: 1478-1517.

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Four sources of knowledge or truth

Mythical

Authoritative

Logical

Scientific

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Goal of Science: Seek truth or create knowledge Science is the pursuit of truth, of explanation,

prediction, and control a phenomenon. Truth obtained from the scientific method

contains both logic and evidence that are consistent with each other.

Science is about the creation of knowledge, not the application of knowledge

Science cannot settle debate about values (good or bad, right or wrong, e.g. stem cell research) - objectivity

Ultimate goal of science is to better the human condition

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Methodology The conduct of scientific inquiry

Methodology is the science of finding out knowledge (truth).

The standards for determining truth is rigor in logic and methods

The scientific community determines the standards of rigor and professional competence.

Each scientist is accountable to the scientific community for adhering to standards of professional competence and norms.

The visible part of our scientific conduct and results is “reconstructed logic”

The ethics of science is in the conduct of the scientist.

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Reality (Epistemology)Three views in social sciences

Premodern: Only one reality, no individual experience matters or allowed.

Modern: There is an objective reality (e.g., the temperature) but we have different subjective experience of it (e.g., warm, cold). Agreement in subjective experiences could indicate objective reality.

Postmodern: No objective reality, only images of reality or subjective experiences, and all are true. Agreement is neither necessary or desirable to define reality.

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Normal Science based on the modern view of reality

Normal science is empirical science – data, evidences or observations are necessary to support theory.

Determination of significant fact, matching of facts with theory, and articulation of theory – basic paradigm of normal science that we accept.

Research based on shared paradigm is committed to the same rules and standards for scientific practice.

That commitment and the apparent consensus it produces are both the genesis and the continuation of a research tradition.

Paradigms involve different assumptions of truth or reality – normal science is based on a modern view of reality.

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The Domain of Organization and Management Research

Inter-firm level: firm to firm, firm to environmentFirm level: Strategy, structure, culture, processGroup level: process, structure, dynamics Individual level: attitudes, behavior, decision, perception

Cross-level: firm group individualfirm individualindividual group firm

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Commonly Used Research Methods in Management

Survey Research （调查研究） Laboratory experiments ( 实验室研究） Quasi experiments （准实验） Secondary data design ( 二手数据分析） Qualitative and case methods ( 定性和个案

研究）

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Scientific Research

Scientific research is a systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of natural or social phenomena (using commonly accepted methodology) that either (a) is guided by theory and hypotheses about the presumed (true) relations among such phenomena, or b) results in theory and propositions about the possible (true) relationships among such phenomena.

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Two Types of Empirical Research

Theory testing empirical research Surveys (interview, mail, internet, phone) Experiments (university setting) Quasi experiments (university or company) Secondary data (financial, operational, personnel)

Theory building empirical research Qualitative research (interview, observation, text) Case methods (interviews, text, secondary data)

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Deductive research

演绎研究

Inductive research

归纳研究

Theoretical research

理论研究

A Simplified Scientific Research Processand Types of Research

Descriptive research

1. ResearchQuestion研究问题

3. Theory and Hypotheses理论和假设

4. The empirical study 实证研究

2. Literature review 文献回顾

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Elements of the Scientific Process

Theories

Hypotheses假设

Observations

EmpiricalGeneralization

实证概括

Accept or reject Hs

LogicalDeduction

演绎逻辑

Research Design,instrumentation,scaling, sampling

Measurement,sample summarization,parameter estimation

Concept formationPropositions

Induction形成概念、假设 , 归纳 Logical Inference

逻辑推理

Tests ofhypotheses

From W.L. Wallace, The Logic of Science in Sociology, Figure 1

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The Scientific Process - Review

Curiosity or puzzle

ResearchQuestion

Literaturereview

Theory?

Yes

No

DeductiveDesign

InductiveDesign

Observation

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The Truth @@@###@@#

Research is “messy”. The “reconstructed story” does not

reveal the “messiness” in the “construction process”.

Research is “perseverance” through iterations of induction and deduction

Thomas Edison – 2000 times before he succeeded – 2000 step journey

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Research design: Purpose 1 - variance control

Systematic variance 系统变异 Extraneous variance 外生变异

Error variance 误差变异

A good research design should: maximize systematic variance,

control extraneous variance, and minimize error variance

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Approaches to variance control

Maximize systematic variance Through good experimental control Through a strong theory Through systematic sampling

Control extraneous variance Through randomization or matching of subjects Through including meaningful control variables

Minimize error variance Through controlled conditions Through valid measurement

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Variance Control in EOR study (Tsui, et al 1997, AMJ)

Systematic: Independent variable (EOR) Sample selection – multiple industries (5),

multiple firms (10) – 85 jobs Measurement of I.V. – 4 types at the job level

QSC – 31%, UI – 18%, OI – 18%, MI – 33%

Extraneous: Control variables individual, job, company – 8 total

Error: Precision in measurement (EFA and CFA)

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Variance Control in IJV control study (Yan & Gray, 1994, AMJ)

Systematic: Independent variable (Management Control) Sample selection – theoretical sampling using

criteria of IJV age, size, industries, ownership (4). Measurement or data – interviews and archives

Extraneous: Through sampling – match of age, foreign

country, etc. Error:

Triangulation of data from multiple sources

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Variance control in social capital study (Xiao & Tsui, 2007, ASQ)

Systematic variance in the IV – industry experts nominate firms that vary on commitment

Extraneous variance – through 9 control variables

Error variance – through valid measurement

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Research Design: Purpose 2 - Enhance Validity

Validity is the probable truth or falsity of an assertion or inference. Four types of validity:

Construct validity（构想效度） Present when measure produces results consistent

with alternative (valid) measures of same construct Internal validity（内部效度）

Absence of alternative explanations External validity（外部效度）

Present when control variables do not interact with causal variables, i.e., results would hold at other times, in other settings, and for other individuals

Statistical conclusion validity（统计推论效度） Significant presence of co-variation between variables

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Construct Validity - Does the variable measure what it purports to measure?

Content validity （内容效度） When the measure is absent of deficiency or

contamination Criterion-related validity （效标关联效度）

When the measure relates to other constructs as expected

Convergent validity （会聚效度） When the measure relates to other measures

of the same construct Discriminant validity （区分效度）

When the measure does not relate to other constructs as expected.

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Construct validity in EOR study (Tsui et al., 1997, AMJ)

1 independent and 7 dependent variables Assess internal consistency of multiple items for

the same construct (alpha = .76 to .96) Factor analysis to ensure that items load on the

intended factor (CFA discriminant validity) Agreement between multiple assessment of

EOR dimensions in the same job (ANOVA F, R-2 = .33 and .50 for the two dimensions)

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Construct validity in IJV study (Yan & Gray, 1994, AMJ)

Triangulation of data from multiple sources

Replication of discovered constructs across cases

Case examples to illustrate constructs

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Construct validity in the social capital study (Xiao & Tsui, 1997, ASQ)

3 main constructs: structural holes, high commitment organization, career success

2 of the 3 are based on current measures High commitment – firm level construct

measured at the individual level (n=88, 117, 102, 128 employees in four firms)

EFA, Rwg=.83 to .84 (4 firms), ICC1=.14, ICC2=.95

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Internal Validity: Confidence in inference, absence of alternative explanations

Strong statistical validity Strong theory (internal validity) Strong controls (extraneous variance) Valid measurement (construct validity) Appropriate sample (external validity) Strong inference of causation (internal

validity) No artificial covariance due to design or

attribution

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Internal validity of EOR study(Tsui et al., 1997, AMJ)

Strong theoretical foundation No serious common method variance

problem Inclusion of 8 control variables Construct validity of EOR measure –

only 7 items (3 for contribution and 4 for inducement) - content deficiency?

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Internal validity in IJV study(Yan & Gray, 1994, AMJ)

Replication of relationships in different cases

Consistency of patterns across cases Coders should be unaware of the initial

model or hypotheses Competing explanations (e.g., IJV changes)

are incorporated into the revised model

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Controlling for reverse causality Career data (DV) collected 6 months after IV Networks ties within performance period

excluded Using 9 control variables that may also

influence the dependent variable 3 ways to test the moderating hypothesis

Subgroup analysis Interaction of firm level commitment score Interaction of individual level commitment score

Internal validity in the social capital study (Xiao & Tsui, 1997, ASQ)

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Contributing to Global Management Knowledge (how to publish in international journals)

Address an interesting and important “puzzle” Contribute to a “current conversation” Connect to current theories and constructs Use current normal science method Select a type of international management

research Engage in appropriate “contextualization”

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The “Puzzle” Asking interesting questions

“ Uninteresting” questions in any study:

Obvious questions Irrelevant questions Absurd questions Definitional questions Affirmation questions

“Uninteresting” Chinese studies: Replicating a published study Uncritical application of an existing theory Affirmation of similarities to Western samples Outside-in and literature-driven approach in selecting

problems or research questions(Davis, 1971)

“What to study in ChineseManagement research”Tsui, Zhao, and Abrahamson, MOR3.2

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The “Conversation” (Huff, 1999)

What are the old and new topics in the conversation?

What are the current debates? How familiar are current conversationalists

about your topic and context (sample)? How to make the connection to the

unfamiliar? Why should “they” listen to you?

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Connect to Current Theories

Apply current theories Extend or modify Create and connect

Making the novel appear familiar Making the familiar appear novel Borrow and return something better Vision limited by borrowed lens

Whetten, 2002; 2008

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Contextualization and type of global management knowledge (Tsui, 2004)

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Use of Current Methods

Meet criteria of validity – construct, internal, external

Contextualization of measurement and data collection procedure

Develop new methods of data collection, measurement, or analyses to supplement current methods

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Contextualization (Tsui, 2006)

The Phenomena – from “outside in” to “inside out”

The Theory – from “application” to “creation”

The Measurement – from “translation” to “indigenization”

The Methodology – from “sharpening old tools” to “developing new instruments”

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1. Pure international – studies of management in a multinational context

2. Comparative or cross-cultural management – studies of the behavior or decisions of firms or of individuals within firms across different cultural/national contexts

3. Country specific or indigenous management – studies of firm or individual behavior within a nation/culture

Types of international management research

Tsui, Nifadker & Ou, 2007, JOM; Werner, 2002, JOM

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IACMR Commitment to Excellence

Research Code of Ethics Research integrity Journal submission policy Respect for research participants Reviewer and editor responsibilities Professional interaction and exchange Conference participation IACMR member responsibility

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IACMRIACMR

Source of Inspiration灵感之源

Spirit of Service奉献精神

Commitment to Excellence追求卓越

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References

Academy of Management Journal award winning papers (book)Administrative Science Quarterly award winning papers (book)IACMR Statement of “Commitment to Excellent” on www.iacmr.org

Babbie, Earl R. 2004, 10th edition. The practice of social research. Belmont, CA: Wadswroth/Thomson Learning.

Davis, Murray S. 1971. That is interesting! Phil. Soc. Sci., 309-344. Huff, Anne. 1999. Writing for scholarly publications. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Kaplan, Abraham. 1964. The conduct of inquiry. San Francisco: Chandler. Kuhn, Thomas. 1996. The structure of scientific revolution, 3rd edition. Chicago: University

of Chicago Press. Popper, Karl R. 1968, 2nd edition. The logic of scientific discovery. New York: Harper. Tsui, A.S. 2004 . Contributing to global management knowledge: A case for high quality

indigenous research. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 21: 491-513. Tsui, A.S. 2006. Contextualization in Chinese management research. Management and Organization

Review, 2(1): 1-13. Tsui, A.S., Nifadkar, S. & Ou, Y. 2007. Cross-national cross-cultural organizational behavior

research: Advances, gaps, and recommendations. Journal of Management, 33(3): 426-478.

Tsui, A.S., Zhao, SM & Abrahamson, 2007. “What to study in Chinese management research. Management and Organization Review, 3(2): 1:171-181.

Wallace, Walter. 1971. The Logic of science in sociology. Chicago: Aldine, pp. 11-25.

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