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7/28/2019 1 Cor 1-4 - Covert Allusion
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"Covert Allusion"in 1Corinthians 1-4
BENJAMIN FIORE, S.J.
Canisius CollegeBuffalo, NY 14208
IN REFINING A. DEISSMANN'S DISTINCTION between "true" letters and
epistles and its application to the early Christian letters, students ofthe NT
and early Christianity have built on the fruitful observation ofstrictly episto
lary categories and moved to examine those letters in the light ofGreco-
Roman rhetoric.1 By shedding light on the forms and devices in individual
sections and in the argumentation and structure ofwhole letters, these stud
ies have borne fruit in the area ofinterpretation as well as in that ofgeneric
classification. The present study is an effort to identify a common rhetorical
device used by Paul in 1 Corinthians 1-4 in confronting the problems at
Corinth. If the analysis is accurate, then it will constitute another indication
1 See A. Deissmann, Paul (New York: Harper, 1957) 10; W. G. Doty, "The Classification
of Epistolary Literature," CBQ 31 (1968) 183-99; J. A. Fischer, "Pauline Literary Forms and
Thought Patterns," CBQ 39 (1977) 209-23; H. R. Minn, "herum Paulus!," Prudentia 9 (1977)
35-40. For rhetorical observations, see J. Weiss, "Beitrge zur paulinischen Rhetorik," Theolo
gische Studien: Festschrift fr B. Weiss (ed. C. R.Gregory; Gttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht,
1897) 165-247; R. Bultmann, Der Stil der paulinischen Predigt und die kynisch-stoische Dia
tribe (FRLANT 13; Gttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1910); S. K. Stowers, The Diatribe
and Paul's Letter to the Romans (SBLDS 57; Chico, CA: Scholars, 1981); L. G. Perdue,
"Paraenesis and the Epistle ofJames," ZNW72 (1981) 241-56. For some recent studies ofparticular passages, see F. F. Church, "Rhetorical Structure and Design in Paul's Letter to
Philemon," #77? 71 (1978) 17-33; W. Wuellner, "Paul's Rhetoric of Argumentation in Romans,"
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86 THE CATHOLIC BIBLICAL QUARTERLY | 47, 1985
of the flexibility of epistolary divisions and categories when the letter is made
to serve aims of instruction and exhortation. It will also account for the
separate devices used and point to the structure of the section and the
relation of that section to the letter as a whole. Moreover, it will contribute to
an understanding of the nature of the Corinthian community and of Paul'srelation to it.
The hortatory period in the first chapter of 1 Corinthians is unusual for
its place at the start of the letter (compare 1 Cor 16:15; Phil 4:2; Rom 12:1;
15:30; 16:17; 1 Thess 4:1,10; 5:14). And just as it lays the groundwork for
Paul's argumentation in the first four chapters, its appearance, in a different
formulation, in 4:16 closes the first part of the letter, which deals with the
nature and difficulties of the Corinthian community.2
But while the horta
tory section in 1 Corinthians is more than a polite request, friendly exhortation, or moral parnesis, it does not treat the community's problems merely
as a prelude to Paul's main interest in the body of the letter. Rather, the
source of the community's divisiveness in chaps. 1-4 is also at the root of the
particular problems in chaps. 5-15. And the true model of Christian con
sciousness which Paul adduces to meet the difficulty in chaps. 1-4 remains
the basis of his advice in the rest of the letter as well.
The Double Problem in the Opening Exhortation
The first formulation of the exhortation (1:10) notes the community's
schismata ("factions"), which are to be countered by stressing community of
thought and declaration ("I beg you, brothers, in the name of our Lord Jesus
Christ, to agree in what you say. Let there be no factions; rather, be united in
mind and judgment," NAB). The second formulation of the exhortation
(4:16) asks succinctly that the community take Paul as a model of imitation
("I beg you, then, be imitators of me"). They are both aimed at the double
problem in the Corinthian community. The immediate situation seems to be
a misapprehension of the relative merits of the community's teachers, which
leads to factions grouped around different favorite personalities (1:12; 3:4,
2C J Bjerkelund, Parakal Form, Funktion und Sinn der Parakal-Satze in den
paulmischen Briefen (Oslo Universitetsforlaget, 1967) 141-42, 145-46 1 have followed A
Dahl ("Paul and the Church at Corinth according to 1 Corinthians 1 10-4 2\" Studies in Paul
Theology for the Early Christian Mission [Minneapolis Augsburg, 1977] 43-46, 52) in consider
ing chaps 1-4 as a unit framed by hortatory periods, in which Paul urges unanimity as anattitude sine qua non in preparation for his instructions on specific issues in chaps 5-15
My study in calling attention to the use of example in chaps 1 4 as a feature in the "covert
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"COVERT ALLUSION" IN 1 COR 1-4 87
21).3 But this manifests a far-reaching failure in the community members'
own self-estimation, with its exaggerated pretensions to knowledge (3:18-19)
and faulty regard or denigration of others (4:6-7).4
In treating these two problems, Paul moves from the symptom to the
cause. The first exhortation-formula addresses the fact of schismata but
suggests a solution in terms of the community's growth and unity in knowl
edge and expression. The second exhortation-formula also seems to con
front the schismata by designating the true model of their teacher and father.
But this too, although unspecified in the opening chapters, proceeds to the
root cause of faulty wisdom and judgment when Paul applies his apostolic
example to a variety of community problems in the rest of the letter. In fact,
the movement in the first four chapters is from the particular instance ofdivisions to the underlying conditions of erroneous wisdom and judgment.
So too, in the letter as a whole, the principles of the solution reached in
chaps. 1-4 undergird the discussion of the other community problems in
chaps. 5-15.
The Structure of 1:18-4:21
A brief outline of the four opening chapters will make these generalitiesconcrete and will also bring to light the figurative language and oblique
manner of reproach in Paul's parnesis. After the initial thanksgiving and
exhortation (1:4-17), there follow three paradigmatic sections (1:18-2:5;
2:6-3:4; 3:5-4:5), in each of which a general statement is applied to the
concrete examples of the commentary and/or Paul. A clarification of the
meaning and purpose of the figurative language comes next and with it a
questioning of the community's self-esteem by direct charge and contrast
(4:6-13). Finally, Paul reformulates his exhortation, indicates how it is to beimplemented, and challenges the obstinate (4:14-21).
In the first paradigmatic section (l:18-2:5),5 Paul contrasts the apostolic
krygma ("preaching," 1:21) of the cross with worldly wisdom and applies the
statement to the exemplary reaction of the community to its first call to faith
3 C. Holladay, The First Letter of Paul to the Corinthians (Austin: Sweet, 1979) 29; C. K.
Barrett, The First Epistle to the Corinthians (New York: Harper & Row, 1968) 43-44.4 D. M. Stanley ("Become Imitators of Me," Bib 40 [1959] 871) notes in 1:18-3:4 the
false idea of Christian wisdom and in 3:5-17 the misconception of the apostolic vocation.
A. Schulz (Nachfolgen und Nachahmen: Studien ber das Verhltnis der neutestamentlichen
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(1:26-31) as well as to himself in his initial preaching at Corinth (2:1-5). In
the second paradigmatic section (2:6-3:4) Paul contrasts the spiritual maturity
(2:6) of his didaskalia ("teaching," 2:13) with human wisdom and lack of
discernment (2:11-15). Paul then applies this statement positively to himselfas one able lalein ("to speak," 2:13) Spirit-informed wisdom and, as a nega
tive example, to the Corinthians, whose infantile and flesh-bound condition
(3:1-2), proven by their divisiveness (3:3), belies their claims to spiritual
advancement. In the third paradigmatic section (3:5-4:5), Paul discusses the
distinction of function within his apostolic collaboration with Apollos in
working God's field and building his structure in contrast to the factions
formed around favorites (3:21-23). He also distinguishes proper (3:13-15)
from premature judgment (4:5-7). Paul applies this to the community as thetemple of God's Spirit, to the apostolic laborers as his servants and stewards
(4:1-2), and to himself as liable only to God's future judgment (4:3-5; cf. 2:15).
It would be superfluous to do more than note the fact that the double
problem of factionalism and imperfect wisdom and judgment, which were
the clear objects of the opening exhortation, are treated throughout these
three paradigmatic sections. Moreover, wisdom and judgment are stressed as
the source of the community's difficulties. The function of Paul's example in
the light of these problems is also more readily grasped, for Paul repeatedlycalls attention to his personal situation vis--vis the community in light of
their wisdom and judgment. By comparison in the first application (2:1-5)
and by contrast in the next two (3:1-4 and 4:1-5) he calls attention to those
aspects ofhis example which he calls to be imitated in the second exhortation.
Then, too, Paul associates his own model with that of the other apos
tolic preachers and teachers. He names Apollos in the third paradigmatic
section, and the same collaborator could be behind the "we" in the first two
sections (cf. 1:12; 3:4). In the third section Paul most directly contests the
community's factions, while the misapplication of wisdom and judgment isthe burden of the first two. The relation between this common example and
Paul's individual model will be taken up below.
The Figurative Style of Chaps. 1-4 and the Rhetorical Use of
logoi eschmatismenoi
On the style of the first four chapters it will be sufficient here to note the
abundance of figures. In addition to the use of apostrophe (brothers, 1:10,26;2:1; 3:1; 4:6) and anthropomorphism (3:6-7), there are figures which are
l h
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"COVERT ALLUSION" IN 1 COR 1-4 89
the abundance of metaphors, similes, and allegory (the crucified Christ as
folly, power, and wisdom, 1:24; the community members are absurd, weak,
lowborn, despised, nothing, 1:26-28; Christ is our wisdom, justice, sanctification, redemption, 1:30; the Corinthians are infants and their instruction was
milk, not solid food, 3:1-2; the allegories of the farmworkers and builders,
3:5-9; the community is a temple, 3:16; the apostles are servants, stewards,
4:1; the Lord will illumine our darkness, 4:15).
Hyperbole, contrast, irony, and metaphor (including simile and alle
gory) are particularly important in these chapters, where Paul is intent on
awakening his audience's attention to the fact that things are not what they
seem to be. In fact, in using the term metaschmatizein ("to transfer as in a
figure," LS J) at 4:6, Paul expressly states the parenetic purpose behind his
remarks ("So that you may learn by our example . . ., so that you may not
grow self-important"). This term deserves attention for it illumines Paul's
argumentative technique in 1 Corinthians 1 -4 and the motives behind it, and
it also suggests a rhetorical device which Paul seems to be using to handle the
delicate situation at Corinth.
The noun schema basically means "form" or "shape," "appearance" as
opposed to "reality." The verb schmatizein thus means "to give a certain
shape."The rhetorical meaning developed from this and became "to construe,give a certain shape" to one's expressions. It also embraced the use of sche
mata ("rhetorical figures").6
Schmatizein thus involved making a common
and simple form of speaking "more notable, pleasant, efficacious." It also
acquired the meaning of using an artifice of dissimulation or fiction, of
making an oblique reference to a delicate subject, which thereby became
covered or hidden by "color" (another rendering of schema) so as not to
offend the listeners.7 Consequently, the terms eschmatismen hypothesis,
"veiled argument, covert allusion," and schmatizein logon, "to compose aspeech with veiled meaning" became standard in the rhetorical glossary,
8
almost replacing the earlier and broader meaning of the verb.9
6G. M. Grube, A Greek Critic: Demetrius on Style (Toronto: University of Toronto,
1961) 143. "Schema," LSJ, 1745.7
"Schmatizein" Lexicon technologiae graecorum rhetoricae (Ed. J. C. Ernesti; Leipzig:
Caspar Fritsch, 1795; repr. Hildesheim: Olms, 1962) 341-43; also D. M. Schenkeveld, Studies in
Demetrius on Style (Amsterdam: Hakkert, 1964) 117.8
W. C. Wright, Philostratus andEunapius (LCL; London: Heinemann, 1921) 570. Otherterms associated with the device are plagios, chroma, and symplokos.
9Quintilian, The Institutio Oratoria (LCL; ed. . E. Butler; London: Heinemann, 1921-
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But despite the technical meaning of "covert allusion" that hypothesis I
logos eschmatismenl-menos assumed, the general understanding of "fig
ures" also retained something of the double signification as well. So Quinti-
lian, Inst. or. 9.1,4 could call figura, "a term employed when we give our
language a conformation other than the obvious or the ordinary."10
Under
this rubric ofsubstitution of one word for another, or ofmeaning something
opposite to the express meaning of the words, he discusses metaphor and
allegory.11 But despite the similarity to the metaphorical language ofallegory
in the aspect of indirection or dissimulation (Quintilian, Inst. or. 9.2,92),
figured speech (in its strict sense) differs in that the one using it dares not or
does not want to speak openly, while one does not mind what is said in
allegory becoming plain.Irony was mentioned as another figure used by Paul in these chapters.
Dionysius of Halicarnassus relates irony to figured speech (in its restricted
sense) when he says, "In short, the figure of irony is generally a sign of
figured speech."12 And for Quintilian, Inst. or. 9.2,44, though dissimulano
and ironia overlap, irony is broader. In its effect, however, the oblique refer
ence carries a variety ofsenses according to Hermogenes.13
the figured speech (Philostratus, 570) Praising Scopehan in his Lives of the Sophists 1 21,519
(84 2 Wright), Philostratus declares,
At 1 25,542 (132 1 Wright) he reports that Polemo disliked the duplicity of "simulated
arguments" (eschmatismenai hypotheseis), at 2 1,561 he reports with surprise that Herodes
rebuked the emperor without using "figures of speech" [schmatisas ton logon) to conceal his
anger, but at 2 17,597 (248 13-14 Wright) he praises Rufus for his eloquence in using the difficult
genre of simulated arguments (pen tas eschmatismenas tn hypothesen)10
"Conformano quaedam orationis remota a communi et primum se offerente ratione "
In nst or 9 1,14 he explains figures as "a form of expression to which a new aspect is given by
art "1' At nst or 8 6,44 he describes the use of allegory as saying one thing in words and
another in meaning or something opposed to the meaning of the words Allegory for Quintilian
is a series of metaphors or a continued metaphor (Inst or 9 2,46) At Inst or 9 2,65 he
associates schema with the figured controversies of Demetrius (discussed below) And so, it
seems that when Quintilian uses the Greek loan-word schema it is in the restricted meaning of
dissimulation, whereas figura allows for the broader meaning of figurative language12
,
(Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Techn rhtonk, 9 pen eschmatismenn-2, 1 323 [323 23-25
Usener] in H Usener and L Radermacher [eds ], Dionysn Halicarnase quae exstant, vol VI,
Opusculorum volumen secundum [Leipzig Teubner, 1904-29, repr , Stuttgart Teubner, 1965])
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COVERT ALLUSION" IN I COR 1-4 91
One further category which will help our understanding of the covertly
allusive way of speaking is emphasis, e , signifying more than we say Ps -
Demetrius mentionsemphasis
as a characteristic of the ambiguous way ofspeaking14
Quintilian, Inst or 9 2,3 notes that amplification requires the gift
of emphasis He thereby identifies emphasis and oblique reference He also
associates exaggeration of the truth and overstatement with the ratio ampli-
ficandi along with emphasis,5
There are usually three types of figured speech in the restricted sense,
according to the rhetorician's distinctions In the first type, the speaker
expresses what he wants but indirectly, in the second type, he says one thing
obliquely and pursues another in actual practice, in the third, he says the
opposite of what he acts upon , 6 Dionysius, Techn9 7,341 adds two more
to speak one's mind but only after a gentle introduction or after changing the
person in the narrative
Several motives are offered for employing the allusive way of speaking
Dionysius cites the speaker's asphaleia ("security") as a consideration in the
two additional types At TechnS 2,281-82 he also explains the motivation
for thefirstthree types Here he adds to asphaleia both euprepeia ("decency")
in general and axisis tn prospn ("regard for the persons" who are
addressed) Under the heading of important persons not to be affronted heincludes the fatherland in general, a noble, or a general, or an official, or the
entire city17
Quintilian, Inst or 9 2,66 repeats the motives ofasphaleia and
and C Walz [ed ], Rhetores graeci [9 vols , Stuttgart Cotta, 1832-36, repr Osnabrck Zeller,
1968] 3 181-86) Quintilian, Inst or 9 2,65 agrees with the difference between irony and
oblique reference, see W C Wright, Philostratus, 57014
See 12 above1 5
"Quarum prior (ratio amplificando desiderai llam plus quam dixens significationem,
id est emphasin, et supralationem ventatis et trajectionem " See also Inst or 8 3,83 The
identification became common, and Hermogenes 4 13 (C Walz, Rhetores graeci, 3 181-82,
Rabe Hermogems opera, 204-5, L Spengel, Rhetores graeci 2 258-59) lists ta kata emphasin
as one ofthree types ofproblmata eschmatismena, along with ta kata to enantion and ta kata
toplagion See also Rhetonca ad Herenmum 4 44 in H Caplan, [Cicero] ad C Herenmum De
ratione dicendi (LCL, London Heinemann, 1954]) and Dionysius, Pen Thoukydidou 16 846
( H Usener and L Radermacher, Dionysn, 5 349,2)16
Dionysius 8 Pen eschmatismenn-l, 2 281-82 (H Usener and L Radermacher, Dio
nysn, 295 14-296 5), 9 2,323 (ibid , 324 1-8), Hermogenes, Techn, 4 13 (H Rabe, Hermogems
opera, 204-10, C Walz Rhetores graeci, 3 181-86, L Spengel, Rhetores graeci, 2 258-59)17Ps -Demetrius 288 (L Spengel, Rhetores graeci, 3 323) mentions speaking obliquely
out of euprepeia, even when reproach could have been made without risk He also foresees
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euprepeia and also adds, as a third, "with a view to the elegance of what we
say, giving greater pleasure by reason of the novelty and variety thus intro
duced, than if our meaning had been expressed in straightforward lan
guage."18 Here he seems to have reintroduced the broader meaning of figured
language and sees delight through novelty and variety as a valid reason for
using it. But the same class of person would delight in figures (Quintiliano
third motive) as would demand a circumspect allusion to their faults (Dio
nysius'and Ps.-Demetrius'third category).19
Oblique speech looks to the audience as well as to the speaker and seeks
to work certain effects in the listeners. For Ps.-Demetrius censure {On Style
228-91) but also parnesis and improvement {On Style 292-98) are the aims
of such discourse.20 He suggests {On Style 292) rather than directly urging
people not to do wrong, blaming instead someone else with the same faults
or praising someone with the opposite good traits, in the hope that "the one
listening will feel likewise admonished, without feeling himself censured, and
emulate the subject of the praises, coveting the praise for himself."21 He goes
on to say {On Style 295) that it is good to praise "not the sins of the sinner
but his avoidance of sin, and the angry man, that he was praised yesterday
for overlooking someone else's errors . . . for everyone gladly takes himself
as model and wishes to increase his praise."22
At Inst. or. 9.2,76 Quintilian notes that if respect for a certain class of
people causes a change in the way of addressing them, the greater caution in
addressing them is justified "because the sense of shame is a stronger deter
rent to all good men than fear."23
He also declares {Inst. or. 9.2,78), in line
with the third motive that he offers, that the speaker's use of covert allusion
is all the more successful "because the listener takes pleasure in detecting the
Hermogenes 4 13 also seems concerned with asphaleia and euprepeia alone, without Dionysius'
third category18 "Qui venustatis modo gratia adhibetur et ipsa novitate ac vanetate magis, quam si
relatio sit recta, delectat "19 E A Judge, The Social Pattern of Groups in the First Century (London Tyndale,
1960) 49-61, "The Early Christians as a Scholastic Community," JRH 1 (1960-61) 125-37,
G Theissen, The Social Setting of Pauline Christianity Essays on Corinth (Philadelphia Fort
ress, 1982) 69-119, esp pp 96-9920 D M Schenkeveld, Studies, 117, 12121
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COVERT ALLUSION" IN 1 COR 1-4 93
speaker's concealed meaning, applauds his own penetration and regards
another man's eloquence as a compliment to himself."24
Can such a way of speaking be applied outside ofa forensic situation? In
Inst. or. 9.1,27 Quintilian finds that this type of dissimulated speech works
best when the speaker uses a conversational tone rather than a controversial
one. And Dionysius, Techn 9.1,322 argues that the use of figured speech is
widespread, for there is no direct address without it. He notes that even
dinner invitations need the appropriate form of invitation if they are to
provoke a favorable response. And so, it would not be surprising if this type
of address were found in Paul's letters, with much more at stake in his
dialogue with the community than the success of a dinner party. His tone
rises to sharpness, but carries a paternal concern not to be expected in acontroversy. Of course, there are striking differences in Paul's use of schemata,
but these and the rationale behind his use of the rhetorical mode will become
clear in the following paragraphs.
The Use of logos eschmatismenos in Chaps. 1-4
If, as suggested above, Paul calls attention to his use of oblique refer
ence or covert allusion in 4:6 ("I have applied the allusive discussion of thesematters to myself and Apollos"), he thereby negates the covertness of the
rhetorical form.25 Perhaps, then, he is using the term metaschmatizein only
in its broader sense of "embellish with figurative language," referring in this
case to the illustrative analogy to himself and Apollos as fellow-workers with
God(3:5-15).26
There are indications, however, that more is involved in the verb meta
schmatizein than the exemplary use of the analogy of apostolic laborers,
and that the antecedent of tauta ("'these matters") is more than the analogy
2 4"Quod auditor gaudet intellegere et favet ingenio suo et alio dicente se laudat."
25A. Robertson and A. Plummer (First Epistle of St. Paul to the Corinthians [New York:
Scribner's, 1911] 81) suggest without elaboration that Paul refers to the rhetorical figure of
"veiled allusion" at 4:6. As for maintaining the indirectness of the trope, Quintilian, Inst. or.
9.2,69 cautions, "Sed licet modum adhibere, in primis, ne sint manifestae."26
E. B. Allo, Premire pitre aux Corinthiens (Paris: Gabalda, 1956) 71-72; C. K. Barrett,
The First Epistle, 105-6; F. W. Grosheide, Commentary on the First Epistle to the Corinthians
(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1953) 102; H. Lietzmann, An die Korinther /-//(HNT 9; Tbingen:
Mohr [Siebeck], 1923) 19; . Robertson and . Plummer, FirstEpistle, 81; J. Ruef, Paul'sFirst
Letter to Corinth (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1971) 31. The use o metaschmatizein in 2 Cor
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immediately preceding it. In the first place, figurative language is found
throughout the four chapters and helps describe the situation of early krygma
and unsuccessfuldidaskalia
as well as the apostolic cooperation. The otherfigures like irony, hyperbole, and metaphor were found to be related to logos
eschmatismenos in its technical, rhetorical sense. Second, when Paul refers
in 4:6 to the model or limit to be learned, to m hyper ha gegraptai ("not to
go beyond what is set down," NAB), this cannot be restricted to the laborers'
analogy. Indeed, in each paradigmatic section Paul presents the general
picture of apostolic labor and his own situation, and he evaluates the commu
nity against these. Third, the allusion in 4:6 to the problem of factionalism
arising from pride and faulty judgment, hina m heis hyper tou henos
physiousthe ("that none of you will grow self-important by reason of hisassociation with one person rather than another," NAB) calls attention to a
difficulty which is addressed throughout the first four chapters (1:29-31; 3:21)
and not one which just appears in the third paradigmatic section for the
first time. Fourth, Paul and Apollos could very well be the "we" of the first
two paradigmatic sections. The opening slogans (1:10) introduce their
names. Paul makes no pretensions to being the unique kerygmatic teacher
(Rom 15:20), and Apollos had an independent ministry to the Jews
(Acts 18:24-28). Paul also admits a community of spiritual gifts in 1 Cor2:12, spelled out in the laborers' analogy. One might then agree with those
who refer tauta to the whole of the preceding argument, going back to the
slogans and factions.27
But are they also correct in assigning the faction apologetic a primary
role in the four chapters? The suggestion made above was that it is a double
problem that Paul faces in these opening chapters. The relatively simple
matter of factions would readily be met by the laborers' analogy, which
presents the community's teachers in harmonious service of God and therebyundercuts the elevation of one over another. The statements of wisdom and
judgment, which appear in the application sections (3:16-23 and 4:1-5), have
more in common with the apostolic preaching of the cross (1:18-25) and with
the gifts of wisdom and discernment among the perfect (2:6-16). The analogy
addresses itself to these matters only indirectly. And so, it is not just that a
figure is applied to Paul and Apollos for the community's instruction on the
matter of factions. Rather, Paul and Apollos become figures themselves, to
which the community is to look for their own improvement (4:6). The figures
are to be found in each of the three paradigmatic sections, with the general
statements about the apostles offering the community an oblique chastise-
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ment or exhortation with regard to the surface problem of factions and its
underlying cause of faulty wisdom and judgment.
Paul's motivation for using the logos eschmatismenos bears further
investigation. Theissen's analysis of the social stratification within the
Corinthian community (even discounting certain exaggerations in his claims)
suggests the importance of the small but influential group of upper class
Christians for the organization and continuation of the community's life in
faith. Judge's description of the early Christians as "scholastic community"
suggests the interest of at least the Christian patrons to resemble those of
other groups around sophists and professional rhetoricians. If, then, it was
these same highly placed Christians who were guilty of lionizing one teacher
over another (1:10; 3:4), of vaunting their own knowledge (3:1; 6:12; 8:1-13),of making distinctions in the community rooted in pride (4:7; 5:2), or of
slighting the poor at the assemblies (11:17-34), then Paul would have to
proceed with caution, both for the good of the church and for the improve
ment of those at fault. For is it not precisely highly-placed persons like these
that Dionysius and Ps.-Demetrius are concerned to avoid offending? Then,
too, are not these people the ones who would appreciate the elegance and
variety of the figured language used by Paul?
Here Paul proceeds not out of fear for his asphaleia (for he inevitablymakes his charges clear), but out of euprepeia and with respect for the
dignity of the persons charged with faults. Conscious that they might take it
ill if their sins were accused outright, Paul proceeds with their censure and
parnesis to improvement by indirection, at least in part. He praises them in
their past goodness (1:26-28) and refers to himself and Apollos as exemplary
apostolic laborers in order to incite the wayward to emulation and to a desire
of like praise (4:5). Thus, it is not metus but pudor which will prompt a
change in their attitude.If the rhetorical device hits the mark, then the factionalists will re
evaluate their attitude toward the teachers in light of the image of their
harmony in 3:5-15. They will also reestimate their wisdom and judgment in
the light of their own initial acceptance of the krygma of the cross ( 1:26-31)
and with respect to the apostolic example both in the krygma (1:18-25) and
in the didaskalia (2:6-16).
The glaring discrepancy with the rhetorical models of this device is
Paul's exposure of what should be a covert allusion. In fact, he not only laysbare the fact that he is using a logos eschmatismenos (4:6) but also makes
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apostolic trials and with their own former condition (4:9-13). Furthermore,
while the covert allusion is to the example of Paul and Apollos together, the
personal application by Paul to himself intrudes regularly (2:1-5; 3:1-5; 4:3-5)
until it supplants that of the joint laborers (4:14-21), and that right after theimpassioned description of the common apostolic toils (4:9-13). One also
wonders how the parenetic allusion at 4:6 to the common apostolic example
of Paul and Apollos, hia en hmin mathte ("that you may learn by us,"
RSV) can be reconciled with Paul's open censures and exhortations (2:5;
3:1-4,18,21; 4:1-2,6-13), particularly the individualized mimtai mou ginesthe
("be imitators of me") at 4:16.
Perhaps a way to resolve the difficulties can be found in the dual nature
of the community problem as treated in the first four chapters. The problemof factionalism is an outgrowth of the faulty wisdom and judgment in the
community. The negation of factionalism rests on a positive growth in wis
dom and judgment (1:10; 3:14,18; 4:5). The common apostolic model, while
applied to wisdom (1:18-25; 2:6-16) and judgment (2:13-15), is most apt for
undercutting the factional lionizing of one teacher over another by depicting
their harmonious cooperation with the particularized gifts from God (3:5-15).
The fundamental qualities of wisdom and judgment are taken by Paul as his
special responsibility, since he alone laid the foundations of the community'sfaith (2:1-5; 3:10-11).
28The intrusion of Paul's example in these first chapters
leads to its exclusive application in the rest of the letter, as the fundamental
issue of the community's wisdom and judgment is faced in a variety of
settings. Mimesis and metaschmatisis merge, and the virtuous example that
Paul urges the community to imitate emerges as his own. Paul's life and
teaching become a metaphor for the community's striving, as they seek to
become like their founder and father.
As for Paul's directness, especially in 4:6-13, perhaps pastoral demandsof the community in crisis can explain his abandonment of the rhetorical
restraint of a lecture hall or judicial forum. Then, too, as father of the
community he could presume upon his authority to admonish his church
more directly. Finally, the irony and contrast come only after the community
is confronted with its own prior excellence (1:26-31; 3:18-19) and with the
criticism of factions and their effects, which should have come as no surprise
to the community (3:1-4). In any event, Paul's concern is for the good of the
community, and not for the purity of rhetorical forms.
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The Conclusion of the Exhortation and the Positing of the Apos
tolic Example
Paul mitigates any harshness in tone in the preceding exhortation by hisstatement of intent in 4:14, ouk entrepn hymas. . . alia. . . nouthetn ("not
to shame you but to admonish you," NAB), and by his favorable application
of the child-father relationship (note tekna agapta, "beloved children," 4:14;
contrast 3:1-4) to the community and to himself. This is not an unusual
figure,29 but Paul invests it with particular significance in view ofhis relation
ship to the community.30 He presents himself not as a coworker among
others with God, but as father of the community. It is this fatherly con
cern for their well-being that turns the entrop to nouthesia 3XJust as in
1 Cor 11:27-33 Paul considers the divine afflictions as aimed at the community's correction, so here his paternal admonitions look toward the com
munity's reform.32
What form do these admonitions take? Paul leaves the tauta unspecified
in 4:14, and the demonstrative pronoun seems to refer most directly to the
stinging contrasts and irony of the immediately preceding verses (4:7-13).
However, the admonitions referred to in 4:14 seem to be a concomitant of
Paul's special, paternal relationship with the community (4:15) and are asso
ciated with the apostle's own example (4:16). The special relationship shinesthrough from the first discussion of Paul's founding krygma to the commu
nity (2:1-5) and recurs throughout the four chapters (1:6-17; 3:1-4; 4:10-11).
The Pauline model is established both in conjunction with Apollos (1:18-25;
2:6-16; 3:5-15) and, more particularly, alone (2:1-5; 3:1-4; 4:3-6). The admon
itory value of examples has been discussed above under logos eschmatisme
nos. Even apart from the use of example in covert allusion, the reference to a
model or example is not unusual in rhetorical and philosophical instruc-
29 Epictetus, Discourses 3.22,95 (W. A. Oldfather, Epictetus: The Discourses as Reported
by Arrian, The Manual, and Fragments [LCL; London: Heinemann, 1928]) says that a person
who is philos Wis theois ("a friend of the gods"), hyprets ("a servant"), and metechn tes
arches ton Dios ("sharing the authority of Zeus"), puts himself under the direction of Zeus and
of destiny and can speak to his adelphoi, and tekna, not as one meddling in other people's affairs
but as one who episkop. . . ta idia ("oversees . . . what belongs to him").30 H. Conzelmann, A Commentary on the First Epistle to the Corinthians (Hermeneia;
Philadelphia: Fortress, 1975) 91; D. M. Stanley, "Become Imitators," 860; and P. Gutierrez, La
paternit spirituelle selon saint Paul(Paris: Gabalda, 1968) 178-79.31 Entrepein ("upbraid") is also used in 1 Cor 6:5; 15:34; 2 Thes 3:14; Titus 3:8, where
shame is intended The passages from 1 Corinthians and 2 Thessalonians aim at a change of
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tion.33
The same can be said of the function of shame in admonition aimed at
improvement, and even the contrast between teacher and pedagogue.34
Furthermore, a look at the subject matter of the criticism intended for
the community's improvement will help to determine the antecedent of tauta.In the preceding paragraph the link between the nouthesia and the Pauline
example was noted. But a look at 4:7-13 and the supposed antecedents of
tauta there will show that the faults criticized (unwarranted distinctions in
the community, 4:7; security and boasting in one's wisdom, 4:8-10; and even
the pride of social standing implicit in the terms used in 4:10 when compared
with like "sociological" vocabulary in l:26-2835) have been seen to be recur
rent in the whole expository section. In form, too, admonition runs through
out the four chapters in direct references to the Corinthians' less than idealcondition (4:7-8,18-19 and 1:10-13; 3:1-4,16-17; 4:3) and also in the impera
tive verbs (4:16, but already used in 1:31; 3:18; 4:1,5). There is also a more
didactic form of admonition by way of recalling principles already transmit
ted to the community (4:7, and already in 1:26; 3:1-3,16).
Tauta can, then, be taken to refer to the admonitions of the whole
hortatory section. These admonitions are varied in form and are all aimed at
improvement of the community, with Paul's own example as a global touch
stone for community thought and practice.In the call to imitation, both as to its purpose and to the details of the
exhortation, Paul reflects usage found in Hellenistic philosophers and rheto
ricians.36
This agreement with school traditions has already been detailed
33E g , the anonymous Prolegomena tes rhtonks 6, 34 15 (C Walz, Rhetores graeci)
explains, '
The use of example is more thoroughly
discussed in Fiore, The Function, 44-793 4
Isocrates, Evagoras 76 (L van Hook, Isocrates [LCL, London Heinemann, 1945] 3)
explains that he composed his work for Evagoras' descendants since their consideration of
Evagoras' virtues constitutes a very strong paraklsis ("urging") Isocrates praises others to
dispose his audience to desire the same characteristics Proposing familiar examples, heparaka-
lei ("urges") and symbouleuei ("advises") that they exercise and not fall short of the model
proposed (see also Evagoras 80-81, cf Demonicus 1-5 [G Norhn, Isocrates (LCL, London
Heinemann, 1928] 1) Plutarch, On Moral Virtue 452C-D (W C Helmbold, Plutarch's "Mora-
//tf "[LCL, London Heinemann, 1939] 6) uses both epainoi ("praise") and nouthesiai ("admoni
tion") to direct the young by pleasure and shame As he explains it,
, Either way,improvement is the goal Cf n 23, and also Isocrates, Panegyncus 130, Dio Chrysostom (H L
C b Di Ch t [LCL L d H i 1951]) 5 72 9 10 Th l tt d S
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above in the case of covert allusion. But is there anything distinctive in Paul's
usage of himself as model? Could this distinctive element also help explain
Paul's departure from the normal logos eschmatismenos technique?
In rabbinic traditions, if someone teaches the son of another the tor, itis as if he had begotten him {b. Sanh. 19b). And in 1 Cor 4:15 Paul replaces
the tor with the gospel as the matrix of generation.37
So Paul is not just
presenting himself as a paradigm of virtue in a moralistic way but refers to
his fatherhood of the community, i.e., to the fact that he alone established
among them the pattern of Christian living from the first days of their faith.38
Life according to this pattern is not just a moralistic struggle toward virtue,
but has to do with the appropriation of salvation and the gifts of the Spirit
offered to the community by Christ (1:18; 1:30; 2:6,13,16; 3:16,23).39
The father-child image, therefore, indicates a real community of nature
en Christo ("in Christ," 4:15,17) between the founding apostle and the com
munity called to grow in resemblance of him.40
Paul calls for imitation, then,
as a consequence, oun ("therefore," 4:16), of his fatherhood of the commu
nity in Christ.
The fatherly example to be imitated is to be found in hai hodoi ("the
ways") and in the common teaching of Paul (see also 7:17; 11:16; 14:33,36),
which Timothy will recall for the Corinthians (4:17). But how are the twosources of instruction related? Hodos refers to a person's way of life, and thus
13:1 mentions the kath' hyperholn hodon, which is the superior way a
loving person acts (see also 3:3). Applied to Paul, his way of life demon
strates his procedures and convictions (2:4; 4:9,19-20). This demonstration
of Paul's way of life becomes explicit in his many precepts (1:10,31; 3:21;
4:1,5,16; 5:9,12,13; 6:18,20; 7 passim; 8:9; 10:10,12, etc.). But the halakic
instruction is accompanied by more properly didactic reminders and decla
rations (1:18-25, the folly of the kerygma of the cross; 2:12,16 and 3:21, thespiritual gifts; 3:16; chaps. 5-6; 9:13,24, the recurrent formula ouk oidate
["do you not know? recalling teachings of which the community should
be aware).
3 7
Gutierrez, La paternit, 12538
W de Boer, The Imitation of Paul An ExegeticalStudy (Amsterdam/ Kampen Kok,
1962)145-46, 1533 9
Ibid , 90, W Lofthouse, "Imitano Christi,"ExpTim 65 (1953-54) 3394 0W de Boer, The Imitation, 79 O Merk (Handeln, 86-87) seems to restrict the
imitation too much by associating it with the attitude of the Apostle in 4 9-13 the closest
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As noted above, this directness introduces a jarring clarity to the logos
eschmatismenos technique. But it might be that Paul reverts so often to
clear statements precisely because it is not just a device he is using when he
refers to his example (and, by extension, to the common apostolic example).Rather, precept and instruction delineate the content and conduct of the
Christian life.41 The example of the founding apostle breathes life into this
outline and provides his community with a stimulus and a hope of emulating
Paul and thereby attaining the salvation promised in Christ. The doctrine
and precepts specify the imitation that Paul desires,42 as he treats the com
munity's difficulties. Not that Paul seeks a servile and minute imitation;
rather, he wants the community to acquire the deepest and most central
attitudes of the Christian life and apply them properly in particular cases,
some of which he treats in detail in the rest of the letter.43
Where does Apollos fit into the scheme? Why does Paul stress his own
example over Apollos' or the common apostolic model? In 16:12 Apollos'
return to Corinth is mentioned as put off till an opportune time. He is a
coworker of God together with Paul (3:5-15), but strangely enough there is
no indication of warmth between him and Paul. His subordination to Paul is
clearly stressed in the laborers' analogy (3:5-15), but the reason for his not
coming to Corinth despite Paul's urging is not given. The negative will of
God and the infelicitous circumstances alluded to in 16:12 might be connected with the lingering factionalism which Apollos'presence might reignite,
especially while Paul is still absent. Perhaps it is the volatile community
situation that also leads Paul to straddle the fence and both counter exag
gerated praise of one or other apostolic figure by covert allusion to the
paradigms of apostolic collaboration and at the same time stress his own
unique position as father and standard of the community's life and belief.44
Not satisfied with the delineation of the purpose behind his allusions
and with the positing of his own example by way of the letter and of hisfaithful emissary and collaborator, Timothy, Paul ends the hortatory section
with a promise to pay the community a visit (4:19). He takes particular aim
41 Similarly J. Moffatt, The First Epistle ofPaulto the Corinthians (London: Hodder and
Stoughton, 1951) 146. Dio Chrysostom 55.13 sees a similar function for precept.4 2
L. Neider, Die Motive der religis-sittlichen Parnese in den paulinischen Briefen
(Munich: Zink, 1956) 81 . 41, citing . Bonnard. See . Fiore, The Function, 306-311 for a
critique of W. Michaelis's understanding of Paul's example in "Mimeomai," TDNT 4 (1967)666-73.4 3
P. Gutierrez, La paternit, 183. See Isocrates, Nicocles 6; Philip 114 for a similar
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COVERT ALLUSION" IN 1 COR 1-4 101
at those who are puffed up and wants to test their power. Here the threatened
presence of the model is a direct challenge to those who think that he does
not have the nerve to come, or better that their own wisdom would profit
nothing from his presenceerroneous opinions which might have been confirmed by his sending the letter and Timothy alone.45
Once again, Paul seems to confront the faulty pretensions to wisdom in
the community. Real, divine power has nothing to do with human wisdom
but undergirds preaching and living (through self-effacement), the word of
the cross (1:18), and that of Christ crucified (1:23-24; 2:2-5). This contrast
between human and divine wisdom strikes at the heart of the community's
problem. Paul offers his own example, not as a threat, but as a help for the
community to see things for what they are and not take them as they seem tothe world.
The reference to God's kingdom in power and not in word (4:20) under
cuts the erroneous claim to rule already (4:8). But Paul dissolves whatever
polemic there is in these last charges by returning to the affectionate and
paternal tone with which he began the concluding section (4:2; cf. 4:14-15).
Conclusion
The first four chapters of the letter contain Paul's treatment of the
double problem of factionalism and faulty wisdom and knowledge in a unified
exhortation. The unity comes not only from the subject matter, but also
from Paul's handling of the problems in a figured discourse, in both the wide
and narrow senses. The underlying problem of wisdom and judgment also
ties the opening exhortation with the rest of the letter, as the Pauline exam
ple does as well.
The rhetorical device of logos eschmatismenos addresses both issues,but it is most helpful for the resolution of the factionalism. Since more is at
stake than a passing community difficulty, Paul abandons the secrecy of the
allusions to point his church clearly toward the salvation offered them in the
crucified Christ.
The Pauline example becomes the prime metaphor for the community.
45 H. A. Meyer, Critical, 127. On the "apostolic parousia," see R. W. Funk, Language,
Hermeneutic, and the Word of God (New York: Harper & Row, 1966) 264-70; "The Apostolic
Parousia: Form and Significance," Christian History and Interpretation: Studies Presented to
John Knox (ed. W. R. Farmer et al.; Cambridge: University Press, 1967) 249-68; T. Y. Mullins,
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Paul again exceeds contemporary rhetorical and philosophical usage of the
example because of his special relationship with the community as their
father in Christ and because of the responsibility this implies of mediating
Christ to his children in belief and practice.
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^ s
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