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Chapter 2Chapter 2

Problem Solving Is meaningful Learning Problem Solving Is meaningful Learning

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What drives learning?What drives learning?

• What drives learning as much more than anything is the What drives learning as much more than anything is the nature of task or activity that learners are engaged in.nature of task or activity that learners are engaged in.

• The most consistently meaningful tasks, both in school and The most consistently meaningful tasks, both in school and out,require people to solve problems.out,require people to solve problems.

• Solving problems can also be the most meaningful kind of Solving problems can also be the most meaningful kind of learning activity in formal educational settings.learning activity in formal educational settings.

• What is a problem?What is a problem?

1) a problem is an unknown.1) a problem is an unknown.

2) finding the unknown must have some social,culture,or intellectual 2) finding the unknown must have some social,culture,or intellectual

value to someone.value to someone.

• Finding the unknown is the process of problem solving.Finding the unknown is the process of problem solving.

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Kinds of Problem SolvingKinds of Problem Solving

• Jonassen(2000b) articulated a typology of 11 different kinds Jonassen(2000b) articulated a typology of 11 different kinds of problem.of problem.

• This range of problem types describes a continuum of problThis range of problem types describes a continuum of problem from well-structured to ill-structured.em from well-structured to ill-structured.

- - well-structuredwell-structured problems typically present all elements of the problem; enga problems typically present all elements of the problem; engage a limited number of rules and principles that are organized in a predictive ge a limited number of rules and principles that are organized in a predictive and prescriptive arrangement; possess correct, convergent answers; and have and prescriptive arrangement; possess correct, convergent answers; and have a preferred, prescribed solution process (Jonassen, 1997).a preferred, prescribed solution process (Jonassen, 1997).

- - ill-structuredill-structured problems may have many alternative solutions, vaguely define problems may have many alternative solutions, vaguely defined or unclear goals and unstated constraints, and multiple criteria for valuatind or unclear goals and unstated constraints, and multiple criteria for valuating solutions. It often require learners to express personal opinions or beliefs ag solutions. It often require learners to express personal opinions or beliefs about the problem.bout the problem.

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Kinds of Problem Kinds of Problem Summary Summary 1.1. Logical problemsLogical problems2.2. Algorithmic problemsAlgorithmic problems3.3. Story problemsStory problems4.4. Rule-using problemsRule-using problems5.5. Decision-making problemsDecision-making problems6.6. Troubleshooting problemsTroubleshooting problems7.7. Diagnosis-solution problemsDiagnosis-solution problems8.8. Tactical / strategic performanceTactical / strategic performance9.9. Case / systems analysis problemsCase / systems analysis problems 10.10. Design problemsDesign problems11.11. DilemmasDilemmas

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SummarySummary

• The purpose for describing these kinds of problem solving wThe purpose for describing these kinds of problem solving was not for you to memorize them, those nonschool problems as not for you to memorize them, those nonschool problems should be used as the purpose for learning in schools. should be used as the purpose for learning in schools.

• Classrooms should import problems from the real world anClassrooms should import problems from the real world and work on solving them in the classroom.d work on solving them in the classroom.

• The point is simple: problem solving is more interesting thaThe point is simple: problem solving is more interesting than memorizing.n memorizing.

When trying to solve a problem, students assume ownership of the problem aWhen trying to solve a problem, students assume ownership of the problem and often expend far more effort in understanding the content surrounding thand often expend far more effort in understanding the content surrounding that problem than they would without such a purpose. That is, they are conceptt problem than they would without such a purpose. That is, they are conceptually engaged (Dole & Sinatra, 1998).ually engaged (Dole & Sinatra, 1998).

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(1)Logical problems(1)Logical problems

• It tend to be abstract test of logic that puzzle the learner.It tend to be abstract test of logic that puzzle the learner.

• They are used to assess mental acuity, clarity, and logic They are used to assess mental acuity, clarity, and logic reasoning.reasoning.

• Classic games such as Missionaries and Cannibals or Tower Classic games such as Missionaries and Cannibals or Tower of Hanoi challenge learners to find the most efficient (least of Hanoi challenge learners to find the most efficient (least number of moves) sequence of action.number of moves) sequence of action.

• In order to solve logic problem, learners must determine the In order to solve logic problem, learners must determine the specific method of reasoning that will yield the most specific method of reasoning that will yield the most efficient solution.efficient solution.

• They are used most frequently to research problem-solving They are used most frequently to research problem-solving process.process.

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(2)Algorithmic problems(2)Algorithmic problems

• One of the most common problem types encountered in schoOne of the most common problem types encountered in school is the algorithm. Such as mathematics courses.ol is the algorithm. Such as mathematics courses.

• The calculations required to solve these problems require coThe calculations required to solve these problems require comprehension of the operations, execution procedures, and rmprehension of the operations, execution procedures, and retrieval of arithmetic facts (McCloskey, Caramaza, & Basili,etrieval of arithmetic facts (McCloskey, Caramaza, & Basili,1985).1985).

• The primary limitation of algorithmic approaches is the oveThe primary limitation of algorithmic approaches is the overreliance on procedural knowledge structures and the lack orreliance on procedural knowledge structures and the lack or absence of conceptual understanding of the objects of the ar absence of conceptual understanding of the objects of the algorithm and the procedures engaged.lgorithm and the procedures engaged.

• They are also used in science coursesThey are also used in science courses 、、 home economics or home economics or in everyday settings.in everyday settings.

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(3)Story problems(3)Story problems

• In an attempt to situate algorithms in some kind of contest, In an attempt to situate algorithms in some kind of contest, many textbook authors and teachers employ story problem.many textbook authors and teachers employ story problem.

• Look at the end of most textbook chapters for examples.Look at the end of most textbook chapters for examples.

• To solve story problems, learners try to select the most apprTo solve story problems, learners try to select the most appropriate formula for solving the problem, extract the values fopriate formula for solving the problem, extract the values from the narrative, and insert them into the formula, solving rom the narrative, and insert them into the formula, solving for the unknown quantity.for the unknown quantity.

• Learners need to understand the structure of the problem, tLearners need to understand the structure of the problem, the conceptual underpinnings of that structure, and how the he conceptual underpinnings of that structure, and how the structure relates to the situation described in the problem (Jstructure relates to the situation described in the problem (Jonassen, in press).onassen, in press).

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(4)Rule-using problems(4)Rule-using problems

• Many problems have correct solutions but multiple methods Many problems have correct solutions but multiple methods and uncertain outcomes.and uncertain outcomes.

• They tend to have a clear purpose or goal that is They tend to have a clear purpose or goal that is constrained but not restricted to a specific rule-oriented constrained but not restricted to a specific rule-oriented procedure or method.procedure or method.

• Online search system to locate relevant information on the Online search system to locate relevant information on the World Wide Web is an example.World Wide Web is an example.

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(5)Decision-making problems(5)Decision-making problems

• Decision-making problems are usually constrained to Decision-making problems are usually constrained to decisions with a limited number of solutions.decisions with a limited number of solutions.

• Decision problems usually require comparing and Decision problems usually require comparing and contrasting the advantages and disadvantages of alternate contrasting the advantages and disadvantages of alternate solutions.solutions.

• For instance, which health plan do we select?For instance, which health plan do we select?

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(6)Troubleshooting problems(6)Troubleshooting problems

• Troubleshooting is one of the most common forms of Troubleshooting is one of the most common forms of everyday problem solving.everyday problem solving.

• Maintaining complex computer equipment or debugging a Maintaining complex computer equipment or debugging a computer program requires these skills.computer program requires these skills.

• The primary purpose of troubleshooting is to diagnose a The primary purpose of troubleshooting is to diagnose a fault in a system and replace it.fault in a system and replace it.

• These skills are integrated and organized by the These skills are integrated and organized by the troubleshooter’s experiences.troubleshooter’s experiences.

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(7)Diagnosis-solution problems(7)Diagnosis-solution problems

• These are similar to troubleshooting.These are similar to troubleshooting.

• These problem usually begin with a fault state similar to These problem usually begin with a fault state similar to troubleshooting (e.g.,symptoms of a sick person).troubleshooting (e.g.,symptoms of a sick person).

• There are multiple solutions and solution paths, so the There are multiple solutions and solution paths, so the physician must justify a particular solution.physician must justify a particular solution.

• It is this ambiguity in solution paths that distinguishes It is this ambiguity in solution paths that distinguishes diagnosis-solution problem from troubleshooting.diagnosis-solution problem from troubleshooting.

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(8)Tactical / strategic performance(8)Tactical / strategic performance

• It requires real-time, complex decision making where It requires real-time, complex decision making where performers apply a number of tactical activities to meet a performers apply a number of tactical activities to meet a more complex and ill-structured strategy while maintaining more complex and ill-structured strategy while maintaining situational awareness.situational awareness.

• Strategy formation represents a systems analysis or design Strategy formation represents a systems analysis or design problem.problem.

• Meeting that strategy through tactical maneuvers is a Meeting that strategy through tactical maneuvers is a tactical performance.tactical performance.

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(9)Case / systems analysis problems(9)Case / systems analysis problems

• Systems analysis problem require learners to understand coSystems analysis problem require learners to understand complex, multifaceted situations.mplex, multifaceted situations.

• Systems analysis problems require the learner to articulate tSystems analysis problems require the learner to articulate the nature of the problem and the different perspectives that he nature of the problem and the different perspectives that impact the problem before suggesting solutions (Jonassen, 1impact the problem before suggesting solutions (Jonassen, 1997).997).

• Classical systems analysis problems also exist in Classical systems analysis problems also exist in politicspolitics, , ecoecologylogy, , sociologysociology, and most other , and most other social sciencessocial sciences..

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(10)Design problems(10)Design problems

• One of the most ill-structured kinds of problems is One of the most ill-structured kinds of problems is designing something.designing something.

• Designing requires applying a great deal of domain Designing requires applying a great deal of domain knowledge with a lot of strategic knowledge resulting in an knowledge with a lot of strategic knowledge resulting in an original design.original design.

• Instructional design is a classic example of ill-structured Instructional design is a classic example of ill-structured problem solving.problem solving.

• Nor are the criteria for the best solution always obvious, so Nor are the criteria for the best solution always obvious, so skills in argumentation and justification help designers to skills in argumentation and justification help designers to rationalize their design.rationalize their design.

• Most design problems are complex, requiring the designer Most design problems are complex, requiring the designer to balance many needs and constraints in design.to balance many needs and constraints in design.

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(11)Dilemmas(11)Dilemmas

• Dilemmas or issue-based problems are the most ill-Dilemmas or issue-based problems are the most ill-structured and unpredictable, often because there is no structured and unpredictable, often because there is no solution that will ever be acceptable to a significant portion solution that will ever be acceptable to a significant portion of the people affected by the problem.of the people affected by the problem.

• The continuing crisis in the Middle East is a prime example The continuing crisis in the Middle East is a prime example of a dilemma problem.of a dilemma problem.

• Dilemmas are often complex, social situations with Dilemmas are often complex, social situations with conflicting perspectives, and they are usually the most conflicting perspectives, and they are usually the most vexing of problems.vexing of problems.

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Problem Solving With TechnologyProblem Solving With Technology

• Information searchingInformation searching• Modeling tasks or contentModeling tasks or content• Decision making Decision making • designingdesigning