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How do we know who we are?An update on social comparison theory

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Sources of Self-Knowledge

• Global self-esteem

• Direct feedback from others

• Indirect feedback from others

• Reflected appraisals

• Self-perception

• Social comparison

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Self-Perception

Bem’s SP theory: when internal cues are difficult to interpret, people gain self-insight by observing their own behavior.– Emotions---facial feedback– Motivation---reward study

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Self-Perception Theory

No external rewardSelf-perception: “I do this because I like it.”

Enjoyable activities

External reward (e.g., $)

Self-perception: “I do this

because I’m paid to.”

Extrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic Motivation

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Festinger (1954). A theory of social comparison processes.

1. People are driven to evaluate their opinions and abilities.

Emphasis on Accuracy:“The holding of incorrect opinions and/or

inaccurate appraisals of one’s abilities can be punishing or even fatal in many situations.”

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Festinger (1954). A theory of social comparison processes.

2. In the absence of objective information, people compare to others.

3. People prefer to compare to others who have similar abilities.

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Two types of social comparison research

• Reactions to comparison- what happens to self-evaluations when people encounter social comparisons?

• Comparison choice- when do people choose to compare to others? With whom do people compare?

Social Comparison Direction

• Upward social comparison- compare to someone who is better than you.

• Downward social comparison- compare to someone who is worse than you.

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Testing the Similarity Hypothesis: Rank Order Paradigm

1. 19

2. ??

3. ??

4. 12 You

5. ??

6. ??

7. 7

• Which score would you like to see?

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Testing the Similarity Hypothesis: Related AttributesSuls et al. (1979)

Participant Gender

Chose Male Norm

Chose Female Norm

Chose Combined Norm

Male 44.1% 0 55.9%

Female 0 61.1% 38.9%

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Support for the Similarity Hypothesis

• Rank order paradigm—compare to others with similar scores.

• Related attributes paradigm—compare to others with similar characteristics (e.g., gender).

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Social Comparison and Objective Information

Festinger: In the absence of objective information, people compare to others.

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Klein (1997)Social comparison and objective information

• P’s received feedback on a test of esthetic ability.

Upward SC Downward SC

High score

You: 60

Avg: 80

You: 60

Avg: 40

Low score

You: 40

Avg: 60

You: 40

Avg: 20

DV’s: Self-evaluations and Task Choice

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Klein (1997): Results

• Self-evaluations were sig. affected by social comparison info, but not objective info.

• Choice of task was sig. affected by both.

• Interpretation: People use SC even when they have (more useful) objective info.

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Comparison ChoiceBuckingham (2001). Does objective information reduce

the drive to compare to others?

• Accuracy perspective:

The more information people have about an ability, the less interest they should have in comparing to other individuals.

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Buckingham (2001). Procedure

• 59 female students participated in a “driving safety” study.

• P’s completed the Driving Appraisal Inventory.

• Experimenter provided feedback.

• You have a 20% chance of causing an automobile accident.

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Buckingham (2001).Variables

• Manipulation:– Control group: no further information.– Safer than average group: the average

risk for a woman your age is 30%.– Riskier than average group: the average

risk for a woman your age is 10%.

• Dependent variable:– Would you like to see how others scored?

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Buckingham (2001)Results

Control

(no average)

Riskier than average

Safer than average

Percentage requesting comparison

information

52% 65% 20%

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• Accuracy perspective:

The more information people have about an ability, the less interest they should have in comparing to other individuals.

• Revision:

Additional information (e.g., the average) reduces the drive to compare when it puts the person in a favorable light.

When do people compare with others?

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How Frequently do People Compare With Others?

Wheeler & Miyake (1992)

• Diary study using the Rochester Social Comparison Record.

• On average, participants recorded 23.5 comparisons over 13.1 days.

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Social Comparison Motives:Wood, 1989

Why do people compare with others?:

• Self-evaluation (accuracy)- people want valid info about themselves.

• Self-enhancement- people want to feel good about themselves.

• Self-improvement- people want to get better.