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Practice Guidelines for Chronic Pain Management: An Updated ReportAmerican Society of Anesthesiologists

Bibliography by Section

I. Patient Evaluation

History, physical, and psychological examination:

Observational studies, case reports, or comparisons without pertinent control groups

1. Donlon WC: Odontalgia mimicking trigeminal neuralgia. Anesthesia Progress 1989; 36:98-100

2. Dreyfuss P, Michaelsen M, Pauza K, McLarty J, Bogduk N: The value of medical history and physical examination in diagnosing sacroiliac joint pain. Spine 1996; 21:2594-2602

3. Hicks GE, Fritz JM, Delitto A, Mishock J: Interrater reliability of clinical examination measures for identification of lumbar segmental instability. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2003; 84:1858-1864

4. Laslett M, McDonald B, Tropp H, Aprill CN, Oberg G: Agreement between diagnoses reached by clinical examination and available reference standards: A prospective study of 236 patients with lumbopelvic pain. BMC Musculoskelet Disord 2005; 6:28

5. McCombe PF, Fairbank JCT, Cockersole BC, Pynsent PB: Reproducibility of physical signs in low-back pain. Spine 1989; 14:908-918

6. Nielson KD, Adams JE, Hosobuchi Y: Experience with dorsal column stimulation for relief of chronic intractable pain: 1968-1973. Surg Neurol 1975; 4:148-152

7. Nelson MA, Allen P, Clamp SE, de Dombal FT: Reliability and reproducibility ov clinical findings in low back pain. Spine 1979; 4:97-101

8. Reynolds MD: Myofascial trigger points in persistent posttraumatic shoulder pain. South Med J 1984; 77:1277-1280

9. Van Dillen LR, Sahrmann SA, Norton BJ, Caldwell CA, Fleming DA, McDonnell MK, Woolsey NB: Reliability of physical examination items used for classification of patients with low back pain. Phys Ther 1998; 78:979-988

Interventional diagnostic procedures:

Diagnostic facet joint block

Randomized controlled trials

1. Lord S, Barnsley L, Bogduk N: The utility of comparative local anesthetic blocks versus placebo-controlled blocks for the diagnosis of cervical zygapophysial joint pain. Clin J Pain 1995; 11:208-213


1. Barnsley L, Bogduk N: Medial branch blocks are specific for the diagnosis of cervical zygapophyseal joint pain. Reg Anaesth 1993; 18:343-350

2. Barnsley L, Lord S, Bogduk N: Comparative local anesthetic blocks in the diagnosis of cervical zygapophysial joint pain. Pain 1993; 99-106

3. Birkenmaier C, Veihelmann A, Trouillier HH, Hausdorf J, Pellengahr CVS: Medial branch blocks versus pericapsular blocks in selecting patients for percutaneous cryodenervation of lumbar facet joints. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2007; 32:27-33

4. Jackson RP, Jacobs RR, Montesana PX: Facet joint injection in low back pain: A prospective statistical study. Spine 1988; 13:966-971

5. Manchikanti L, Manchukonda R, Pampati V, Damron KS, McManus CD: Prevalence of facet joint pain in in chronic low back pain in postsurgical patients by controlled comparative local anesthetic blocks. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2007; 88:449-455

6. Moran R, O'Connell D, Walsh MG: The diagnostic value of facet joint injections. Spine 1988 13:1407-1410

7. Schwarzer AC, Aprill CN, Derby R, Fortin J, Kine G, Bogduk N: The false-positive rate of uncontrolled diagnostic blocks of the lumbar zygapophysial joints. Pain 1994; 58:195-200

8. Schwarzer AC, Aprill CN, Derby R, Fortin J, Kine G, Bogduk N: The relative contributions of the disc and zygapophyseal joint in chronic low back pain. Spine 1994; 19:801-806

9. Stojanovic MP, Dey D, Hord ED, Zhou Y, Cohen SP: A prospective crossover comparison study of the single-needle and multiple-needle techniques for facet-joint medial branch block. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2005; 30:484-490

Diagnostic sacroiliac joint block


1. Cohen SP, Abdi S: Lateral branch blocks as a treatment for sacroiliac joint pain: A pilot study. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2003; 28:113-119

2. Maigne JY, Aivaliklis A, Pfefer F: Results of sacroiliac joint double block and value of sacroiliac pain provocation tests in 54 patients with low back pain. Spine 1996; 21:1889-1892

3. Maigne JY, Planchon CA: Sacroiliac joint pain after lumbar fusion. A study with anesthetic blocks. Eur Spine J 2005; 14:654-658

4. Schwarzer AC, Aprill CN, Bogduk N: The sacroiliac joint in chronic low back pain. Spine 1995; 20:31-37

Diagnostic nerve block (e.g., peripheral/sympathetic, celiac plexus, hypogastric)

Nonrandomized comparative studies (e.g., medial branch blocks vs periscapular blocks) 1. Raja SN, Treede RD, Davis KD, Campbell JN: Systemic alpha-adrenergic blockade with

phentolamine: a diagnostic test for sympathetically maintained pain. Anesthesiology 1991; 74:691-698


1. Ghia JN, Blank JW, McAdams CG: A new interabdominis approach to inguinal region block for the management of chronic pain. Regional Anesthesia 1991; 16:72-78

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2. North RB, Kidd DH, Zahurak M, Piantadosi S: Specificity of diagnostic nerve blocks: A prospective, randomized study of sciatica due to lumbosacral spine disease. Pain 1996; 65:77-85

3. Porter DG, Valentine AR, Bradford R: A retrospective study to assess the results of CT-directed peri-neural root infiltration in a cohort of 56 patients with low back pain and sciatica. Br J Neurosurg 1999; 13:290-293

4. Stanley D, McLaren M, Euinton H, Getty C: A prospective study of nerve root infiltration in the diagnosis of sciatica. A comparison with radiculopathy, computed tomography, and operative findings. Spine 1990; 16:540-543

5. Winnie AP, Collins VJ: The pain clinic. I. Differential neural blockade in pain syndromes of questionable etiology. Med Clin N Am 1968; 52:123-129

6. Wolff AP, Groen GJ, Crul BJ: Diagnostic lumbosacral secmental nerve blocks with local anesthetics: A prospective double-blind study on the variability and interpretation of segmental effects. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2001; 26:147-155

7. Wolff AP, Groen GJ, Wilder-Smith OH, Richardson J, van Egmond J, Crul BJ: Do diagnostic segmental nerve root blocks in chronic low back pain patients with radiation to the leg lack distinct sensory effects? A preliminary study. Br J Anaesth 2006; 96:253-258

Provocative discography

Observational studies, case reports, or comparisons without pertinent control groups 1. Carragee EJ, Chen Y, Tanner CM, Hayward C, Rossi M, Hagle C: Can discography cause

long-term back symptoms in previously asymptomatic subjects? Spine 2000; 25:1803-1808

2. Carragee EJ, Chen Y, Tanner CM, Truong T, Lau E, Brito JL: Provocative discography in patients after limited lumbar discectomy: A controlled, randomized study of pain response in symptomatic and asymptomatic subjects. Spine 2000; 25:3065-3071

3. Carragee EJ, Lincoln T, Parmar VS, Alamin T: A gold standard evaluation of the "discogenic pain" diagnosis as determined by provocative discography. Spine 2006; 31:2115-2123

4. Grubb SA, Lipscomb HJ, Guilford WB: The relative value of lumbar roentgenograms, metrizamide myelography, and discography in the assessment of patients with chronic low-back syndrome. Spine 1987; 12:282-286

5. Guyer RD, Collier R, Stith WJ, Ohnmeiss DD, Hochschuler SH, Rashbaum RF, Regan JJ: Discitis after discography. Spine 1988; 13:1352-1354

6. Junila J, Niinimaki T, Tervonen O: Epidural abscess after lumbar discography. Spine 1997; 22:2191-2193

7. Laun A, Loranz R, Agnili NL: Complications of cervical discography. J Neurosurg Sci 1981; 25:17-20

8. Schreck RI, Manion WL, Kambin P, Sohn M: Nucleus pulposus pulmonary embolism. A case report. Spine 1995; 20:2463-2466

9. Schwarzer AC, Aprill CN, Derby R, Fortin J, Kine G, Bogduk N: The relative contributions of the disc and zygapophyseal joint in chronic low back pain. Spine 1994; 19:801-806

10. Zeidman SM, Thompson K, Ducker TB: Complications of cervical discography: Analysis of 4400 diagnostic disc injections. Neurosurgery 1995; 37:414-417

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II. Multimodal or Multidisciplinary Interventions

Randomized controlled trials (e.g., pain centers vs single-discipline care)

1. Alaranta H, Rytokoski U, Rissanen A, Talo S, Ronnemaa T, Puukka P, Karppi SL, Videman T, Kallio V, Slatis P: Intensive physical and psychosocial training program for patients with chronic low back pain. Spine 1994; 19:1339-1349

2. Becker N, Sjogren P, Bech P, Olsen AK, Eriksen J: Treatment outcome of chronic non-malignant pain patients managed in a Danish multidisciplinary pain centre compared to general practice: a randomized controlled trial. Pain 2000; 84:203-211

3. Bendix AF, Bendix T, Ostenfeld S, Bush E, Andersen A: Active treatment programs for patients with chronic low back pain: a prospective, randomized, observer-blinded study. Eur Spine J 1995; 4:148-151

4. Bendix T, Bendix A, Vaegter K, Lund C, Frolund L, Holm I: Multidisciplinary intensive treatment for chronic low back pain: A randomized, prospective study. Cleveland Clin J Med 1996; 63:62-69

5. Dobscha SK, Corson K, Perrin NA: Collaborative care for chronic pain in primary care: A cluster randomized trial. JAMA 2009; 30:1242-1252

6. Kaapa EH, Frantsi K, Sarna S, Malmivaara A: Multidisciplinary group rehabilitation versus individual physiotherapy for chronic nonspecific low back pain: a randomized trial. Spine 2006; 31:371-376

7. Niemisto L, Lahtinen-Suopanki T, Rissnen P, Lindgren KA, Sarna S, Hurri H: A randomized trial of combined manipulation, stabilizing exercises, and physician consultation compared to physician consultation alone for chronic low back pain. Spine 2003; 28:2185-2191

8. Skouen JS, Grasdal AL, Haldorsen EM, Ursin H: Relative cost-effectiveness of extensive and light multidisciplinary treatment programs versus treatment as usual for patients with chronic low back pain on long-term sick leave: randomized controlled study. Spine 2002; 27:901-909

9. Turner-Stokes L, Erkeller-Yuksel F, Miles A, Pincus T, Shipley M, Pearce S: Outpatient cognitive behavioral pain management programs: a randomized comparison of a group-based multidisciplinary versus an individual therapy model. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2003; 84:781-788

Nonrandomized comparative studies (e.g., pain centers vs single-discipline care)

1. Cassisi JE, Sypert GW, Salamon A, Kapel L: Independent evaluation of a multidisciplinary rehabilitation program for chronic low back pain. Neurosurgery 1989; 25:877-883

2. Crook J, Weir R, Tunks E: An epidemiological follow-up survey of persistent pain sufferers in a group family practice and specialty pain clinic. Pain 1989; 36:49-61

3. Deardorff WW, Rubin HS, Scott DW: Comprehensive multidisciplinary treatment of chronic pain: a follow-up study of treated and non-treated groups. Pain 1991; 45:35-43

4. Duckro PN, Margolis RB, Tait RC, Korytnyk N: Long-term follow-up of chronic pain patients: a preliminary study. Int J Psychiatry Med 1985; 15:283-292

5. Guck TP, Skultety FM, Meilman PW, Dowd ET: Multidisciplinary pain center follow-up study: Evaluation with a no-treatment control group. Pain 1985; 21:295-306

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6. Hazard RG, Fenwick JW, Kalisch SM, Redmond J, Reeves V, Seid S, Frymoyer JW: Functional restoration with behavioral support. Spine 1989; 14:157-161

7. Lipchik GL, Milles K, Covington EC: The effects of multidisciplinary pain management treatment on locus of control and pain beliefs in chronic non-terminal pain. Clin J Pain 1993; 9:49-57

8. Mayer TG, Gatchel RJ, Mayer H, Kishino ND, Keeley J, Mooney V: A prospective two-year study of functional restoration in industrial low back injury. JAMA 1987; 258:1763-1767

9. Roberts AH, Reinhardt L: The behavioral management of chronic pain: Long-term follow-up with comparison groups. Pain 1980; 8:151-162

10. Sturgis ET, Schaefer CA, Sikora TL: Pain center follow-up study of treated and untreated patients. Arch Phys Med Rehab 1984; 65:301-303


1. Becker N, Bondegaard Thomsen A, Olsen AK, Sjøgren P, Bech P, Eriksen J: Pain epidemiology and health related quality of life in chronic non-malignant pain patients referred to a Danish multidisciplinary pain center. Pain 1997; 73:393-400

2. Bendix AF, Bendix T, Haestrup C, Busch E: A prospective, randomized 5-year follow-up study of functional restoration in chronic low back pain patients. Eur Spine J 1998; 7:111-119

3. Bendix AF, Bendix T, Lund C, Kirkbak S, Ostenfeld S: Comparison of three intensive programs for chronic low back pain patients: A prospective, randomized, observer-blinded study with one-year follow-up. Scand J Rehab Med 1997; 29:81-89

4. Chapman SL, Brena SF, Bradford LA: Treatment outcome in a chronic pain rehabilitation program. Pain 1981; 11:255-268

5. Cinciripini PM, Floreen A: An evaluation of a behavioral program for chronic pain. J Behavioral Med 1982; 5:375-389

6. Cott A, Anchel H, Goldberg WM, Fabich M, Parkinson W: Non-institutional treatment of chronic pain by field management: an outcome study with comparison group. Pain 1990; 40:183-194

7. Cutler RB, Fishbain DA, Rosomoff RS, Rosomoff HL: Outcomes in treatment of pain in geriatric and younger age groups. Arch Phy Med Rehab 1994; 75:457-464

8. Daniel M, Long C, Murphy W, Kores R, Hutcherson W: Therapists' and chronic pain patients' perceptions of treatment outcome. J Nervous Mental Disease 1983; 171:729-733

9. Davis VP, Fillingim RB, Doleys DM, Davis MP: Assessment of aerobic power in chronic pain patients before andafter a multi-disciplinary treatment program. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1992; 73:726-729

10. De Benedettis G: A new strategy for chronic pain control: Preliminary results (part II). Neurosurg Sci 1979; 23:191-200

11. Doleys DM, Dolce JJ, Doleys AL, Crocker M, Wolfe SE: Evaluation, narcotics andbehavioral treatment influences on pain ratings in chronic pain patients. Arc Phys Med Rehab 1986; 67:456-458

12. Edwards R, Augustson E, Fillingim R: Differential relationships between anxiety and treatment-associated pain reduction among male and female chronic pain patients. Clin J Pain 2003; 19:208-216

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13. France RD, Urban BJ, Keefe FJ: Long-term use of narcotic analgesics in chronic pain. Social Science Med 1984; 19:1379-1382

14. Gottlieb H, Strite LC, Koller R, Madorsky A, Hockersmith V, Kleeman M, Wagner J: Comprehensive rehabilitation of patients having chronic low back pain. Arch Phys Med Rehab 1977; 58:101-108

15. Hammonds W: Case history number 94: the treatment of chronic pain: a multi-faceted approach. Anesth Analg 1977; 56:118-122

16. Heinrich RL, Cohen MJ, Naliboff BD, Collins GA, Bonebakker AD: Comparing physical and behavioral therapy for chronic low back pain. J Behav Med 1985; 8:61-78

17. Keefe FJ, Block AR, Williams RB, Surwit RS: Behavioral treatment of chronic low back pain: Clinical outcome and individual differences. Pain 1981; 11:221-231

18. Khatami M, Rush AJ: A one year follow-up of the multimodal treatment for chronic pain. Pain 1982; 14:45-52

19. Kitahara M, Kojima KK, Ohmura A: Efficacy of interdisciplinary treatment for chronic nonmalignant pain patients in Japan. Clin J Pain 2006; 22:647-655

20. Koman LA, Barden A, Smith BP, Pollock FEJ, Sinal S, Poehling GG: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy in an adolescent. Foot Ankle 1993; 14:273-277

21. Marchman HB, Gleason CB, Shaw JC: Upper extremity contractures in a patient with eosinophilia-myalgia syndrome. Arch Phy Med Rehab 1991; 72:1029-1030

22. Maruta T, Swanson DW, McHardy MJ: Three year follow-up of patients with chronic pain who were treated in a multidisciplinary pain management center. Pain 1990; 41:47-53

23. Maruta T, Vatterott MK, McHardy MJ: Pain management as an antidepressant: long-term resolution of pain-associated depression. Pain 1989; 36:335-337

24. McCain J, Hagan SJ: Managing chronic foot pain. A case report. J Am Podiatric Med Assoc 1990; 80:251-253

25. Middaugh SJ, Levin RB, Kee WG, Barchiesi FD, Roberts JM: Chronic pain: its treatment in geriatric andyounger patients. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1988; 69:1021-1026

26. Moore JE, Armentrout DP, Parker JC, Kivlahan DR: Empirically derived pain-patient MMPI subgroups: prediction of treatment outcome. J Behavioral Med 1986; 9:51-63

27. Moore ME, Berk SN, Nypaver A: Chronic pain: inpatient treatment with small group effects. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1984; 65:356-361

28. Morse RH: Chronic pain review. A diabetic paradox. J Louisiana State Med Soc 1983; 135:35-38

29. Morse RH: Chronic pain review. A suspiciously well patient. J Louisiana State Med Soc 1985; 137:19-20, 22

30. Morse RH: Chronic pain review: the case of multiple woes. J Louisiana State Med Soc 1982; 134:36-37

31. Newman RI, Seres JL, Yospe LP, Garlington B: Multidisciplinary treatment of chronic pain: long-term follow-up of low-back pain patients. Pain 1978; 4:283-292

32. Painter JR, Seres JL, Newman RI: Assessing benefits of the pain center: why some patients regress. Pain 1980; 8:101-113

33. Parris WCV, Jamison RN, and Vasterling JJ: Follow-up study of a multidisciplinary pain center. J Pain Sympt Manag 1987; 2:145-151

34. Patrick LE, Altmaier EM, Found EM: Long-term outcomes in multidisciplinary treatment of chronic low back pain: results of a 13-year follow-up. Spine 2004; 29:850-855

35. Ralphs JA, Williams AC, Richardson PH, Pither CE, Nicholas MK: Opiate reduction in chronic pain patients: a comparison of patient-controlled reduction and staff controlled cocktail methods. Pain 1994; 56:279-288

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36. Richardson IH, Richardson PH, Williams AC, Featherstone J, Harding VR: The effects of a cognitive-behavioral pain management programme on the quality of work andemployment status of severely impaired chronic pain patients. Disabil Rehab 1994; 16:26-34

37. Sanders SH, Brena SF: Empirically derived chronic pain patient subgroups: the utility of multidimensional clustering to identify differential treatment effects. 1993; Pain 54:51-56

38. Sarkar S: Pain centers: an alternative for management of chronic pain. Health Care Management Review 1982; 7:77-84

39. Sherman RA, Gall N, Gormly J: Treatment of phantom limb pain with muscular relaxation training to disrupt the pain-anxiety-tension cycle. Pain 1979; 6:47-55

40. Slater MA, Kodiath MF: Comprehensive management of the chronic pain patient: a case study. Holistic Nursing Practice 1991; 6:1-8

41. Smith GT, Huges LB, Duvall RD, Rothman S: Treatment outcome of a multidisciplinary center for management of chronic pain: A long-term follow-up. Clin J Pain 1988; 27:47-49

42. Swanson DW, Floreen AC, Swenson WM: Program for managing chronic pain. II. Short-term results. Mayo Clinic Proceed 1976; 51:409-411

43. Taylor C, Zlutnick S, Corley M, Flora J: The effects of detoxification, relaxation and brief supportive therapy on chronic pain. Pain 1980; 8:319-329

44. Timming RC, Cayner JJ, Malec JF, Harvey RF, Schwettmann RS, Chosey J: Inpatient treatment program for chronic pain. Wisconsin Med J 1980; 79:23-26

45. Tollison CD, Satterthwaite JR, Kriegel ML, Hinnant DW: Interdisciplinary treatment of low back pain. A clinical outcome comparison of compensated versus noncompensated groups. Orthopaedic Review 1990; 19:701-706

46. Tyre TE, Anderson DL: Inpatient management of the chronic pain patient: a one-year follow-up study. J Family Practice 1981; 12:819-827

47. Tyre TE, Walworth DE, Tyre EM: The outcome status of chronic pain patients 4 years after multidisciplinary care. Wisconsin Med J 1994; 93:9-12

48. Vasudevan SV, Lynch T, Grunert BK, Melvin JL, Abram SE: Outpatient management of chronic pain: long-term results. Wisconsin Med J 1985; 84:7-9

49. Waldman DS, Waldman K: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy of the face and neck: Report of six patients treated with stellate ganglion block. Reg Anesth 1987; 12:15-17

50. Wallace KG, Hays J: Nursing management of chronic pain. J Neurosurg Nurs 1982; 14:185-191

51. Whittington HG: The treatment of chronic pain. Colorado Med 1980; 77:365-366

III. Single Modality Interventions

Ablative techniques:

Chemical denervation Observational studies, case reports, or comparisons without pertinent control groups

1. Furlan AD, Lui PW, Mailis A: Chemical sympathectomy for neuropathic pain: does it work? Case report and systematic literature review. Clin J Pain 2001; 17:327-336.

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2. Lauretti GR, Trevelin WR, Frade LP, Lima CPR: Spinal alcohol neurolysis for intractable thoracic postherpetic neuralgia after test bupivacaine spinal analgesia. Anesthesiology 2004; 101:244-247

3. Morgan M, Robson JG: A step towards the more rational treatment of chronic pain by nerve block. Case report. BJA 1972; 44:893-894

4. Ramamurthy S, Walsh NE, Schoenfeld LS, Hoffman J: Evaluation of neurolytic blocks using phenol and cryogenic block in the management of chronic pain. J Pain Symptom Manage 1989; 4:72-75

Cryoneurolysis/cryoablation


1. Barnard D: The effects of extreme cold on sensory nerves. Annals Royal College Surg Eng 1980; 62:180-187

2. Birkenmaier C, Veihelmann A, Trouillier H, Hausdorf J, Devens C, Wegener B, Jansson V, von Schulze Pellengahr C: Percutaneous cryodenervation of lumbar facet joints: a prospective clinical trial. Int Orthop 2007; 31:525-530

3. Conacher ID: Percutaneous cryotherapy for post-thoracotomy neuralgia. Pain 1986; 25:227-228

4. Ramamurthy S, Walsh NE, Schoenfeld LS, Hoffman J: Evaluation of neurolytic blocks using phenol and cryogenic block in the management of chronic pain. J Pain Symptom Manage 1989; 4:72-75

5. Wang JK: Cryoanalgesia for painful peripheral nerve lesions. Pain 1985; 22:191-194

Intradiscal annuloplasty (IDET, transdiscal biaculoplasty)

Randomized comparative studies

1. Freeman BJ, Fraser RD, Cain CM, Hall DJ, Chapple DC: A randomized, double-blind, controlled trial: intradiscal electrothermal therapy versus placebo for the treatment of chronic discogenic low back pain. Spine 2005; 30:2369-2377

2. Pauza KJ, Howell S, Dreyfuss P, Peloza JH, Dawson K, Bogduk N: A randomized, placebo-controlled trial of intradiscal electrothermal therapy for the treatment of discogenic low back pain. Spine J 2004; 4:27-35

Non-randomized comparative studies

1. Karasek M, Bogduk N. Twelve-month follow-up of a controlled trial of intradiscal thermal annuloplasty for back pain due to internal disc disruption. Spine. 2000; 25:2601-2607.


1. Ackerman WE: Cauda equina syndrome after intradiscal electrothermal therapy. Reg Anaesth Pain Med 2002; 27:622

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2. Bogduk N, Karasek M: Two-year follow-up of a controlled trial of intradiscal electrothermal annuloplasty for chronic low back pain resulting from internal disc disruption. Spine J 2002; 2:343-350

3. Cohen SP, Larkin T, Abdi S, Chang A, Stojanovic M: Risk factors for failure and complications of intradiscal electrothermal therapy: a pilot study. Spine 2003; 28:1142-1147

4. Cohen SP, Larkin T, Polly DW Jr: A giant herniated disc following intradiscal electrothermal therapy. J Spinal Disord Tech 2002; 15:537-541

5. Davis TT, Delamarter RB, Sra P, Goldstein TB: The IDET procedure for chronic discogenic low back pain. Spine 2004; 29:752-756

6. Djurasovic M, Glassman SD, Dimar JR 2nd, Johnson JR: Vertebral osteonecrosis associated with the use of intradiscal electrothermal therapy. A case report. Spine 2002; E325-E328

7. Endres SM, Fiedler GA, Larson KL: Effectiveness of intradiscal electrothermal therapy in increasing function and reducing chronic low back pain in selected patients. Wisconsin Medical Journal 2002; 101:31-34

8. Ergün R, Sekerci Z, Bulut H, Dolgun H: Intradiscal electrothermal treatment for chronic discogenic low back pain: a prospective outcome study of 39 patients with the Oswestry disability index at 18 month follow-up. Neurol Res 2008; 30:411-416

9. Hsia A, Isaac K, Katz J: Cauda equina syndrome from intradiscal electrothermal therapy. Neurology 2000; 55:320

10. Kapural L, Hayek S, Malak O, Arrigain S, Mekhail N: Intradiscal thermal annuloplasty versus intradiscal radiofrequency ablation for the treatment of discogenic pain: a prospective matched control trial. Pain Med 2005; 6:425-431

11. Kapural L, Mekhail N, Korunda Z, Basali A: Intradiscal thermal annuloplasty for the treatment of lumbar discogenic pain in patients with multilevel degenerative disc disease. Anesth Analg 2004; 99:472-476

12. Kapural L, Ng A, Dalton J, Mascha E, Kapural M, de La Garza M, Mekhail N: Intervertebral disc biacuplasty for the treatment of lumbar discogenic pain: results of a six-month follow-up. Pain Med 2008; 9:60-67

13. Kapural L: Intervertebral disk cooled bipolar radiofrequency (intradiscal biacuplasty) for the treatment of lumbar diskogenic pain: a 12-month follow-up of the pilot study. Pain Med. 2008a;9(4):407-408.

14. Lutz C, Lutz GE, Cooke PM: Treatment of chronic lumbar diskogenic pain with intradiskal electrothermal therapy: A prospective outcome study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2003; 84:23-28

15. Mekhail N, Kapural L: Intradiscal thermal annuloplasty for discogenic pain: An outcome study. Pain Pract 2004; 4:84-90

16. Saal JA, Saal JS: Intradiscal electrothermal treatment for chronic discogenic low back pain: A prospective outcome study with minimum 1-year follow-up. Spine 2000; 25:2622-2627

17. Saal JA, Saal JS: Intradiscal electrothermal treatment for chronic discogenic low back pain: A prospective outcome study with a minimum 2-year follow-up. Spine 2002; 27:966-974

18. Schaufele MK: Single level lumbar disc herniations resulting in radicular pain: pain and functional outcomes after treatment with targeted disc decompression. Pain Med 2008; 9:835-843

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19. Scholl BM, Theiss SM, Lopez-Ben R, Kraft M: Vertebral osteonecrosis related to intradiscal electrothermal therapy: A case report. Spine 2003; 28:E161-E164

Radiofrequency ablation

Randomized controlled trials:

C onventional or thermal RF ablation of medial branch vs sham controls

1. Gallagher J, Petriccione di Vadi PL, Wedley JR, Hamann W, Ryan P, Chikanza I, Kirkham B, Price R, Watson MS, Grahame R, Wood S: Radiofrequency facet joint denervation in the treatment of low back pain: a prospective, controlled double-blind study to assess its efficacy. Pain Clinic 1994;7:193-198

2. Leclaire R, Fortin L, Lambert R, Bergeron YM, Rossignol M: Radiofrequency facet joint denervation in the treatment of low back pain: a placebo-controlled clinical trial to assess efficacy. Spine 2001; 26:1411-1417

3. Lord SM, Barnsley L, Wallis BJ, McDonald GJ, Bogduk N: Percutaneous radio-frequency neurotomy for chronic cervical zygapophyseal-joint pain. N Engl J Med 1996; 335:1721-1726

4. Nath S, Nath CA, Pettersson K: Percutaneous lumbar zygapophysial (facet) joint neurotomy using radiofrequency current, in the management of chronic low back pain: a randomized double-blind trial. Spine 2008; 33:1291-1297

5. Tekin I, Mirzai H, Ok G, Erbuyun K, Vatansever D: A comparison of conventional and pulsed radiofrequency denervation in the treatment of chronic facet joint pain. Clin J Pain 2007; 23:524-529

6. van Kleef M, Barendse GA, Kessels A, Voets HM, Weber WE, de Lange S: Randomized trial of radiofrequency lumbar facet denervation for chronic low back pain. Spine 1999; 15:1937-1942

7. van Wijk RM, Geurts JW, Wynne HJ, Hammink E, Buskens E, Lousberg R, Knape JT, Groen GJ: Radiofrequency denervation of lumbar facet joints in the treatment of chronic low back pain: a randomized, double-blind, sham lesion-controlled trial. Clin J Pain 2005; 21:335-344

Conventional or thermal RF ablation of the dorsal root ganglion vs sham controls

1. Geurts JW, van Wijk RM, Wynne HJ, Hammink E, Buskens E, Lousberg R, Knape JT, Groen GJ: Radiofrequency lesioning of dorsal root ganglia for chronic lumbosacral radicular pain: a randomised, double-blind, controlled trial. Lancet 2003; 361:21-26

2. van Kleef M, Liem L, Lousberg R, Barendse G, Kessels F, Sluijter M: Radiofrequency lesion adjacent to the dorsal root ganglion for cervicobrachial pain: A prospective double blind randomized study. Neurosurg 1996; 38:1127-1131

C onventional or thermal RF ablation of the sacroiliac joint vs sham controls

1. Cohen SP, Hurley RW, Buckenmaier CC 3rd, Kurihara C, Morlando B, Dragovich A: Randomized placebo-controlled study evaluating lateral branch radiofrequency denervation for sacroiliac joint pain. Anesthesiology 2008; 109:279-288

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Conventional or thermal vs pulsed RF ablation of medial branch

1. Kroll HR, Kim D, Danic MJ, Sankey SS, Gariwala M, Brown M: A randomized, double-blind, prospective study comparing the efficacy of continuous versus pulsed radiofrequency in the treatment of lumbar facet syndrome. J Clin Anesth 2008; 20:534-537

2. Tekin I, Mirzai H, Ok G, Erbuyun K, Vatansever D: A comparison of conventional and pulsed radiofrequency denervation in the treatment of chronic facet joint pain. Clin J Pain 2007; 23:524-529

Pulsed RF ablation of medial branch vs sham controls 1. Tekin I, Mirzai H, Ok G, Erbuyun K, Vatansever D: A comparison of conventional and

pulsed radiofrequency denervation in the treatment of chronic facet joint pain. Clin J Pain 2007; 23:524-529

Pulsed RF ablation of dorsal root ganglion vs sham controls 1. Van Zundert J, Patijn J, Kessels A, Lame I, van Suijlekom H, van Kleef M: Pulsed

radiofrequency adjacent to the cervical dorsal root ganglion in chronic cervical radicular pain: a double blind sham controlled randomized clinical trial. Pain 2007; 127:173-182


1. Andersen KH, Mosdal C, Vaernet K: Percutaneous radiofrequency facet denervation in low-back and extremity pain. Acta Neurochir 1987; 87:48-51

2. Bayer E, Racz G, Day M, Heavner J: Sphenopalatine ganglion pulsed radiofrequency treatment in 30 patients suffering from chronic face and head pain. Pain Practice 2005; 5:223-227

3. Burnham RS, Yasui Y: An alternate method of radiofrequency neurotomy of the sacroiliac joint: a pilot study of the effect on pain, function, and satisfaction. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2007; 32:12-19

4. Chao SC, Lee HT, Kao TH, Yang MY, Tsuei YS, Shen CC, Tsou HK: Percutaneous pulsed radiofrequency in the treatment of cervical and lumbar radicular pain. Surg Neurol 2008; 70:59-65

5. Cohen SP, Abdi S: Lateral branch blocks as a treatment for sacroiliac joint pain: A pilot study. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2003; 28:113-119

6. Cohen SP, Foster A: Pulsed radiofrequency as a treatment for groin pain and orchialgia. Urology 2003; 61:645xxi-645xxiii

7. Cohen SP, Sireci A, Wu CL, Larkin TM, Williams KA, Hurley RW: Pulsed radiofrequency of the dorsal root ganglia is superior to pharmacotherapy or pulsed radiofrequency of the intercostal nerves in the treatment of chronic postsurgical thoracic pain. Pain Physician 2006; 9:227-235

8. Dreyfuss P, Halbrook B, Pauza K, Joshi A, McLarty J, Bogduk N: Efficacy and validity of radiofrequency neurotomy for chronic lumbar zygapophysial joing pain. Spine 2000; 25:1270-1277

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9. Ercelen O, Bulutcu E, Oktenoglu T, Sasani M, Bozkus H, Cetin Saryoglu A, Ozer F: Radiofrequency lesioning using two different time modalities for the treatment of lumbar discogenic pain: a randomized trial. Spine 2003; 28:1922-1927

10. Ferrante FM, King LF, Roche EA, Kim PS, Aranda M, Delaney LR, Mardini IA, Mannes AJ: Radiofrequency sacroiliac joint denervation for sacroiliac syndrome. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2001; 26:137-142

11. Kane TP, Rogers P, Hazelgrove J, Wimsey S, Harper GD: Pulsed radiofrequency applied to the suprascapular nerve in painful cuff tear arthropathy. J Shoulder Elbow Surg 2008; 17:436-440

12. Kornick C, Kramarich SS, Lamer TJ, Sitzman BT: Complications of lumbar facet radiofrequency denervation. Spine 2004; 29:1352-1354

13. Kornick C, Kramarich SS, Sitzman BT, Marshall KA, Santiago-Palma J, Lamer TJ: Complication rate associated with facet joint radiofrequency denervation procedures. Pain Med 2002; 3:175-176

14. Kumagai Y, Shimoji K, Honma T, Uchiyama S, Ishijima B, Hokari T, Fujioka H, Fukuda S, Ohama E: Problems related to dorsal root entry zone lesions. Acta Neurochirurgica 1992; 115:71-78

15. Liliang PC, Lu K, Liang CL, Tsai YD, Hsieh CH, Chen HJ: Pulsed radiofrequency lesioning of the suprascapular nerve for chronic shoulder pain: a preliminary report. Pain Med 2009; 10:70-75

16. Lindner R, Sluijter ME, Schleinzer W: Pulsed radiofrequency treatment of the lumbar medial branch for facet pain: a retrospective analysis. Pain Med 2006; 7:435-439

17. McDonald GJ, Lord SM, Bogduk N: Long-term follow-up of patients treated with cervical radiofrequency neurotomy for chronic neck pain. Neurosurg 1999; 45:61-67

18. Menges LJ: Chronic low back pain: a medical-psychological report. Soc Sci Med 1983; 17:747-753

19. Mitra R, Zeighami A, Mackey S: Pulsed radiofrequency for the treatment of chronic ilioinguinal neuropathy. Hernia 2007; 11:369-371

20. Munglani R: The long term effects of pulsed radiofrequency for neuropathic pain. Pain 1999; 80:437-439

21. Nash TP: Percutaneous radiofrequency lesioning of dorsal root ganglia for intractable pain. Pain 1986; 24:67-73

22. North RB, Han M, Zahurak M, Kidd D: Radiofrequency lumbar facet denervation: analysis of prognostic factors. Pain 1993; 57:77-83

23. Rozen D, Parvez U: Pulsed radiofrequency of lumbar nerve roots for treatment of chronic inguinal herniorraphy pain. Pain Physician 2006; 9:153-156

24. Shabat S, Pevsner Y, Folman Y, Gepstein R: Pulsed radiofrequency in the treatment of patients with chronic neuropathic spinal pain. Minim Invasive Neurosurg 2006; 49:147-149

25. Simopoulos TT, Kraemer J, Nagda JV, Aner M, Bajwa ZH: Response to pulsed and continuous radiofrequency lesioning of the dorsal root ganglion and segmental nerves in patients with chronic lumbar radicular pain. Pain Physician 2008; 11:137-144

26. Slappendel R, Crul BJ, Braak GJ, Geurts JW, Booij LH, Voerman VF, de Boo T: The efficacy of radiofrequency lesioning of the cervical spinal dorsal root ganglion in a double blinded randomized study: no difference between 40 degrees C and 67 degrees C treatments. Pain 1997; 73:159-163

27. Teixeira A, Sluijter ME: Intradiscal high-voltage, long-duration pulsed radiofrequency for discogenic pain: a preliminary report. Pain Med 2006; 7:424-428

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28. Vallejo R, Benyamin RM, Kramer J, Stanton G, Joseph NJ: Pulsed radiofrequency denervation for the treatment of sacroiliac joint syndrome. Pain Med 2006; 7:429-434

29. van Kleef M, Spaans F, Dingemans W, Barendse GA, Floor E, Sluijter ME: Effects and side effects of a percutaneous thermal lesion of the dorsal root ganglion in patients with cervical pain syndrome. Pain 1993; 52:49-53

30. Wilkes D, Ganceres N, Solanki D, Hayes M: Pulsed radiofrequency treatment of lower extremity phantom limb pain. Clin J Pain 2008; 24:736-739

31. Yin W, Willard F, Carreiro J, Dreyfuss P: Sensory stimulation-guided sacroiliac joint radiofrequency neurotomy: technique based on neuroanatomy of the dorsal sacral plexus. Spine 2003; 28:2419-2425

Acupuncture

Randomized controlled trials:

Traditional acupuncture vs sham controls

1. Birch S, Jamison RN: Controlled trial of Japanese acupuncture for chronic myofascial neck pain: Assessment of specific and nonspecific effects of treatment. Clin J Pain 1998; 14:248-255

2. Brinkhaus B, Witt CM, Jena S, Linde K, Streng A, Wagenenpfeil S, Irnich D, Walther HU, Melchart D, Willich SN: Acupuncture in patients with chronic low back pain: a randomized controlled trial. Arch Intern Med 2006; 166:450-457

3. Haake M, Muller HH, Schade-Brittinger, Basler HD, Schafer H, Maier C, Endres HG, Trampisch HJ, Molsberger A: German acupuncture trials (GERAC) for chronic low back pain - randomized, multicenter, blinded, parallel-group trial with 3 groups. Arch Intern Med 2007; 17:1892-1898

4. Kennedy S, Baxter GD, Kerr DP, Bradbury I, Park J, McDonough SM: Acupuncture for acute non-specific low back pain: a pilot randomised non-penetrating sham controlled trial. Complement Ther Med 2008; 16:139-146

5. Leibing E, Leonhardt U, Koster G, Goerlitz A, Rosenfeldt JA, Hilgers R, Ramadori G: Acupuncture treatment of chronic low-back pain - a randomised, blinded, placebo-controlled trial with 9-month follow-up. Pain 2002; 96:189-196

6. Mendelson G, Selwood TS, Kranz H, Loh TS, Kidson MA, Scott DS: Acupuncture treatment of chronic back pain: a double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Am J Med 1983; 74:49-55

7. Molsberger AF, Mau J, Pawelec DB, Winkler J: Does acupuncture improve the orthopedic management of chronic low back pain - randomised, blinded, controlled trial with 3 months follow-up. Pain 2002; 99:579-587

8. Moore ME, Berk SN: Acupuncture for chronic shoulder pain. Ann Intern Med 1976; 84:381-384

Traditional acupuncture vs no acupuncture 1. Brinkhaus B, Witt CM, Jena S, Linde K, Streng A, Wagenenpfeil S, Irnich D, Walther

HU, Melchart D, Willich SN: Acupuncture in patients with chronic low back pain: a randomized controlled trial. Arch Intern Med 2006; 166:450-457

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2. Coan RM, Wong G, Ku SL, Chan YC, Wang L, Ozer FT, Coan PL: The acupuncture treatment of low back pain: a randomised controlled study. Am J Chin Med 1980; 8:181-189

3. Haake M, Muller HH, Schade-Brittinger, Basler HD, Schafer H, Maier C, Endres HG, Trampisch HJ, Molsberger A: German acupuncture trials (GERAC) for chronic low back pain - randomized, multicenter, blinded, parallel-group trial with 3 groups. Arch Intern Med 2007; 17:1892-1898

Electroacupuncture vs traditional acupuncture

1. Sator-Katzenschlager SM, Scharbert G, Kozek-Langenecker SA, Szeles JC, Finster G, Schiesser AW, Heinze G, Kress HG: The short- and long-term benefit in chronic low back pain through adjuvant electrical versus manual auricular acupuncture. Anesth Analg 2004; 98:1359-1364

2. Sator-Katzenschlager SM, Szeles JC, Scharbert G, Michalek-Sauberer A, Kober A, Heinze G, Kozek-Langenecker SA: Electrical stimulation of auricular acupuncture points is more effective than conventional manual auricular acupuncture in chronic cervical pain: a pilot study. Anesth Analg 2003; 97:1469-1473

Electroacupuncture vs sham controls

1. Edelist G, Gross AE, Langer F: Treatment of low back pain with acupuncture. Can Anaesth Soc J 1976; 23:303-306

Nonrandomized comparative studies

1. Thomas M, Lundeberg T: Importance of modes of acupuncture in the treatment of chronic nociceptive low back pain. Acta Anaesth Scand 1994; 38:63-69

2. Ishimaru K, Shinohara S, Kitade T, Hyodo M: Clinical efficacy of electrical heat acupuncture. Am J Acupuncture 1993; 21:13-18


1. Carlsson CP, Sjolund BH: Acupuncture for chronic low back pain: a randomized placebo-

controlled study with long-term follow-up. Clin J Pain 2001; 17:296-3052. Cherkin DC, Eisenberg D, Sherman KJ, Barlow W, Kaptchuk TJ, Street J, Deyo RA:

Randomised trial comparing traditional Chinese medical acupuncture, therapeutic massage, and self-care education for chronic low back pain. Arch Intern Med 2001; 161:1081-1088

3. Garvey TA, Marks MR, Wiesel SW: A prospective, randomised, double-blind evaluation of trigger-point injection therapy for low-back pain. Spine 1989; 14:962-964

4. Giles LG, Muller R: Chronic spinal pain: A randomized clinical trial comparing medication, acupuncture, and spinal manipulation. Spine 2003; 28:1490-502

5. Kerr DP, Walsh DM, Baxter D: Acupuncture in the management of chronic low back pain: a blinded randomized controlled trial. Clin J Pain 2003; 19:364-370

6. Inoue M, Kitakoji H, Ishizaki N, Tawa M, Yano T, Katsumi Y, Kawakita K: Relief of low back pain immediately after acupuncture treatment: a randomised, placebo controlled trial. Acupunct Med 2006; 24:103-108

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7. Itoh K, Katsumi Y, Hirota S, Kitakoji H: Effects of trigger point acupuncture on chronic low back pain in elderly patients - a sham-controlled randomised trial. Acupunct Med 2006; 24:5-12

8. Junnila SY: No synergism between metoclopramide and acupuncture in chronic pain. Acupuncture Electro-Therapeutics Research 1986; 11:269-272

9. Lehmann TR, Russel DW, Spratt KF, Colby H, Liu YK, Fairchild ML, Christensen S: Efficacy of electroacupuncture and TENS in the rehabilitation of low back pain patients. Pain 1986; 26;277-290

10. Lehmann TR, Russel DW, Spratt KF: The impact of patients with nonorganic physical findings on a controlled trial of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation and electro-acupuncture. Spine 1983; 8:625-634

11. Meng CF, Wang D, Ngeow J, Lao L, Peterson M, Paget S: Acupuncture for chronic low back pain in older patients: a randomised, controlled trial. Rheumatology 2003; 42:1508-1517

12. Muller R, Giles LG: Long-term follow-up of a randomized clinical trial assessing the efficacy of medication, acupuncture, and spinal manipulation for chronic mechanical spinal pain syndromes. J Manipulative Physiol Ther 2005; 28:3-11

13. Thomas KJ, MacPherson H, Thorpe L, Brazier J, Fitter M, Campbell MJ, Roman M, Walters SJ, Nicholl J: Randomised controlled trial of a short course of traditional acupuncture compated with usual care for persistent non-specific low back pain. Br J Med 2006; 333:623

14. Tsui ML, Cheing GL: The effectiveness of electroacupuncture versus electrical heat acupuncture in the management of chronic low-back pain. J Altern Complement Med 2004; 10:803-809

15. Yeung CK, Leung MC, Chow DH: The use of electro-acupuncture in conjunction with exercise for the treatment of chronic low-back pain. J Altern Complement Med 2003; 9:479-490

Blocks:

Joint blocks

Facet joint injections (to include atlanto-axial (C1-2 facet) and atlanto-occipital joint injection (neck pain) and pars interarticularis injection


1. Carette S, Marcoux S, Truchon R, Grondin C, Gagnon J, Allard Y, Latulippe M: A controlled trail of corticosteroid injections into facet joints for chronic low back pain. New Eng J Med 1991; 325:1002-1007

2. Lilius G, Laasonen EM, Harilainen A, Gronlund G: Lumbar facet joint syndrome: A randomised clinical trial. J Bone Joint Surg (Br) 1989; 71:681-684


1. Ackerman WEr, Ahmad M: Pain relief with intraarticular or medial branch nerve blocks in patients with positive lumbar facet joint SPECT imaging: A 12-Week outcome study. South Med J 2008; 101:931-934

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2. Barnsley L, Lord SM, Wallis BJ, Bogduk N: Lack of effect of intraarticular corticosteroids for chronic pain in the cervical zygapophyseal joints. New England J Med 1994; 330:1047-1050

3. Cook NJ, Hanrahan P, Song S: Paraspinal abscess following facet joint injection. Clin Rheumatol 1999; 18:52-53

4. Dory, M: Arthrography of the cervical facet joints. Radiology 1983; 148:379-3825. Fuchs S, Erbe T, Fisher HL, Tibesku CO: Intraarticular hyaluronic acid verses

glucocorticoid injections for nonradicular pain in the lumbar spine. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2005; 16:1493-1498

6. Gaul C, Neundorfer B, Winterholler M: Iatrogenic (para-) spinal abscesses and meningitis following injection therapy for low back pain. Pain 2005; 116:407-410

7. Lynch MC and Taylor JF: Facet joint injection for low back pain: a clinical study. J Bone Joint Surg 1986; 68B:138-141

8. Marks RC, Houston T, Thulborune T: Facet joint injection and facet nerve block: a randomized comparison in 86 patients with chronic low back pain. Pain 1992; 49:325-328

9. Pneumaticos SG, Chatziioannou SN, Hipp JA, Moore WH, Esses SI: Low back pain: prediction of short-term outcome of facet joint injection with bone scintigraphy. Radiology 2006; 693-698

10. Revel ME, Listrat VM, Chevalier XJ, Dougados M, Nguyn M, Vallee C, Wybier M:, Gires F, Amor B: Facet joint block for low back pain: identifying predictors of a good response. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1992; 73:824-828

11. Roy DF, Fleury J, Fontaine SB, Dussault RG: Clinical evaluation of cervical facet joint infiltration. J Can Assoc Radiol 1988; 39:118-120

12. Wedel DJ, Wilson PR: Cervical facet arthrography. Reg Anesth 1985; 10:7-1113. Weingarten TN, Hooten WM, Huntoon MA: Septic facet joint arthritis after a

corticosteroid facet injection. Pain Med 2006; 7:52-56

Nerve or nerve root blocks:

Celiac plexus blocks


1. Busch EH, Atchison SR: Steroid celiac plexus block for chronic pancreatitis: results in 16 cases. J Clin Anesth 1989; 1:431-433

2. Gress F, Schmitt C, Sherman S, Ikenberry S, Lehman G: A prospective randomized comparison of endoscopic ultrasound- and computed tomography-guided celiac plexus block for managing chronic pancreatitis pain. Am J Gastroenterol 1999; 94:900-905

3. Manchikanti L, Singh V, Falco FJ, Cash KM, Fellows B: Cervical medial branch blocks for chronic cervical facet joint pain: a randomized, double-blind, controlled trial with one-year follow-up. Spine 2008; 33:1813-1820

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Lumbar sympathetic blocks/lumbar paravertebral sympathectomy


1. Chapman SL, Brena SF: Learned helplessness and responses to nerve blocks in chronic low back pain patients. Pain 1982; 14:355-364


1. Manchikanti L, Manchikanti KN, Manchukonda R, Cash KA, Damron KS, Pampati V, McManus CD: Evaluation of lumbar facet joint nerve blocks in the management of chronic low back pain: preliminary report of a randomized, double-blind controlled trial. Pain Physician 2007; 10:425-440

2. Manchikanti L, Singh V, Falco FJ, Cash KA, Pampati V: Lumbar facet joint nerve blocks in managing chronic facet joint pain: one-year follow-up of a randomized, double-blind controlled trial. Pain Physician 2008; 11:121-132

3. Porter DG, Valentine AR, Bradford R: A retrospective study to assess the results of CT-directed peri-neural root infiltration in a cohort of 56 patients with low back apin and sciatica. Br J Neurosurg 1999; 13:290-293

4. Riew KD, Park JB, Cho YS, Gilula L, Patel A, Lenke LG, Bridwell KH: Nerve root blocks in the treatment of lumbar radicular pain. A minimum five-year follow-up. J Bone Joint Surg AM 2006; 88:1722-1725

5. Riew KD, Yin Y, Gilula L, Bridwell KH, Lenke LG, Lauryssen C, Goette K: The effect of nerve-root injections on the need for operative treatment of lumbar radicular pain. A prospective, randomized, controlled, double-blind study. J Bone Joint Surg AM 2000; 82A:1589-1593

6. Tran KM, Frank SM, Raja SN, El-Rahmany HK, Kim LJ, Vu B: Lumbar sympathetic block for sympathetically maintained pain: changes in cutaneous temperatures and pain perception. Anesth Analg. 2000; 90:1396-401.

Stellate ganglion blocks/cervical paravertebral sympathectomy


1. McCleane G: Topical application of doxepin hydrochloride can reduce the symptoms of complex regional pain syndrome: a case report. Injury 2002; 33:88-89

Medial branch blocks


1. Ackerman WEr, Ahmad M: Pain relief with intraarticular or medial branch nerve blocks in patients with positive lumbar facet joint SPECT imaging: A 12-Week outcome study. South Med J 2008; 101:931-934

2. Manchikanti L, Damron K, Cash K, Manchukonda R, Pampati V: Therapeutic cervical medial branch blocks in managing chronic neck pain: a preliminary report of a randomized, double-blind, controlled trial. Pain Physician 2006; 9:333-346

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3. Manchikanti L, Singh V, Falco FJ, Cash KA, Pampati V: Effectiveness of thoracic medial branch blocks in managing chronic pain: a preliminary report of a randomized, double-blind controlled trial. Pain Physician 2008; 11:491-504

Peripheral nerve block


1. Arner S, Lindblom U, Meyerson BA, Molander C: Prolonged relief of neuralgia after regional anesthetic blocks. A call for further experimental and systematic clinical studies. Pain 1990; 43:287-297

2. Ghia JN, Blank JW, McAdams CG: A new interabdominis approach to inguinal region block for the management of chronic pain. Regional Anesthesia 1991; 16:72-78

3. Gibbons JJ, Wilson PR, Lamer TJ, Elliott BA: Interscalene blocks for chronic upper extremity pain. Clin J Pain 1992; 8:264-269

4. Mays KS, Lipman JJ, Schnapp M: Local analgesia without anesthesia using pereipheral perineural morphine injections. Anesth Analg 1987; 66:417-420

5. Xavier AV, McDanal J, Kissin I: Relief of sciatic radicular pain by sciatic nerve block. Anesth Analg 1988; 67:1177-1180

Botulinum toxin A:


Myofascial pain

1. Cheshire WP, Abashian SW, Mann JD: Botulinum toxin in the treatment of myofascial pain syndrome. Pain 1994; 59:65-69

2. Ferrante FM, Bearn L, Rothrock R, King L: Evidence against trigger point injection techniques for the treatment of cervicothoracic myofascial pain with botulinum toxin type A. Anesthesiology 2005; 103:377-383

3. Ojala T, Arokoski JP, Partanen J: The efect of small doses of botulinum toxin A on neck-shoulder myofascial pain syndrome: a double-blind, randomized, and controlled crossover trail. Clin J Pain 2006;22:90-95

4. Qerama E, Fuglsang-Frederiksen A, Kasch H, Bach FW, Jensen TS: A double-blind, controlled study of botulinum toxin A in chronic myofascial pain. Neurology 2006; 67:241-245

5. Wheeler AH, Goolkasian P, Gretz SS: A randomized, couble-blind, prospective pilot study of botulinum toxin injection for refractory, unilateral, cervicothoracic, paraspinal, myofascial pain syndrome. Spine 1998; 23:1662-1667

Piriformis pain

6. Childers MK, Wilson DJ, Gnatz SM, Conway RR, Sherman AK: Botulinum toxin type A in piriformis muscle syndrome: A pilot study. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2002; 81:751-759

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7. Fishman LM, Anderson C, Rosner B: BOTOX and physical therapy in the treatment of piriformis syndrome. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2002; 81:936-942

Low back pain

8. Foster L, Clapp L, Erickson M, Jabbari B: Botulinum toxin A and chronic low back pain: a randomized, double-blind study. Neurology 2001; 56:1290-1293

Observational studies, case reports, or comparisons without pertinent control groups 1. Ney JP, Difazio M, Sichani A, Manacci W, Foster L, Jabbari B: Treatment of chronic low

back pain with successive injections of botulinium toxin A over 6 months: a prospective trial of 60 patients. Clin J Pain 2006; 22:363-369

2. Porta M: A comparative trial of botulinum toxin type A and methylprednisolone for the treatment of myofascial pain syndrome and pain from chronic muscle spasm. Pain 2000; 85:101-105

Electrical nerve stimulation:

Peripheral nerve stimulation (implanted generator)


1. Campbell JN, Long DM: Peripheral nerve stimulation in the treatment of intractable pain. J Neurosurg 1976; 45:692-699

2. Kirsch WM: A new method of managing chronic pain. Medical Times 1974; 102:115-1183. Law JD, Swett J, Kirsch WM: Retrospective analysis of 22 patients with chronic pain

treated by peripheral nerve stimulation. J Neurosurg 1980; 52:482-4854. Nashold BS, Goldner JL, Mullen JB, Bright DS: Long-term pain control by direct

peripheral-nerve stimulation. J Bone Joint Surg 1982; 64-A:1-105. Nashold BS, Goldner JL: Electrical stimulation of peripheral nerves for relief of

intractable chronic pain. Med Instrument 1975; 9:224-2256. Rutkowski B, Niedzialkowska T, Otto J: Electrostimulation in the management of chronic

pain. Anaesthesist 1975; 24:457-4607. Waisbrod H, Panhans C, Hansen D, Gerbershagen HU: Direct nerve stimulation for

painful peripheral neuropathies. J Bone Joint Surg Br 1985; 67:470-472

Spinal cord stimulation


1. Kemler MA, Barendse GAM, Van Kleef M, De Vet HCW, Rijks CPM, Furnee CA, Van Den Wildenberg F: Spinal cord stimulation in patients with chronic reflex sympathetic dystrophy. New Eng J Med 2000; 343:618-624

2. Kemler MA, de Vet HC, Barendse GA, van den Wildenberg FA, van Kleef M: Effect of spinal cord stimulation for chronic complex regional pain syndrome Type I: five-year final follow-up of patients in a randomized controlled trial. J Neurosurg 2008; 108:292-298.

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3. Kemler MA, de Vet HC, Barendse GA, van den Wildenberg FA, Van Kleef M: The effect of spinal cord stimulation in patients with chronic reflex sympathetic dystrophy: two years' follow-up of the randomized controlled trial. Ann Neurol 2004; 55:13-18

4. North RB, Kidd DH, Farrokhi F, Piantadosi SA: Spinal cord stimulation versus repeated lumbosacral spine surgery for chronic pain: a randomized, controlled trial. Neurosurgery 2005; 56:98-106

5. North RB, Kidd DH, Piantadosi S: Spinal cord stimulation versus reoperation for failed back surgery syndrome: a prospective, randomized study design. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg 1994; 62:267-272


1. Marchand S, Bushnell MC, Molina Negro P, Martinez SN, Duncan GH: The effects of dorsal column stimulation on measures of clinical and experimental pain in man. Pain 1991; 45:249-257


1. Barolat G, Schwartzman R, Woo R: Epidural spinal cord stimulation in the management of reflex sympathetic dystrophy. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg 1989; 53:29-39

2. Buchhaas U, Koulousakis A, Nittner K: Experience with spinal cord stimulation (SCS) in the management of chronic pain in a traumatic transverse lesion syndrome. Neurosurgical Review 1989; 12 Suppl 1:582-587

3. Burton CV: Session on spinal cord stimulation. Safety and clinical efficacy. Neurosurgery 1977; 1:214-215

4. Clark K: Electrical stimulation of the nervous system for control of pain: University of Texas Southwest Medical School Experience. Surgical Neurology 1975; 4:164-166

5. Daniel MS, Long C, Hutcherson WL, Hunter S: Psychological factors and outcome of electrode implantation for chronic pain. Neurosurgery 1985; 17:773-777

6. Daousi C, Benbow SJ, MacJarlane IA: Electrical spinal cord stimulation in the long-term treatment of chronic painful diabetic neuropathy. Diabet Med 2005; 22:393-398

7. De La Porte C, Siegfried J: Lumbosacral spinal fibrosis (spinal arachnoiditis): Its diagnosis and treatment by spinal cord stimulation. Spine 1983; 8:593-603

8. Demirel T, Braun W, Reimers CD: Results of spinal cord stimulation in patients suffering from chronic pain after a two year observation period. Neurochirurgia 1984; 27:47-50

9. Devulder J, Vermeulen H, De Colvenaer L, Rolly G, Calliauw L, Caemaert J: Spinal cord stimulation in chronic pain: evaluation of results, complications, and technical considerations in sixty-nine patients. Clin J Pain 1991; 7:21-28

10. Erickson DL: Percutaneous trial of stimulation for patient selection for implantable stimulating devices. J Neurosurg 1975; 43:440-444

11. Garcia-Larrea L, Sindou M, Mauguiere F: Clinical use of nociceptive flexion reflex recording in the evaluation of functional neurosurgical procedures. Acta Neurochirurgica 1989; 46:53-57

12. Harke H, Gretenkort P, Ladleif HU, Koester P, Rahman S: Spinal cord stimulation in postherpetic neuralgia and in acute herpes zoster pain. Anesth Analg 2002; 94:694-700

13. Jacobs M, Jorning P, Beckers R, Ubbink DT, van Kleef M, Slaaf DW, Reneman RS: Foot salvage and improvement of microvascular blood flow as a result of epidural spinal cord electrical stimulation. J Vasc Surg 1990; 12:354-360

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14. Koeze TH, Williams AC, Reiman S: Spinal cord stimulation and the relief of chronic pain. J Neurol Neurosurg Psych 1987 50:1424-1429

15. Kumar K, Nath R, Wyant GM: Treatment of chronic pain by epidural spinal cord stimulation: a 10-year experience. J Neurosurg 1991; 75:402-407

16. Kumar K, Taylor RS, Jacques L, Eldabe S, Meglio M, Molet J, Thomson S, O'Callaghan J, Eisenberg E, Milbouw G, Buchser E, Fortini G, Richardson J, North RB: The effects of spinal cord stimulation in neuropathic pain are sustained: a 24-month follow-up of the prospective randomized controlled multicenter trial of the effectiveness of spinal cord stimulation. Neurosurgery 2008; 63:762-770

17. Law JD: Clinical and technical results from spinal stimulation for chronic pain of diverse pathophysiologies. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg 1992; 59:21-24

18. LeRoy PL: Stimulation of the spinal neuraxis by biocompatible electrical current in the human. Applied Neurophysiol 1981; 44:187-193

19. Lindblom U, Meyerson BA: Influence on touch, vibration and cutaneous pain of dorsal column stimulation in man. Pain 1975; 1:257-270

20. Lindblom U, Meyerson BA: On the effect of electrical stimulation of the dorsal column system on sensory thresholds in patients with chronic pain. Prog Brain Res 1976; 43:237-241

21. Meglio M, Cioni B, and Rossi GF: Spinal cord stimulation in management of chronic pain. J Neurosurg 1989: 70:519-524

22. Meglio M, Cioni B: Personal experience with spinal cord stimulation in chronic pain management. Applied Neurophys 1982; 45:195-200

23. Meilman PW, Leibrock LG, Leong FT: Outcome of implanted spinal cord stimulation in the treatment of chronic pain: arachnoiditis versus single nerve root injury and mononeuropathy. Brief clinical note. Clin J Pain 1989; 5:189-193

24. Mittal B, Thomas DG, Walton P, Calder I: Dorsal column stimulation (DCS) in chronic pain: report of 31 cases. Ann Royal Coll Surg 1987; 69:104-109

25. Nashold BS: Dorsal column stimulation for control of pain: a three-year follow-up. Surg Neurol 1975; 4:146-147

26. Nielson KD, Adams JE, Hosobuchi Y: Experience with dorsal column stimulation for relief of chronic intractable pain: 1968-1973. Surg Neurol 1975; 4:148-152

27. North RB, Ewend MG, Lawton MT, Kidd DH, Piantadosi S: Failed back surgery syndrome: 5-year follow-up after spinal cord stimulator implantation. Neurosurgery 1991; 28:692-699

28. North RB, Ewend MG, Lawton MT, Piantadosi S: Spinal cord stimulation for chronic, intractable pain: superiority of "multi-channel" devices. Pain 1991; 44:119-130

29. North RB, Fischell TA, Long DM: Chronic dorsal column stimulation via percutaneously inserted epidural electrodes. Preliminary results in 31 patients. Applied Neurophysiol 1977; 40:184-191

30. Racz GB, McCarron RF, Talboys P: Percutaneous dorsal column stimulator for chronic pain control. Spine 1989; 14:1-4

31. Robaina FJ, Dominguez M, D'iaz M, Rodriguez JL, de Vera JA: Spinal cord stimulation for relief of chronic pain in vasospastic disorders of the upper limbs. Neurosurg 1989; 24:63-67

32. Shealy CN: Dorsal column stimulation: optimization of application. Surgical Neurology 1975; 4:142-145

33. Siegfried J, Lazorthes Y: Long-term follow-up of dorsal cord stimulation for chronic pain syndrome after multiple lumbar operations. Applied Neurophys 1982; 45:201-204

21

34. Spiegelmann R, Friedman WA: Spinal cord stimulation: a contemporary series. Neurosurgery 1991; 28:65-70

35. Tonelli L, Setti T, Falasca A, Martignoni E, Torcia E, Calcaterra FM, Merli GA, Facchinetti F: Investigation on cerebrospinal fluid opioids and neurotransmitters related to spinal cord stimulation. Applied Neurophysiology 1988; 51:324-332

36. Vogel HP, Heppner B, Humbs N, Schramm J, Wagner C: Long-term effects of spinal cord stimulation in chronic pain syndromes. J Neurol 1986; 233:16-18

37. Wester K: Dorsal column stimulation in pain treatment. Acta Neurol Scand 1987; 75:151-155

38. Young RF: Evaluation of dorsal column stimulation in the treatment of chronic pain. Neurosurg 1978; 3:373-379

TENS

Randomized controlled trials 1. Bloodworth DM, Nguyen BN, Garver W, Moss F, Pedroza C, Tran T, Chiou-Tan FY:

Comparison of stochastic vs. conventional transcutaneous electrical stimulation for pain modulation in patients with electromyographically documented radiculopathy. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2004; 83:584-591

2. Cheing GL, Hui-Chan CW: Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation: nonparallel antinociceptive effects on chronic clinical pain and acute experimental pain. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1999; 80:305-312

3. Deyo RA, Walsh NE, Martin DC, Schoenfeld LS, Ranamurthy S: A controlled trial of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) and exercise in chronic low back pain. New Eng J Med 1990; 322:1627-1634

4. Graff-Radford SB, Reeves JL, Baker RL, Chiu D: Effects of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation on myofascial pain and trigger point sensitivity. Pain 1989; 37:1-5

5. Jarzem PF, Hervey EJ, Arcaro N, Kaczorowski J: Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation [TENS] for short-term treatment of low back pain - randomized double blind cross-over study of sham versus conventional TENS. J Musculoskel Pain 2005; 13:11-17

6. Kumar D, Marshall HJ: Diabetic peripheral neuropathy: amelioration of pain with transcutaneous electrostimulation. Diabetes Care 1997; 20:1702-1705

7. Hsueh T, Cheng P, Kuan T: The immediate effectiveness of electrical nerve stimulation and electrical muscle stimulation on myofascial trigger points. Am J Phy Med Rehabil 1997; 76:471-476

8. Lehmann TR, Russel DW, Spratt KF: The impact of patients with nonorganic physical findings on a controlled trial of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation and electro-acupuncture. Spine 1983; 8:625-634

9. Lehmann TR, Russel DW, Spratt KF, Colby H, Liu YK, Fairchild ML, Christensen S: Efficacy of electroacupuncture and TENS in the rehabilitation of low back pain patients. Pain 1986; 26;277-290

10. Moore SR, Shurman J: Combined neuromuscular electrical stimulation and transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation for treatment of chronic back pain: a double-blind, repeated measures comparison. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1997; 78:55-60

22

11. Topuz O, Ozfidan E, Ozgen M, Ardic F: Efficacy of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation and percutaneous neuromodulation therapy in chronic low back pain. J Back Musculoskel Rehabil 2004; 17:127-133


1. Guieu R, Tardy Gervet MF, Roll JP: Analgesic effects of vibration and transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation applied separately and simultaneously to patients with chronic pain. Canadian J Neurol Sciences 1991; 18:113-119

2. Marchand S, Charest J, Li J, Chenard JR, Lavignolle B, Laurencelle L: Is TENS purely a placebo effect? A controlled study on chronic low back pain. Pain 1993; 54:99-106

3. Thorsteinsson G, Stonnington HH, Stillwell GK, Elveback LR: Transcutaneous electrical stimulation: a double-blind trial of its efficacy for pain. Arc Phys Med Rehab 1977; 58:8-13


1. Abram SE, Asiddao CB, Reynolds AC: Increased skin temperature during transcutaneous electrical stimulation. Anesth Analg 1980; 59:22-25

2. Almay BG, Johansson F, von Knorring l, Sakurada T, Terenius L: Long-term high frequency transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (hi-TNS) in chronic pain. Clinical response and effects on CSF-endorphins, monoamine metabolites J Psychosomatic Research 1985; 29:247-257

3. Andersson SA, Hansson G, Holmgren E, Renberg O: Evaluation of the pain suppressive effect of different frequencies of peripheral electrical stimulation in chronic pain conditions. Acta Orthopaedica Scand 1976; 47:149-157

4. Arner S, Lindblom U, Meyerson BA, Molander C: Prolonged relief of neuralgia after regional anesthetic blocks. A call for further experimental and systematic clinical studies. Pain 1990; 43:287-297

5. Bates JA, Nathan PW: Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation for chronic pain. Anaesthesia 1980; 35:817-822

6. Chiu TT, Hui-Chan CW, Chein G: A randomized clinical trial of TENS and exercise for patients with chronic neck pain. Clin Rehabil 2005; 19:850-860

7. Don RG, Tay G: Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation for the relief of chronic pain. Singapore Med J 1982; 23:322-324

8. Ebersold MJ, Laws ER Jr, Albers JW: Measurements of autonomic function before, during, and after transcutaneous stimulation in patients with chronic pain and in control subjects. Mayo Clinic Proceedings 1977; 52:228-232

9. Ebersold MJ, Laws ER, Stonnington HH, Stillwell GK: Transcutaneous electrical stimulation for treatment of chronic pain: a preliminary report. Surg Neurology 1975; 4:96-99

10. Eriksson MBE, Sjolund BH, Nielzen S: Long term results of peripheral conditioning stimulation as an analgesic measure in chronic pain. Pain 1979; 6:335-347

11. Fried T, Johnson R, McCracken W: Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation: its role in the control of chronic pain. Arch Phy Med Rehab 1984; 65:228-231

12. Garcia-Larrea L, Sindou M, Mauguiere F: Clinical use of nociceptive flexion reflex recording in the evaluation of functional neurosurgical procedures. Acta Neurochirurgica 1989; 46:53-57

23

13. Guieu R, Tardy-Gervet MF, Blin O, Pouget J: Pain relief achieved by transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation and/or vibratory stimulation in a case of painful legs and moving toes. Pain 1990; 42:43-48

14. Johansson F, Almay BG, von Knorring L, Terenius L: Predictors for the outcome of treatment with high frequency transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation in patients with chronic pain. Pain 1980; 9:55-61

15. Johnson MI, Ashton CH, Thompson JW: An in-depth study of long-term users of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS). Implications for clinical use of TENS. Pain 1991; 44:221-229

16. Johnson MI, Ashton CH, Thompson JW: Long term use of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation at Newcastle Pain Relief Clinic. J Royal Soc Med 1992; 85:267-268

17. Katz J, Melzack R: Referred sensations in chronic pain patients. Pain 1987; 28:51-5918. Koke AJ, Schouten JS, Lamerichs-Geelen MJ, Lipsch JS, Waltje EM, van Kleef M, Patijn

J: Pain reducing effect of three types of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation in patients with chronic pain: a randomized crossover trial. Pain 2004; 108:36-42

19. Leijon G, Boivie J: Central post-stroke pain--the effect of high and low frequency TENS. Pain 1989; 38:187-191

20. Long DM: External electrical stimulation as a treatment of chronic pain. Minnesota Med 1974; 57:195-198

21. Lundeberg T: A comparative study of the pain alleviating effect of vibratory stimulation, transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation, electroacupuncture and placebo. Am J Chin Med 1984; 12:72-79

22. McDonnell DE: TENS in treating chronic pain. AORN 1980; 32:401-41023. Moore DE, Blacker HM: How effective is TENS for chronic pain? Am J Nurs 1983;

83:1175-117724. Reynolds AC, Abram SE, Anderson RA, Vasudevan SV, Lynch NT: Chronic pain therapy

with transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation: predictive value of questionnaires. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1983; 64:311-313

25. Richardson RR, Arbit J, Siqueira EB, Zagar R: Transcutaneous electrical neurostimulation in functional pain. Spine 1981; 6:185-188

26. Sherry E, Kitchener P, Smart R: A prospective randomized controlled study of VAX-D and TENS for the treatment of chronic low back pain. Neurol Res 2001; 23:780-784

27. Stonnington HH, Stillwell GK, Ebersold MJ, Thorsteinsson G, Laws ER: Transcutaneous electrical stimulation for chronic pain relief. A pilot study. Minnesota Med 1976; 59:681-683

28. Van Doorn JN, Spierdyk J: Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation for relief of pain. Acta Anaesth Belg 1981; 1:21-31

29. Wolf SL, Gersh ML, Rao, VR: Examination of electrode placements and stimulating parameters in treating chronic pain with conventional transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS). Pain 1981; 37-47

30. Yokoyama M, Sun X, Oku S, Taga N, Sato K, Mizobuchi S, Takahashi T, Morita K: Comparison of percutaneous electrical nerve stimulation with transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation for long-term pain relief in patients with chronic low back pain. Anesth Analg 2004; 98:1552-1556

31. Zugerman C: Dermatitis from transcutaneous electric nerve stimulation. J Am Acad Dermatol 1982; 6:936-939

24

Percutaneous electrical nerve stimulation


1. Ghoname E, Craig W, White P: Percutaneous electrical nerve stimulation for low back pain. JAMA 1999; 281:818-823

2. Ghoname E, Craig W, White P: The effect of stimulus frequency on the analgesic response to percutaneous electrical nerve stimulation in patients with chronic low back pain. Anesth Analg 1999; 88:841-846

3. Hamza MA, Ghoname EA, White PF, Craig WF, Ahmed HE, Gajraj NM, Vakharia AS, Noe CE: Effect of the duration of electrical stimulation on the analgesic response in patients with low back pain. Anesthesiology 1999; 91:1622-1627

4. Weiner DK, Rudy TE, Glick RM, Boston JR, Lieber SJ, Morrow LA, Taylor S: Efficacy of percutaneous electrical nerve stimulation for the treatment of chronic low back pain in older adults. J Am Geriatr Soc 2003; 51:599-608

5. White PF, Craig WF, Vakharia AS, Ghoname E, Ahmed HE, Hamza MA: Percutaneous neuromodulation therapy: does the location of electrical stimulation effect the acute analgesic response? Anesth Analg 2000; 91:949-954


1. Renzenbrink GJ, IJzerman MJ: Percutaneous neuromuscular electrical stimulation (P-NMES) for treating shoulder pain in chronic hemiplegia. Effects on shoulder pain and quality of life. Clin Rehabil 2004; 18:359-365

2. Topuz O, Ozfidan E, Ozgen M, Ardic F: Efficacy of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation and percutaneous neuromodulation therapy in chronic low back pain. J Back Musculoskel Rehabil 2004; 17:127-133

Epidural steroids with or without local anesthetics (interlaminar, transforaminal):


Epidural steroids with or without local anesthetics vs epidural placebo

Interlaminar epidural steroids

1. Carette S, Leclaire R, Marcoux S, Morin F, Blaise GA, St-Pierre A, Truchon R, Parent F, Levésque J, Bergeron V, Montminy P, Blanchette C: Epidural corticosteroid injections for sciatica due to herniated nulceus pulposus. New Eng J Med 1997; 336:1634-1640

2. Klenerman L, Greenwood R, Davenport HT, White DC, Peskett S: Lumbar epidural injections in the treatment of sciatica. Br J Rheumatol 1984; 23:35-38

3. Snoek W, Weber H, Jorgensen B: Double blind evaluation of extradural methylprednisolone for herniated lumbar discs. Acta Ortho Scand 1977; 48:635-641

4. Valat JP, Giraudeau B, Rozenberg S, Goupille P, Bourgeois P, Micheau-Beaugendre V, Soubrier M, Richard S, Thomas E: Epidural corticosteroid injections for sciatica: A randomised, double blind, controlled clinical trial. Ann Rheum Dis 2003; 62:639-643

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Transforaminal epidural steroids

5. Karppinen J, Malmivaara A, Kurunlahti M, Kyllonen E, Pienimaki T, Nieminen P, Ohinmaa A, Tervonen O, Vanharanta H: Periradicular infiltration for sciatica: A randomized controlled trial. Spine 2001; 26:1059-1067

Caudal epidural steroids

6. Bush K, Hillier S: A controlled study of caudal epidural injections of triamcinolone plus procaine for the management of intractable sciatica. Spine 1991; 16:572-575

7. Yates DW: A comparison of the types of epidural injection commonly used in the treatment of low back pain and sciatica. Rheumatol Rehabil 1978; 17:181-186

Epidural steroids+local anesthetics vs epidural local anesthetics

Interlaminar epidural steroids

1. Breivik HH, Hesla PE, Molnar I, Lind B: Treatment of chronic low back pain and sciatica: comparison of caudal injections of bupivacaine and methylprednisolone with bupivacaine followed by saline. Adv Pain Res Ther 1976; 1:927-932

2. Cuckler JM, Bernini PA, Wiesel SW, Booth RE, Rothman RH, Pickens GT: The use of epidural steroids in the treatment of lumbar radicular pain. J Bone Joint Surg 1985; 67:63-66

3. Dilke TF, Burry HC, Grahame R: Extradural corticosteroid injection in management of lumber nerve root compression. Br Med J 1973; 2:635-637

4. Swerdlow M, Sayle-Creer W: A study of extradural medication in the relief of the lumbosciatic syndrome. Anaesthesia 1970; 25:341-345

Transforaminal epidural steroids

5. Anderberg L, Annertz M, Persson L, Brandt L, Saveland H: Transforaminal steroid injections for the treatment of cervical radiculopathy: a prospective and randomised study. Eur Spine J 2007; 16:321-328

6. Ng L, Chaudhary N, Sell P: The efficacy of corticosteroids in periradicular infiltration for chronic radicular pain: a randomized, double-blind, controlled trial. Spine 2005; 30:857-862

Caudal epidural steroids

7. Yates DW: A comparison of the types of epidural injection commonly used in the treatment of low back pain and sciatica. Rhrumatol Rehabil 1978; 17:181-186

Transforaminal epidural steroids vs interlaminar (parasagittal) epidural steroids

1. Candido KD, Raghavendra MS, Chinthagada M, Badiee S, Trepashko DW: A prospective evaluation of iodinated contrast flow patterns with fluoroscopically guided lumbar epidural steroid injections: the lateral parasagittal interlaminar epidural approach versus the transforaminal epidural approach. Anesth Analg 2008; 106:638-644

26


1. Beliveau P: A comparison between epidural anaesthesia with and without corticosteroid in the treatment of sciatica. Rheum Phys Med 1971; 11:40-43

2. Bonetti M, Fontana A, Cotticelli B, Volta GD, Guindani M, Leonardi M: Intraforaminal O(2)-O(3) versus periradicular steroidal infiltrations in lower back pain: randomized controlled study. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2005; 26:996-1000

3. Schaufele M, Hatch L: Interlaminar versus transforaminal epidural injections in the treatment of symptomatic lumbar intervertebral disc herniations. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2002; 83:1661


1. Ackerman WE 3rd, Ahmad M: The efficacy of lumbar epidural steroid injections in patients with lumbar disc herniations. Anesth Analg 2007; 104:1217-1222

2. Arden NK, Price C, Reading I, Stubbing J, Hazelgrove J, Dunne C, Michel M, Rogers P, Cooper C: A multicentre randomized controlled trial of epidural corticosteroid injections for sciatica. Rheumatology 2005; 44:1399-1406

3. Beckman WA, Mendez RJ, Paine GF, Mazzilli MA: Cerebellar herniation after cervical transforaminal epidural injection. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2006; 31:282-285

4. Berman AT, Garbarino JL Jr., Fisher SM, Bosacco SJ: The effects of epidural injection of local anesthetics and corticosteroids on patients with lumbosciatic pain. Clin Orthop Relat Res 1984; 188:144-151

5. Bilir A, Gulec S: Cauda equina syndrome after epidural steroid injection: a case report. J Manipulative Physiol Ther 2006; 29:492

6. Botwin KP, Gruber RD, Bouchlas CG, Torres-Ramos FM, Freeman TL, Slaten WK: Complications of fluoroscopically guided transforaminal lumbar epidural injections. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2000; 81:1045-1050

7. Botwin KP, Castellanos R, Rao S, Hanna AF, Torres-Ramos FM, Gruber RD, Bouchlas CG, Fuoco GS: Complications of fluoroscopically guided interlaminar cervical epidural injections. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2003; 84:627-633

8. Browning DJ: Acute retinal necrosis following epidural steroid injections. Am J Ophthalmol 2003; 36:192-194

9. Buchner M, Zeifang F, Brocai DR, Schiltenwolf M: Epidural corticosteroid injection in the conservative management of sciatica. Clin Orthop 2000; 375:149-156

10. Buttermann GR: Treatment of lumbar disc herniation: epidural steroid injection compared with discectomy: a prospective, randomized study. J Bone Joint Surg (Am) 2004; 86:670-679

11. Chan ST, Leung S: Spinal epidural abscess following steroid injection for sciatica. Spine 1984; 14:106-108

12. Cicala RS, Thoni K, Angel JJ: Long-term results of cervical epidural steroid injections. Clin J Pain 1989; 5:143-145

13. Dallas TL, Lin RL, Wu W, Wolskee P: Epidural morphine and methylprednisolone for low back pain. Anesthesiology1987; 67:408-411

14. Dietrich CL, Smith CE: Epidural granuloma and intracranial hypotension resulting from cervical epidural steroid injection. Anesthesiology 2004; 100:445-447

27

15. Finn KP, Case JL: Disk entry: A complication of transforaminal epidural injection - a case report. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2005; 86:1489-1491

16. Furman MB, Giovanniello MT, O'Brien EM: Incidence of intravascular penetration in transforaminal cervical epidural steroid injections. Spine 2003; 28:21-25

17. Gaul C, Neundorfer B, Winterholler M: Iatrogenic (para-) spinal abscesses and meningitis following injection therapy for low back pain. Pain 2005; 116:407-410

18. Goebert HW, Jallo SJ, Gardner WJ, Wasmuth CE. Painful radiculopathy treated with epidural injections of procaine and hydrocortisone acetate: results in 113 patients. Anesth Analg 1961; 40:130-134

19. Harley C: Extradural corticosteroid infiltration: A follow-up study of 50 cases. Ann Phys Med 1967; 9:22-28

20. Helliwell M, Robertson JC, Ellis RM: Outpatient treatment of low back pain and sciatica by a single extradural corticosteroid injection. Br J Clin Pract 1985; 39:228-231

21. Hickey RF: Outpatient epidural steroid injections for low back pain and lumbosacral radiculopathy. N Z Med J 1987; 23:594-596

22. Hodges SD, Castelberg RL, Miller T, Ward R, Thornburg C: Cervical epidural steroid injection with intrinsic spinal cord damage. Two case reports. Spine 1998; 23:2137-2142

23. Hooten WM, Mizerak A, Carns PE, Huntoon MA: Discitis after lumbar epidural corticosteroid injection: a case report and analysis of the case report literature. Pain Med 2006; 7:46-51

24. Huang RC, Shapiro GS, Lim M, Sandhu HS, Lutz GE, Herzog RJ: Cervical epidural abscess after epidural steroid injection. Spine 2004; 29:E7-E9

25. Huntoon MA, Martin DP: Paralysis after transforaminal epidural injection and previous spinal surgery. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2004; 29:494-495

26. Jeong HS, Lee JW, Kim SH, Myung JS, Kim JH, Kang HS: Effectiveness of transforaminal epidural steroid injection by using a preganglionic approach: A prospective randomized controlled study. Radiology 2007; 245:584-590

27. Karasek M, Bogduk N: Temporary neurologic deficit after cervical transforaminal injection of local anesthetic. Pain Med 2004; 5:202-205

28. Knight CL, Burnell JC: Systemic side-effects of extradural steroids. Anaesthesia 1980; 35:593-594

29. Knight JW, Cordingley JJ, Palazzo MG: Epidural abscess following epidural steroid and local anesthetic injection. Anaesthesia 1997; 52:576-578

30. Kolstad F, Leivseth G, Nygaard OP: Transforaminal steroid injections in the treatment of cervidal radiculopathy. A prospective outcome study. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 2005; 147:1065-1070

31. Kushner FH, Olson JC: Retinal hemorrhage as a consequence of epidural steroid injection. Arch Opthalmol 1995; 113:309-313

32. Lee JW, Kim SH, Lee IS, Choi JA, Choi JY, Hong SH, Kang HS: Therapeutic effect and outcome predictors of sciatica treated using transforaminal epidural steroid injection. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2006; 187:1427-1431

33. Lindholm R, Salenius P: Caudal, epidural administration of anaesthetics and corticoids in the treatment of low back pain. Acta Orthop Scand 1964; 1:114-116

34. Lutz GE, Vad VB, Wisenski RJ: Fluoroscopic transforaminal lumbar epidural steroids: An outcome study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1998; 79:1362-1366

28

35. Mamourain AC, Dickman CA, Drayer BP, Sonntag VK: Spinal epidural abscess: Three cases following spinal epidural injection demonstrated with magnetic resonance imaging. Anesthesiology 1993; 78:204-207

36. Mathews JA, Mills SB, Jenkins VM, Grimes SM, Morkel MJ, Mathews W, Scott SM, Sittapalam Y: Back pain and sciatica: controlled trials of manipulation, traction, sclerosant and epidural injections. Br J Rheumatol 1987; 26:416-423

37. McMillan M, Crumpton C: Cortical blindness and neurologic injury complicating cervical transforaminal injection for cervical radiculopathy. Anesthesiology 2003; 99:509-511

38. Reitman CA, Watters W: Subdural hematoma after cervical epidural steroid injection. Spine 2002; 27:E174-E176

39. Ridley M, Kingsley G, Gibson T, Grahame R: Outpatient lumbar epidural corticosteroid injection in the management of sciatica. Br J Rheumatol 1988; 27:295-299

40. Rozin L, Rozin R, Koehler SA, Shakir A, Ladham S, Barmada M, Dominick J, Wecht CH: Death during transforaminal epidural steroid nerve root block (C7) due to perforation of the left vertebral artery. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 2003; 24:351-355

41. Saigal G, Donovan Post MJ, Kozic D: Thoracic intradural Aspergillus abscess formation following epidural steroid injection. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2004; 25:642-644

42. Serrao JM, Marks RL, Morley SJ, Goodchild CS: Intrathecal midazolam for the treatment of chronic mechanical low back pain: a controlled comparison with epidural steroid in a pilot study. Pain 1992; 48:5-12

43. Shulman M: Treatment of neck pain with cervical steroid injection. Reg Anesth 1986; 11:92-94

44. Stav A, Ovadia L, Sternberg A, Kaadan M, Weksler N: Cervical epidural steroid injection for cervicobrachialgia. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1993; 37:562-566

45. Thomas E, Cyteval C, Abiad L, Picot MC, Taourel P, Blotman F: Efficacy of transforaminal versus interspinous corticosteroid injection in discal radiculalgia – a prospective, randomized, double-blind study. Clin Rheumatol 2003; 22:299-304

46. Tripathi M, Nath SS, Gupta RK: Paraplegia after intracord injection during attempted epidural steroid injection in an awake-patient. Anesth Analg 2005; 101:1209-1211

47. Vad VB, Bhat AL, Lutz GE, Cammisa F: Transforaminal epidural steroid injections in lumbosacral radiculopathy: A prospective randomized study. Spine 2002; 27:11-16

48. Waldman SD: Cervical epidural abscess after cervical epidural nerve block with steroids. Anesth Analg 1991; 72:717-718

49. Waldman SD: Complications of cervical epidural nerve blocks with steroids: A prospective study of 790 consecutive blocks. Reg Anesth 1989; 14:149-151

50. Warfield CA, Biber MP, Crews DA, Dwarakanath GK: Epidural steroid injection as a treatment for cervical radiculitis. Clin J Pain 1988; 4:201-204

51. Williams KN, Jackowski A, Evans PJ: Epidural haematoma requiring surgical decompression following repeated cervical epidural steroid injections for chronic pain. Pain 1990; 42:197-199

52. Wilson-MacDonald J, Burt G, Griffen D, Glynn C: Epidural steroid injection for nerve root compression. A randomized, controlled trial. J Bone Joint Surg (Br) 2005; 87:352-355

53. Winnie AP, Hartman JT, Meyers HL, Ramamurthy S, Barangan V: Pain clinic II: Intradural and extradural corticosteroids for sciatica. Anesth Analg 1972; 51:990-1003

29

Intrathecal drug therapies:

Intrathecal non-opioid injection (e.g., ziconotide [Prialt], clonidine, local anesthetics [bupivacaine])


1. Rauck RL, Wallace MS, Leong MS, Minehart M, Webster LR, Charapata SG, Abraham JE, Buffington DE, Ellis D, Kartzinel R: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of intrathecal ziconotide in adults with severe chronic pain. J Pain Symptom Manage 2006; 31:393-406


1. Kikucki A, Kotani N, Sato T, Takamura K, Sakai I, Matsuki A: Comparative therapeutic evaluation of intrathecal versus epidural methylprednisolone for long-term analgesia in patients with intractable postherpetic neuralgia. Reg Anesth Pain Med 1999; 24:287-293

2. Kotani N, Kushikata T, Hashimoto H, Kimura F, Moraoka N, Yodono M, Asai M, Matsuki A: Intrathecal methylpredisolone for intractable postherpetic neuralgia. N Eng J Med 2000; 343:1514-1519

3. Serrao JM, Marks RL, Morley SJ, Goodchild CS: Intrathecal midazolam for the treatment of chronic mechanical low back pain: a controlled comparison with epidural steroid in a pilot study. Pain 1992; 48:5-12

4. Wallace MS, Rauck R, Fisher R, Charapata SG, Ellis D, Dissanayake S: Intrathecal ziconotide for severe chronic pain: safety and tolerability results of an open-label, long-term trial. Anesth Analg 2008; 106:628-637

5. Wermeling DP, Berger JR: Ziconotide infusion for severe chronic pain: case series of patients with neuropathic pain. Pharmacotherapy 2006; 26:395-402

6. Wermeling D, Drass M, Ellis D, Mayo M, McGuire D, O'Connell D, Hale V, Chao S: Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of intrathecal ziconotide in chronic pain patients. J Clin Pharmacol 2003; 43:624-636

Intrathecal opioid injection (e.g., morphine, hydromorphone, fentanyl, sufentanil)

Nonrandomized comparative studies 1. Thimineur MA., Kravitz E, Vodapally MS: Intrathecal opioid treatment for chronic non-

malignant pain: a 3-year prospective study. Pain 2004; 109:242-249


1. Auld AW, Maki Jokela A, Murdoch DM: Intraspinal narcotic analgesia in the treatment of chronic pain. Spine 1985; 10:777-781

2. Deer T, Chapple I, Classen A, Javery K, Stoker V, Tonder L, Burchiel K: Intrathecal drug delivery for treatment of chronic low back pain: report from the National Outcomes Registry for Low Back Pain. Pain Med 2004; 5:6-13

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3. Hassenbusch SJ, Stanton Hicks MD, Covington EC, Walsh JG, Guthrey DS: Long-term intraspinal infusions of opioids in the treatment of neuropathic pain. J Pain Sympt Managem 1995; 10:527-543

4. Prager JP, DeSalles A, Wilkinson A, Jacobs M, Csete M: Loin pain hematuria syndrome: pain relief with intrathecal morphine. Am J Kidney Dis 1995; 25:629-631

5. Siddall PJ, Gray M, Rutkowski S, Cousins MJ: Intrathecal morphine and clonidine in the management of spinal cord injury pain: a case report. Pain 1994; 59:147-148

Minimally invasive spinal procedures:

Kyphoplasty


1. Komp M, Ruetten S, Godolias G: Minimally invasive therapy for functionally unstable osteoporotic vertebral fracture by means of kyphoplasty: prospective comparative study of 19 surgically and 17 conservatively treated patients. J Miner Stoffwechs 2004: 11(suppl 1):13-15


1. Gaitanis IN, Hadjapavlou AG, Katonis PG, Tzermiadianos MN, Pasku DS, Patwardhan AG: Balloon kyphoplasty for the treatment of pathological vertebral compressive fractures. Eur Spine J 2005; 14:250-260

2. Phillips FM, Ho E, Campbell-Hupp M, McNally T, Todd Wetzel F, Gupta P: Early radiographic and clinical results of balloon kyphoplasty for the treatment of osteoporotic vertebral compression fractures. Spine 2003; 28:2260-2265

Vertebroplasty


1. Buchbinder R, Osborne RH, Ebeling PR, Wark JD, Mitchell P, Wriedt C, Graves S, Staples MP, Murphy B: A randomized trial of vertebroplasty for painful osteoporotic vertebral fractures. N Engl J Med 2009; 361;557-568

2. Kallmes DF, Comstock BA, Heagerty PJ, Turner JA, Wilson DJ, Diamone TH, Edwards R, Gray LA, Stout L, Owen S, Hollingworth W, Ghdoke B, Annesley-Williams DJ, Ralston SH, Jarvik JG: A randomized trial of vertebroplasty for osteoporotic spinal fractures. New Engl J Med 2009; 361:569-579


1. Diamond TH, Champion B, Clark WA: Management of acute osteoporotic vertebral fractures: A nonrandomized trial comparing percutaneous vertebroplasty with conservative therapy. Am J Med 2003; 114:257-265

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1. Amar AP, Larsen DW, Esnaashari N, Albuquerque FC, Lavine SD, Teitelbaum GP: Percutaneous transpedicular polymethylmethacrylate vertebroplasty for the treatment of spinal compression fractures. Neurosurg 2001; 49:1105-1114

2. Barr JD, Barr MS, Lemley TJ, McCann RM: Percutaneous vertebroplasty for pain relief and spinal stabilization. Spine 2000; 25:923-928

3. Brown DB, Gilula LA, Sehgal M, Shimony JS: Treatment of chronic symptomatic vertebral compression fractures with percutaneous vertebroplasty. AJR AM J Roentgenol 2004; 182:319-322

4. Cortet B, Cotton A, Boutry N, Flipe RM, Duquesnoy B, Chastanet P, Delcambre B: Percutaneous vertebroplasty in the treatment of osteoporotic vertebral compression fractures: An open prospective study. J Rheumatol 1999; 26:2222-2228

5. Evans AJ, Jensen ME, Kip KE, DeNardo AJ, Lawler GJ, Negin GA, Remley KB, Boutin SM, Dunnagan SA: Vertebral compression fractures: Pain reduction and improvement in functional mobility after percutaneous polymethylmethacrylate vertebroplastky restrspective report of 245 cases. Radiology 2003; 226:366-372

6. McGraw JK, Lippert JA, Minkus KD, Rami PM, Davis TM, Budzik RF: Prospective evaluation of pain relief in 100 patients undergoing percutaneous vertebroplasty: Results and follow-up. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2002; 13:883-886

7. Padovani B, Kasriel O, Brunner P, Peretti-Viton P: Pulmonary embolism caused by acrylic cement: a rare complication of percutaneous vertebroplasty. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1999; 20:375-377

8. Yeom JS, Kim WJ, Choy W, Lee CK, Chang BS, Kang JW: Leakage of cement in percutaneous transpedicular vertebroplasty for painful osteoporotic compression fractures. J Bone Joint Surg 2003; 85:83-89

9. Yu SW, Lee PC, Ma CH, Shuang TY, Chen YG: Vertebroplasty for the treatment of osteoporotic compression spinal fracture: Comparison of remedial action at different stages of injury. J Trauma 2004; 56:629-632

Percutaneous disc decompression (e.g., nucleoplasty, coblation [for contained herniated or bulging disc])


1. Fiume D, Parziale G, Rinaldi A, Sherkat S: Automated percutaneous discectomy in herniated lumbar discs treatment: experience after the first 200 cases. J Neurosurg Sci 1994; 38:235-237

Observational studies, case reports, or comparisons without pertinent control groups 1. Alo KM, Wright RE, Sutcliffe J, Brandt SA: Percutaneous lumbar discectomy: One year

follow-up in an initial cohort of fifty consecutive patients with chronic radicular pain. Pain Pract 2005; 5:116-124

2. Bhagia SM, Slimpan CW, Nirschi M, Isaac Z, El-Abd O, Sharps LS, Garvin C: Side effects and complications after percutaneous disc decompression using coblation technology. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2006; 85:6-13

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3. Bosacco SJ, Bosacco DN, Berman AT, Cordover A, Levenberg RJ, Stellobotte J: Functional results of percutantous laser discectomy. Am J Orthop 1996; 25:825-828

4. Grevitt MP, McLaren A, Schakelford IM, Mulholland RC: Automated percutaneous lumbar discectomy. An outcome study. J Bone Joint Surg Br 1995; 77:626-629

5. Groenmeyer DH, Buschkamp H, Braun M, Schirp S, Weinsheimer PS, Gevargez A: Image guided percutaneous laser disk decompression for herniated lumbar disks: a 4-year follow-up in 200 patients. J Clin Laser Med Surg 2003; 21:131-138

6. Onik G, Mooney V, Maroon JC, Wiltse L, Helms C, Schweigel J, Watkins R, Kahanovitz N, Day A, Morris J: Automated percutaneous discectomy: A prospective multi-institutional study. Neurosurgery 1990; 26:228-232

7. Tassi GP: Preliminary Italian experience of lumbar spine percutaneous laser disc decompression according to Choy's method. Photomed Laser Surg 2004; 22:439-441

8. Teng GJ, Jeffery RF, Guo JH, He SC, Zhu HZ, Wang XH, Wu YZ, Lu JM, Ling XL, Qian Y, Shang YM, Zhu MJ, Guan L, He XM: Automated percutaneous lumbar discectomy: a prospective multi-institutional study. J Vasc Interv Radiol 1997; 8:457-463

Pharmacologic management:

Anticonvulsants (e.g., calcium channel alpha-2-delta antagonists, sodium channel drugs/membrane stabilizing drugs [e.g., mexilitine])/antispasmodics flexoril, tizanodine [zanoflex], soma, skelaxin)


Calcium channel alpha-2-delta antagonists

1. Backonja M, Beydoun A, Edwards KR, Schwartz SL, Fonseca V, Hes M, LaMoreaux L, Garofalo E: Gabapentin for the symptomatic treatment of painful neuropathy in patients with diabetes mellitus: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 1998; 280:1831-1836

2. Bone M, Critchley P, Buggy DJ: Gabapentin in postamputation phantom limb pain: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over study. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2002; 27:481-486

3. Dworkin, RH, Corbin AE, Young JP, Sharma U, LaMoreaux L, Bockbrader H, Garofalo EA, Poole RM: Pregabalin for the treatment of postherpetic neuralgia:a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Neurology 2003; 60:1274-1283

4. Freynhagen R, Strojek K, Griesing T, Whalen E, Balkenohl M: Efficacy of pregabalin in neuropathic pain evaluated in a 12-week, randomised, double-blind, multicentre, placebo-controlled trial of flexible- and fixed-dose regimens. Pain 2005; 115:254-263

5. Gilron I, Bailey JM, Tu D, Holden RR, Weaver DR, Houlden RL: Morphine, gabapentin, or their combination for neuropathic pain. N Engl J Med 2005; 352:1324-1334

6. Gorson KC, Schott C, Herman R, Ropper AH, Rand W: Gabapentin in the treatment of painful diabetic neuropathy: a placebo controlled, double blind, crossover trial. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatr 1999; 66:251-252

7. Lesser H, Sharma U, La Moreaux L, Poole RM: Pregabalin relieves symptoms of painful diabetic neuropathy: a randomized controlled trial. Neurology 2004; 63:2104-2110

8. Levendoglu F, Ogün CO, Ozerbil O, Ogün TC, Ugurlu H: Gabapentin is a first line drug for the treatment of neuropathic pain in spinal cord injury. Spine 2004; 29:743-751

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9. McCleane G: Does gabapentin have an analgesic effect on background, movement and referred pain? A randomised, double-blind, placebo controlled study. The Pain Clinic 2001; 13:103-107

10. Pandey CK, Bose N, Garg G, Singh N, Baronia A, Agarwal A, Singh PK, Singh U: Gabapentin for the treatment of pain in Guillain-Barre’ Syndrome: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study. Anesth and Analg 2002; 95:1719-1723

11. Rice AS, Maton S: Gabapentin in postherpetic neuralgia: a randomized, double blind, placebo controlled study. Pain 2001; 94:215-224

12. Richter RW, Portenoy R, Sharma U, La Moreaux L, Bockbrader H, Knapp LE: Relief of painful diabetic peripheral neuropathy with pregabalin: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. J Pain 2005; 6:253-260

13. Rosenstock J, Tuchman M, La Moreaux L, Sharma U: Pregabalin for the treatment of painful diabetic peripheral neuropathy: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Pain 2004; 110:628-638

14. Rowbotham M, Harden N, Stacey B, Bernstein P, Magnus-Miller L: Gabapentin for the treatment of postherpetic neuralgia: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 1998; 280:1837-1842

15. Sabatowski R, Galvez R, Cherry DA, Jacquot F, Vincent E, Mainsonobe P, Versavel M: Pregabalin reduces pain and improves sleep and mood disturbances in patients with post-herpetic neuralgia: results of a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Pain 2004; 109:26-35

16. Serpell MG: Gabapentin in neuropathic pain syndromes: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Pain 2002; 99:557-566

17. Smith DG, Ehde DM, Hanley MA, Campbell KM, Jensen MP, Hoffman AJ, Awan AB, Czerniecki JM, Robinson LR: Efficacy of gabapentin in treating chronic phantom limb and residual limb pain. J Rehabil Res Dev 2005; 42:645-654

18. Tolle T, Freynhagen R, Versavel M, Trostmann U, Young JP Jr: Pregabalin for relief of neuropathic pain associated with diabetic neuropathy: a randomized, double-blind study. Eur J Pain 2008; 12:203-213

Sodium channel drugs/membrane stabilizing drugs

1. Drewes AM, Andreasen A, Poulsen LH: Valproate for treatment of chronic central pain after spinal cord injury. A double-blind cross-over study. Paraplegia 1994; 32:565-569

2. Eisenberg E, Lurie Y, Braker C, Daoud D, Ishay A: Lamotrigine reduces painful diabetic neuropathy: a randomized, controlled study. Neurology 2001; 57:505-509

3. Finnerup NB, Sindrup SH, Bach FW, Johannesen IL, Jensen TS: Lamotrigine in spinal cord injury pain: a randomized controlled trial. Pain 2002; 96:375-383

4. Kochar DK, Jain N, Agarwal RP, Srivastava T, Agarwal P, Gupta S: Sodium valproate in the management of painful neuropathy in type 2 diabetes-a randomized placebo controlled study. Acta Neurol Scand 2002; 106:248-252

5. Leijon G, Boivie J: Central post-stroke pain--a controlled trial of amitriptyline and carbamazepine. Pain 1989; 36:27-36

6. McCleane G: 200 mg daily of lamotrigine has no analgesic effect in neuropathic pain: a randomized, double-blind, placebo controlled trial. Pain 1999; 83:105-107

7. Muehlbacher M, Nickel MK, Kettler C, Tritt K, Lahmann C, Leiberich PK, Nickel C, Krawczyk J, Mitterlehner FO, Rother WK, Loew TH, Kaplan P: Topiramate in

34

treatment of patients with chronic low back pain: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Clin J Pain 2006; 22:526-531

8. Oskarsson P, Ljunggren JG, Lins PE: Efficacy and safety of mexiletine in the treatment of painful diabetic neuropathy. Diabetes Care 1997; 20:1594-1597.

9. Raskin P, Donofrio PD, Rosenthal NR, Hewitt DJ, Jordan DM, Xiang J, Vinik AI: Topiramate vs placebo in painful diabetic neuropathy: analgetic and metabolic effects. Neurology 2004; 63:865-873

10. Saudek CD, Werns S, Reidenberg MM: Phenytoin in the treatment of diabetic symmetrical polyneuropathy. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1977; 22:196-199

11. Simpson DM, McArthur JC, Olney R, Clifford D, So Y, Ross D, Baird BJ, Barrett P, Lamotrigine HIV neuropathy Study Team: Lamotrigine for HIV-associated painful sensory neuropathies: a placebo-controlled trial. Neurology 2003; 60:1508-1514

12. Simpson DM, Olney R, McArthur JC, Khan A, Godgold JG, Ebel-Frommer K: A placebo-controlled trial of lamotrigine for painful HIV-associated neuropathy. Neurology 2000; 54:2115-2119

13. Thienel U, Neto W, Schwabe SK, Vijapurkar U: Topiramate in painful diabetic polyneuropathy: findings from three double-blind placebo-controlled trials. Acta Neurol Scand 2004;110: 221-231.

14. Vestergaard K, Andersen G, Gottrup H, Kristensen BT, Jensen TS: Lamotrigine for central poststroke pain: a randomized controlled trial. Neurology 2001; 56:184-190

15. Wallace MS, Magnuson S, Ridgeway B: Efficacy of oral mexiletine for neuropathic pain with allodynia: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2000; 25:459-467

16. Wilton TD: Tegretol in the treatment of diabetic neuropathy. S Afr Med J 1974; 48:869-872


1. Kudoh A, Ishihara H, Matsuki A: Effect of carbamazepine on pain scores of unipolar depressed patients with chronic pain: a trial of off-on-off-on design. Clin J Pain 1998; 14:61-65

2. Solak O, Metin M, Esme H, Solak O, Yaman M, Pekcolaklar A, Gurses A, Kavuncu V: Effectiveness of gabapentin in the treatment of chronic post-thoracotomy pain. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2007; 32:9-12. Epub 2007 Apr 17.


1. Agnew DC, Goldberg VD: A brief trial of phenytoin therapy for thalamic pain. Bulletin Los Angeles Neuro Soc 1976; 41:9-12

2. Ahn SH, Park HW, Lee BS, Moon HW, Jang SH, Sakong J, Bae JH: Gabapentin effect on neuropathic pain compared among patients with spinal cord injury and different duration of syptoms. Spine 2003; 28:341-346

3. Donofrio PD, Raskin P, Rosenthal NR, Hewitt DJ, Jordan DM, Xiang J, Vinik AI: Safety and effectiveness of topiramate for the management of painful diabetic peripheral neuropathy in an open-label extension study. Clin Ther 2005; 27:1420-1431.

4. Khoromi S, Patsalides A, Parada S, Salehi V, Meegan JM, Max MB: Topiramate in chronic lumbar radicular pain. Pain 2005; 6:829-836

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5. Kline KM, Carroll DG, Malnar KF: Painful diabetic peripheral neuropathy relieved with use of oral topiramate. South Med J 2003; 96:602-605

6. McCleane G: Lamotrigine can reduce neurogenic pain associated with multiple sclerosis. Clin J Pain 1998; 14:269-270

7. Mellick GA, Mellicy LB, Mellick LB: Gabapentin in the management of reflex sympathetic dystrophy. J Pain Symptom Manage 1995; 10:265-266

8. Nicol C: A four year double-blind randomized study of Tegretol in facial pain. Headache 1969; 9:54-57

9. Rapeport WG, Rogers KM, McCubbin TD, Agnew E, Brodie MJ: Treatment of intractable neurogenic pain with carbamazepine. Scott Med J 1984; 29:162-165

10. Ries M, Mengel E, Kutschke G, Kim KS, Birklein F, Krummenauer F, Beck M: Use of gabapentin to reduce chronic neuropathic pain in Fabry disease. J Inherit Metab Dis 2003; 26:413-414

11. Rull JA, Quibrera R, Gonzalez-Millan H, Castaneda OL: Symptomatic treatment of peripheral diabetic neuropathy with carbamazepine: double-blind crossover study. Diabetologia 1969; 5:215-220

12. Sist TC, Filadora VA 2nd, Miner M, Lema M: Experience with gabapentin for neuropathic pain in the head and neck: report of ten cases. Reg Anesth 1997; 22:473-478

13. Todorov AA, Kolchev CB, Todorov AB: Tiagabine and gabapentin for the management of chronic pain. Clin J Pain 2005; 21:358-361

Antidepressants


Tricyclic antidepressants (e.g., amitriptyline, nortriptyline, desipramine, imipramine)

1. Atkinson JH, Slater MA, Wahlgren DR, Williams RA, Zisook S, Pruitt SD, Epping-Jordan JE, Patterson TL, Grant I, Abramson I, Garfin SR: Effects of noradrenergic and serotonergic antidepressants on chronic low back pain intensity. Pain 1999; 83:137-145

2. Atkinson JH, Slater MA, Williams RA, Zisook S, Patterson TL, Grant I, Wahlgren DR, Abramson I, Garfin SR: A placebo-controlled randomized clinical trial of nortriptyline for chronic low back pain. Pain 1998; 76:287-796

3. Katz J, Pennella-Vaughan J, Hetzel RD, Kanazi GE, Dworkin RH: A randomized, placebo-controlled trial of bupropion sustained release in chronic low back pain. J Pain 2005; 6:656-661

4. Kishore-Kumar R, Max MB, Schafer SC, Gaughan AM, Smoller B, Gracely RH, Dubner R: Desipramine relieves postherpetic neuralgia. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1990; 47:305-312

5. Kvinesdal B, Molin J, Froland A, Gram LF: Imipramine treatment of painful diabetic neuropathy. JAMA 1984; 251:1712-1730

6. Leijon G, Boivie J: Central post-stroke pain--a controlled trial of amitriptyline and carbamazepine. Pain 1989; 36:27-36

7. Max MB, Kishore-Kumar R, Schafer SC, Meister B, Gracely RH, Smoller B, Dubner R: Efficacy of desipramine in painful diabetic neuropathy: a placebo controlled trial. Pain 1991 45:3-9

36

8. Max MB, Lynch SA, Muir J, Shoaf SE, Smoller B, Dubner R: Effects of desipramine, amitripyline, and fluoxetine on pain in diabetic neuropathy. New Eng J Med 1992; 326:1250-1256

9. Max MB, Schafer SC, Culnane M, Smoller B, Dubner R, Gracely RH: Amitriptyline, but not lorazepam, relieves postherpetic neuralgia. Neurology 1988; 38:1427-1432

10. McQuay HJ, Carroll D, Glynn CJ: Low dose amitriptyline in the treatment of chronic pain. Anaesthesia 1992; 47:646-652

11. Panerai AE, Monza G, Movilia P, Bianchi M, Francucci BM, Tiengo M: A randomized, within-patient, cross-over, placebo-controlled trial on the efficacy and tolerability of the tricyclic antidepressants chlorimipramine and nortriptyline in central pain. Acta Neurol Scand 1990; 82:34-38

12. Pilowsky I, Hallett EC, Bassett DL, Thomas PG, Penhall RK: A controlled study of amitriptyline in the treatment of chronic pain. Pain 1982; 14:169-179

13. Quimby LG, Gratwick GM, Whitney CD, Block SR: A randomized trial of cyclobenzaprine for the treatment of fibromyalgia. J Rheumatol Suppl 1989; 19:140-143

14. Raja SN, Haythornthwaite JA, Papagallo M, Clark MR, Travison TG, Sabeen S, Royall RM, Max MB: Opioids versus antidepressants in postherpetic neuralgia: A randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Neurology 2002; 59:1015-1021

15. Sharav Y, Singer E, Schmidt E, Dionne RA, Dubner R: The analgesic effect of amitriptyline on chronic facial pain. Pain 1987; 31:199-209

16. Sindrup SH, Gram LF, Brøsen K, Eshøj O, Mogensen EF: The selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor paroxetine is effective in the treatment of diabetic neuropathy symptoms. Pain. 1990; 42:135-144

17. Zitman FG, Linssen AC, Edelbroek PM, Stijnen T: Low dose amitriptyline in chronic pain: the gain is modest. Pain 1990; 42:35-42

SNRIs (e.g., duloxetine, venlafaxine, desvenlafaxine, milnacipran, bicifadine)

1. Arnold LM, Lu Y, Crofford LJ, Wohlreich M, Detke MJ, Iyengar S, Goldstein DJ: A double-blind, multicenter trial comparing duloxetine with placebo in the treatment of fibromyalgia patients with or without major depressive disorder. Arthritis Rheum 2004; 50:2974-2984

2. Arnold LM, Rosen A, Pritchett YL, D'Souza DN, Goldstein DJ, Iyengar S, Wernicke JF: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of duloxetine in the treatment of women with fibromyalgia with or without major depressive disorder. Pain 2005; 119:5-15

3. Engel CC Jr, Walker EA, Engel AL, Bullis J, Armstrong A: A randomized, double-blind crossover trial of sertraline in women with chronic pelvic pain. J Psychosom Res 1998; 44:203-207

4. Goldstein DJ, Lu Y, Detke MJ, Lee TC, Iyengar S: Duloxetine vs. placebo in patients with painful diabetic neuropathy. Pain 2005; 116:109-118

5. Raskin J, Pritchett YL, Wang F, D'Souza DN, Waninger AL, Iyengar S, Wernicke JF: A double-blind, randomized multicenter trial comparing duloxetine with placebo in the management of diabetic peripheral neuropathic pain. Pain Med 2005; 6:346-356

6. Russell IJ, Mease PJ, Smith TR, Kajdasz DK, Wohlreich MM, Detke MJ, Walker DJ, Chappell AS, Arnold LM: Efficacy and safety of duloxetine for treatment of fibromyalgia in patients with or without major depressive disorder: Results from a 6-

37

month, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, fixed-dose trial. Pain 2008; 136:432-444

7. Wernicke JF, Pritchett YL, D'Souza DN, Waninger A, Tran P, Iyengar S, Raskin J: A randomized controlled trial of duloxetine in diabetic peripheral neuropathic pain. Neurology 2006; 67:1411-1420

SSRIs (e.g., paroxetine, fluoxetine, citalopram)

1. Atkinson JH, Slater MA, Wahlgren DR, Williams RA, Zisook S, Pruitt SD, Epping-Jordan JE, Patterson TL, Grant I, Abramson I, Garfin SR: Effects of noradrenergic and serotonergic antidepressants on chronic low back pain intensity. Pain 1999; 83:137-145

2. Dickens C, Jayson M, Sutton C, Creed F: The relationship between pain and depression in a trial using paroxetine in sufferers of chronic low back pain. Psychosomatics 2000; 41:490-499

3. Max MB, Lynch SA, Muir J, Shoaf SE, Smoller B, Dubner R: Effects of desipramine, amitripyline, and fluoxetine on pain in diabetic neuropathy. New Eng J Med 1992; 326:1250-1256

4. Nørregaard J, Volkmann H, Danneskiold-Samsøe B: A randomized controlled trial of citalopram in the treatment of fibromyalgia. Pain 1995; 61:445-449

5. Sindrup SH, Gram LF, Brøsen K, Eshøj O, Mogensen EF: The selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor paroxetine is effective in the treatment of diabetic neuropathy symptoms. Pain. 1990; 42:135-144


1. Max MB, Culnane M, Schafer SC, Gracely RH, Walther DJ, Smoller B, Dubner R: Amitriptylene relieves diabetic neuropathy pain in patients with normal or depressed mood. Neurology 1987; 37:589-596

2. Magni G, Andreoli F, Arduino C, Arsie D, Ceccherelli F, Ambrosio F, Dodi G, Eandi M: Modifications of [3H]imipramine binding sites in platelets of chronic pain patients treated with mianserin. Pain 1987; 30:311-320

3. Onghena P, De Cuyper H, Van Houdenhove B, Verstraeten D: Mianserin and chronic pain: a double-blind placebo-controlled process and outcome study. Acta Psych Scand 1993; 88:198-204


1. Blumer D, Heilbronn M, Pedraza E, Pope G: Systematic treatment of chronic pain with antidepressants. Henry Ford Hosp Med J 1980; 28:15-21

2. Clarke IM: Amitriptyline and perphenazine (Triptafen DA) in chronic pain. Anaesthesia 1981; 36:210-212

3. Clifford DB, Trotter JL: Pain in multiple sclerosis. Arch Neurology 1984; 41:1270-12724. Davis JL, Lewis SB, Gerich JE, Kaplan RA, Schultz TA, Wallin JD: Peripheral diabetic

neuropathy treated with amitriptyline and fluphenazine. JAMA 1977; 238:2291-22925. Drake MEJ: Chronic pain syndrome in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Arch Neurol 1983;

40:453-4546. Duthie AM: The use of phenothiazines and tricyclic antidepressants in the treatment of

intractable pain. South African Med J 1977; 51:246-24738

7. Eisendrath SJ, Kodama KT: Fluoxetine management of chronic abdominal pain. Psychosomatics 1992; 33:227-229

8. Gomez-Perez FJ, Choza R, Rios JM, Reza A, Huerta E, Aguilar CA, Rull JA: Nortriptyline-fluphenazine vs. carbamazepine in the symptomatic treatment of diabetic neuropathy. Arch Med Res 1996; 27:525-529

9. Jose VM, Bhansali A, Hota D, Pandhi P: Randomized double-blind study comparing the efficacy and safety of lamotrigine and amitriptyline in painful diabetic neuropathy. Diabet Med 2007; 24:377-383

10. Langohr HD, Stohr M, Petruch F: An open and double-blind crossover study on the efficacy of clomipramine (Anafranil) in patients with painful mono- and polyneuropathies. European Neurology 1982; 21:309-317

11. McQuay HJ, Carroll D, Glynn CJ: Dose-response for analgesic effect of amitriptyline in chronic pain. Anaesth 1993; 48:281-285

12. Mendel CM, Klein RF, Chappell DA, Dere WH, Gertz BJ, Karam JH, Lavin TN, Grunfeld C: A trial of amitriptyline and fluphenazine in the treatment of painful diabetic neuropathy. JAMA 1986; 255:637-639

13. Nickel MK, Nickel C, Lahmann C, Mitterlehner FO, Tritt K, Leiberich PK, Rother WK, Loew TH: Changes in instrumental activities of daily living disability after treatment of depressive symptoms in elderly women with chronic musculoskeletal pain: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Aging Clin Exp Res 2005; 17:293-296

14. Portenoy RK, Yang K, Thorton D: Chronic intractable pain: an atypical presentation of multiple sclerosis. J Neurol 1988; 235:226-228

15. Power Smith P, Turkington D: Fluoxetine in phantom limb pain. Br J Psych 1993; 163:105-106

16. Raskin J, Smith TR, Wong K, Pritchett YL, D'Souza DN, Iyengar S, Wernicke JF: Duloxetine versus routine care in the long-term management of diabetic peripheral neuropathic pain. J Palliat Med 2006; 9:29-40

17. Raskin J, Wang F, Pritchett YL, Goldstein DJ: Duloxetine for patients with diabetic peripheral neuropathic pain: a 6-month open-label safety study. Pain Med 2006; 7:373-385

18. Rowbotham MC, Reisner LA, Davies PS, Fields HL: Treatment response in antidepressant naïve postherpetic neuralgia patients: Double-blind, randomized trial. J Pain 2005; 6:741-746

19. Sandford PR, Lindblom LB, Haddox JD: Amitriptyline and carbamazepine in the treatment of dysesthetic pain in spinal cord injury. Arch Physical Med Rehab 1992; 73:300-301

20. Santandrea S, Montrone F, Sarzi-Puttini P, Boccassini L, Caruso I: A double-blind crossover study of two cyclobenzaprine regimens in primary fibromyalgia syndrome. J Int Med Res 1993; 21:74-80

21. Ventafridda V, Caraceni A, Saita L, Bonezzi C, De Conno F, Guarise G, Ramella G, Silvani V, Tamburini M, Toscani F: Trazodone for deafferentation pain. Comparison with amitriptyline. Psychopharmacol 1988; 95:S44-S49

22. Walker EA, Roy Byrne PP, Katon WJ, Jemelka R: An open trial of nortriptyline in women with chronic pelvic pain. Int J Psych Med 1991; 21:245-252

23. Ward N, Bokan JA, Phillips M, Benedetti C, Butler S, Spengler D: Antidepressants in concomitant low back pain and depression: doxepin and desipramine compared. J Clin Psych 1984; 45:54-59

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24. Ward NG, Bloom VL, Fawcett J, Friedel RO: Urinary 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenethylene glycol in the prediction of pain anddepression relief with doxepin: preliminary findings. J Nerv Mental Dis 1983; 171:55-58

25. Wernicke JF, Wang F, Pritchett YL, Smith TR, Raskin J, D'Souza DN, Iyengar S, Chappell AS: An open-label 52-week clinical extension comparing duloxetine with routine care in patients with diabetic peripheral neuropathic pain. Pain Med 2007; 8:503-513

26. Wu EQ, Birnbaum HG, Mareva MN, Le TK, Robinson RL, Rosen A, Gelwicks S: Cost-effectiveness of duloxetine versus routine treatment for U.S. patients with diabetic peripheral neuropathic pain. J Pain 2006; 7:399-407

27. Young RJ, Clarke BF: Pain relief in diabetic neuropathy: The effectiveness of imipramine and related drugs. Diabetic Med 1985; 2:363-366

Benzodiazepines


1. King SA, Strain JJ: Benzodiazepine use by chronic pain patients. Clin J Pain 1990; 6:143-147

2. Westbrook L, Cicala RS, Wright H: Effectiveness of alprazolam in the treatment of chronic pain: results of a preliminary study. Clin J Pain 1990; 6:32-36


1. Bouckoms AJ, Litman RE: Clonazepam in the treatment of neuralgic pain syndrome. Psychosomatics 1985; 26:933-936

2. Fishbain DA, Cutler RB, Rosomoff HL, Rosomoff RS: Clonazepam open clinical treatment trial for myofascial syndrome associated chronic pain. Pain Med 2000; 1:332-339

N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonists


Dextromethorphan

1. McQuay HJ, Carroll D, Jadad AR, Glynn CJ, Jack T, Moore RA, Wiffen PJ: Dextromethorphan for the treatment of neuropathic pain: a double-blind randomised controlled cross-over trial with integral n-of-1 design. Pain 1994; 59:127-133

2. Nelson KA, Park KM, Robinovitz E, Tsigos C, Max MB: High-dose oral dextromethorphan versus placebo in painful diabetic neuropathy and postherpetic neuralgia. Neurology 1997; 48:1212-1218

3. Sang CN, Booher S, Gilron I, Parada S, Max MB: Dextromethorphan and memantine in painful diabetic neuropathy and postherpetic neuralgia: efficacy and dose-response trials. Anesthesiology 2002; 96:1053-1061

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Memantine

4. Eisenberg E, Kleiser A, Dortort A, Haim T, Yarnitsky D: The NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartic acid) receptor antagonist memantine in the treatment of postherpetic neuralgia: a double-blind placebo-controlled study. Eur J Pain 1998; 2:321-327

5. Maier C, Dertwinkel R, Mansourian N, Hosbach I, Schwenkreis P, Senne I, Skipka G, Zenz M, Tegenthoff M: Efficacy of the NMDA-receptor antagonist memantine in patients with chronic phantom lumb pain - results of a randomized double-blinded, palcebo-controlled trial. Pain 2003; 103:277-283

6. Nikolajsen L, Gottrup H, Kristensen AG, Jensen TS: Memantine (a N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonist) in the treatment of neuropathic pain after amputation or surgery: a randomized, double-blinded, cross-over study. Anesth Analg 2000; 91:960-966

7. Sang CN, Booher S, Gilron I, Parada S, Max MB: Dextromethorphan and memantine in painful diabetic neuropathy and postherpetic neuralgia: efficacy and dose-response trials. Anesthesiology 2002; 96:1053-1061

8. Schifitto G, Yiannoutsos CT, Simpson DM, Marra CM, Singer EJ, Kolson DL, Nath A, Berger JR, Navia B; Adult AIDS Clinical Trials Group (ACTG) 301 team: A placebo-controlled study of memantine for the treatment of human immunodeficiency virus-associated sensory neuropathy. J Neurovirol 2006; 12:328-331

9. Wiech K, Kiefer RT, Töpfner S, Preissl H, Braun C, Unertl K, Flor H, Birbaumer N: A placebo-controlled randomized crossover trial of the N-methyl-D-aspartic acid receptor antagonist, memantine, in patients with chronic phantom limb pain. Anesth Analg 2004; 98:408-413

Other NMDA receptor antagonists

10. Wallace MS, Rowbotham MC, Katz NP, Dworkin RH, Dotson RM, Galer BS, Rauck RL, Backonja MM, Quessy SN, Meisner PD: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of a glycine antagonist in neuropathic pain. Neurology 2002; 59:1694-1700


1. Abraham RB, Marouani N, Kollender Y, Meller I, Weinbroum AA: Dextromethorphan for phantom pain attenuation in cancer amputees: a double-blind crossover trial involving three patients. Clin J Pain 2002; 18:282-285


1. Enarson MC, Hays H, Woodroffe MA: Clinical experience with oral ketamine. J Pain Symptom Manage 1999; 17:384-386

2. Fisher K, Hagen NA: Analgesic effect of oral ketamine in chronic neuropathic pain of spinal origin: a case report. J Pain Symptom Manage 1999; 18:61-66

3. Haines DR, Gaines SP: N of 1 randomized controlled trials of oral ketamine in patients with chronic pain. Pain 1999; 83:283-287

4. Hoffmann V, Coppejans H, Vercauteren M, Adriaensen H: Successful treatment of postherpetic neuralgia with oral ketamine. Clin J Pain 1994; 10:240-242

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5. Nikolajsen L, Hansen PO, Jensen TS: Oral ketamine therapy in the treatment of postamputation stump pain. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1997; 41:427-429

6. Vick PG, Lamer TJ: Treatment of central post stroke pain with oral ketamine. Pain 2001; 92:311-313

NSAIDS (including tylenol [acetaminophen])


1. Berry H, Bloom B, Hamilton EB, Swinson DR: Naproxen sodium, diflunisal, and placebo in the treatment of chronic back pain. Ann Rheum Dis 1982; 41:129-132

2. Birbara CA, Puopolo AD, Munoz DR, Sheldon EA, Mangione A, Bohidar NR, Geba GP: Treatment of chronic low back pain with etoricoxib, a new cyclo-oxygenase-2 selective inhibitor: improvement in pain and disability - a randomized, placebo-controlled, 3-month trial. J Pain 2003; 4:307-315

3. Coats TL, Borenstein DG, Nangia NK, Brown MT: Effects of valdecoxib in the treatment of chronic low back pain: results of a randomized, place-controlled trial. Clin Ther 2004; 26:1249-1260

4. Katz N, Ju WD, Krupa DA, Sperling RS, Rodgers DB, Gertz BJ, Gimbel J, Coleman S, Fisher C, Nabizadeh S, Borenstein D: Efficacy and safety of rofecoxib in patients with chronic low back pain: results from two 4-week, randomized, placebo-controlled, parallel-group, double-blind trials. Spine 2003; 28:851-858


1. Chrubasik S, Model A, Black A, Pollak S: A randomized double-blind pilot study comparing Doloteffin and Vioxx in the treatment of low back pain. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2003; 42:141-148

2. Driessens M, Famacy JP, Orloff S, Chochrad I, Cleppe D, De Brabanter G, Ginsberg F, Mindlin A, Soenen M: Efficacy and tolerability of sustained-release ibuprofen in the treatment of patients with chronic back pain. Curr Ther Res Clin Exp 1994; 55:1283-1292

3. Hickey RF: Chronic low back pain: a comparison of diflunisal with paracetamol. N Z Med J 1982; May:312-314

4. Schenker H, Michos N, Hobel W: Double-dummy comparison of suprofen and indometacin sustained release formulations. Arzneimittel-Forschung 1986; 36:955-959

5. Singer EJ, Dionne RA: A controlled evaluation of ibuprofen and diazepam for chronic orofacial muscle pain. J Orofac Pain 1997; 11:139-146

6. Videman T, Osterman K: Double-blind parallel study of piroxicam versus indomethacin in the treatment of low back pain. Ann Clin Res 1984; 16:156-160

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Opioid therapy (e.g., oral, transdermal, transmucosal, internasal, sublingual)


Controlled-release morphine, codeine, oxymorphone, or oxycodone

1. Arkinstall W, Sandler A, Goughnour B, Babul N, Harsanyi Z, Darke AC: Efficacy of controlled-release codeine in chronic non-malignant pain: a randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Pain 1995; 62:169-178

2. Gilron I, Bailey JM, Tu D, Holden RR, Weaver DR, Houlden RL: Morphine, gabapentin, or their combination for neuropathic pain. N Engl J Med 2005; 352:1324-1334

3. Hale ME, Dvergsten C, Gimbel J: Efficacy and safety of oxymorphone extended release in chronic low back pain: results of a randomized, double-blind, placebo- and active-controlled phase III study. J Pain 2005; 6:21-28

4. Maier C, Hildebrandt J, Klinger R, Henrich-Eberl C, Lindena G: Morphine responsiveness, efficacy and tolerability in patients with chronic non-tumor associated pain - results of a double-blind placebo-controlled trial (MONTAS). Pain 2002; 97:223-233

5. Moulin DE, Iezzi A, Amireh R, Sharpe WK, Boyd D, Merskey H: Randomised trial of oral morphine for chronic non-cancer pain. Lancet 1996; 347:143-147

6. Raja SN, Haythornthwaite JA, Papagallo M, Clark MR, Travison TG, Sabeen S, Royall RM, Max MB: Opioids versus antidepressants in postherpetic neuralgia: A randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Neurology 2002; 59:1015-1021

7. Richards P, Zhang P, Friedman M, Dhanda R: Controlled-release oxycodone relieves moderate to severe pain in a 3-month study of persistent moderate to severe back pain. Pain Med 2002; 3:176

8. Watson CP, Babul N: Efficacy of oxycodone in neuropathic pain: a randomized trial in postherpetic neuralgia. Neurology 1998; 50:1837-1841

9. Watson CP, Moulin D, Watt-Watson J, Gordon A, Eisenhoffer J: Controlled-release oxycodone relieves neuropathic pain: a randomized controlled trial in painful diabetic neuropathy. Pain 2003; 105:71-78

Tramadol

10. Harati Y, Gooch C, Swenson M, Edelman S, Greene D, Raskin P, Donofrio P, Cornblath D, Sachdeo R, Siu CO, Kamin M: Double-blind randomized trail of tramadol for the treatment of the pain of diabetic neuropathy. Neurology 1998; 50:1842-1846

11. Schnitzer TJ, Gray WL, Paster RZ, Kamin M: Efficacy of tramadol in treatment of chronic low back pain. J Rheumatol 2000; 27:772-778

12. Sindrup SH, Anderson G, Madsen C, Smith T, Brasen K, Jensen TS: Tramadol relieves pain and allodynia in polyneuropathy: a randomized, double-blind controlled trial. Pain 1999; 83:85-90


1. Haythornthwaite JA, Menefee LA, Quantrano-Piacentini AL, Pappagallo M: Outcome of chronic opioid therapy for non-cancer pain. J Pain Symptom Manage 1998; 15:185-194

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2. Jamison RN, Anderson KO, Peeters Asdourian C, Ferrante FM: Survey of opioid use in chronic nonmalignant pain patients. Reg Anesth 1994; 19:225-230

3. Tassain V, Attal N, Fletcher D, Brasseur L, Degieux P, Chauvin M, Bouhassira: Long term effects of oral sustained release morphine on neuropsychological performance in patients with chronic non-cancer pain. Pain 2003; 104:389-400.


1. Allan L, Hays H, Jensen NH, de Waroux BL, Bolt M, Donald R, Kalso E: Randomised crossover trial of transdermal fentanyl and sustained release oral morphine for treating chronic non-cancer pain. Br Med J 2001; 322:1154-1158

2. Allan L, Richarz U, Simpson K, Slappendel R: Transdermal fentanyl versus sustained release oral morphine in strong-opioid naive patients with chronic low back pain. Spine 2005; 30:2484-2490

3. Altier N, Dion D, Boulanger A, Choinière M: Successful use of methadone in the treatment of chronic neuropathic pain arising from burn injuries: a case-study. Burns 2001; 27:771-775

4. Brodner RA, Taub A: Chronic pain exacerbated by long-term narcotic use in patients with nonmalignant disease: clinical syndrome and treatment. Mount Sinai J Med 1978; 45:233-237

5. Chu LF, Clark DJ, Angst MS: Opioid tolerance and hyperalgesia in chronic pain patients after one month of oral morphine therapy: A preliminary prospective study. J Pain 2006; 7:43-48

6. Cowan DT, Wilson-Barnett J, Griffiths P, Allan LG: A survey of chronic noncancer pain patients prescribed opioid analgesics. Pain Med 2003; 4:340-351

7. Galer BS, Lee D, Ma T, Nagle B, Schlagheck TG: MorphiDex (morphine sulfate/dextromethorphan hydrobromide combination) in the treatment of chronic pain: three multicenter, randomized, double-blind, controlled clinical trials fail to demonstrate enhanced opioid analgesia or reduction in tolerance. Pain 2005; 115:284-295

8. Gammaitoni AR, Galer BS, Lacouture P, Domingos J, Schlagheck T: Effectiveness and safety of new oxycodone/acetaminophen formulations with reduced acetaminophen for the treatment of low back pain. Pain Med 2003; 4:21-30

9. Hale ME, Fleischmann R, Salzman R, Wild J, Iwan T, Swanton RE, Kaiko RF, Lacouture PG: Efficacy and safety of controlled-release versus immediate-release oxycodone: randomized double-blind evaluation in patients with chronic back pain. Clin J Pain 1999; 15:179-183

10. Jamison RN, Raymond SA, Slawsby EA, Nedeljkovic SS, Katz NP: Opioid therapy for chronic noncancer back pain. A randomized prospective study. Spine 1998; 23:2591-2600

11. Jamison RN, Schein JR, Vallow S, Ascher S, Vorsanger GJ, Katz NP: Neuropsychological effects of long-term opioid use in chronic pain patients. J Pain Symptom Manage 2003; 26:913-921

12. Katz NP, Sherburne S, Beach M, Rose RJ, Vielguth J, Bradley J, Fanciullo GJ: Behavioral monitoring and urine toxicology testing in patients receiving long-term opioid therapy. Anesth Analg 2003; 97:1097-1102

13. Librach SL: Managing chronic pain in family practice. Can Fam Physician 1993; 39:539-544

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14. Lorenz J, Beck H, Bromm B: Cognitive performance, mood and experimental pain before and during morphine-induced analgesia in patients with chronic non-malignant pain. Pain 1997; 73:369-375

15. Nasar MA, McLeavy MA, Knox J: An open study of sub-lingual buprenorphine in the treatment of chronic pain in the elderly. Cur Med Res Opin 1986; 10:251-255

16. Peloso PM, Fortin L, Beaulieu A, Kamin M, Rosenthal N: Analgesic efficacy and safety of tramadol/ acetaminophen combination tablets (Ultracet) in treatment of chronic low back pain: a multicenter, outpatient, randomized, double blind, placebo controlled trial. J Rheumatol 2004; 31:2454-2463

17. Portenoy RK, Yang K, Thorton D: Chronic intractable pain: an atypical presentation of multiple sclerosis. J Neurol 1988; 235:226-228

18. Rangel Guerra R: An open evaluation of oral butorphanol as long-term therapy in out-patients suffering from moderate to severe chronic pain. J Int Med Res 1981; 9:120-123

19. Ringe JD, Faber H, Bock O, Valentine S, Felsenberg D, Pfeifer M, Minne HW, Schwalen S: Transdermal fentanyl for the treatment of back pain caused by vertebral osteoporosis. Rheumatol Int 2002; 22:199-203

20. Rowbotham MC, Twilling L, Davies PS, Reisner L, Taylor K, Mohr D: Oral opioid therapy for chronic peripheral and central neuropathic pain. N Engl J Med 2003; 348:1223-1232

21. Schofferman J: Long-term opioid analgesic therapy for severe refractory lumbar spine pain. Clin J Pain 1999; 15:136-140

22. Simpson RK Jr, Edmondson EA, Constant CF, Collier C: Transdermal fentanyl as treatment for chronic low back pain. J Pain Symptom Manage 1997; 14:218-224

23. Zenz M, Strumpf M, Tryba M: Long-term oral opioid tharapy in patients with chronic nonmalignant pain. J Pain Sympt Mgmt 1992; 7:69-77

Topical agents (e.g., capsaicin, lidocaine, ketamine, ketoprofen)


Amitriptyline

1. Lynch ME, Clark AJ, Sawynok J, Sullivan MJ: Topical 2% amitriptyline and 1% ketamine in neuropathic pain syndromes: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Anesthesiology 2005; 103:140-146

Capsaicin

2. Bernstein JE, Korman NJ, Bickers DR, Dahl MV, Millikan LE: Topical capsaicin treatment of chronic postherpetic neuralgia. J Am Acad Dermatol 1989; 21:265-270

3. Low PA, Opfer-Gehrking TL, Dyck PJ, Litchy WJ, O'Brien PC: Double-blind, palcebo-controlled study of the applcation of capsaicin cream in chronic distal painful polyneuropathy. Pain 1995; 62:163-168

4. McCleane G: Topical application of doxepin hydrochloride, capsaicin and a combination of both produces analgesia in chronic human neuropathic pain: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2000; 49:574-579

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5. Paice JA, Ferrans CE, Lashley FR, Shott S, Vizgirda V, Pitrak D: Topical capsaicin in the management of HIV-associated peripheral neuropathy. J Pain Symptom Manage 2000; 19:45-52

6. Watson CP, Tyler KL Bickers Dr, Millikan LE, Smith S, Coleman E: A randomized vehicle-controlled trial of topical capsaicin in the treatment of postherpetic neuralgia. Clin Ther 1993; 15:510-526

Clonidine

7. Byas-Smith MG, Max MB, Muir J, Kingman A: Transdermal clonidine compared to placebo in painful diabetic neuropathy using a two-stage 'enriched enrollmet' design. Pain 1995; 60:267-274

Ketamine

8. Lynch ME, Clark AJ, Sawynok J: A pilot study examining topical amitriptyline, ketamine, and a combination of both in the treatment of neuropathic pain. Clin J Pain 2003; 19:323-328

9. Lynch ME, Clark AJ, Sawynok J, Sullivan MJ: Topical 2% amitriptyline and 1% ketamine in neuropathic pain syndromes: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Anesthesiology 2005; 103:140-146

Lidocaine

10. Galer BS, Rowbotham MC, Perander J, Friedman E: Topical lidocaine patch relieves postherpetic neuralgia more effectively than a vehicle topical patch: Results of an enriched enrollement study. Pain 1999; 80:533-538

11. Galer BS, Jensen MP, Ma T, Davies PS, Rowbotham MC: The lidocaine patch 5% effectively treats all neuropathic pain qualities: results of a randomized double-blind vehicle-controlled, 3-week efficacy study with use of the neuropathic pain scale. Clin J Pain 2002; 18:297-301

12. Meier T, Wasner G, Faust M, Kuntzer T, Ochsner F, Hueppe M, Boguosslavsky J, Baron R: Efficacy of lidocaine patch 5% in the treatment of focal neuropathic pain syndromes: A randomized double-blind placebo-controlled study. Pain 2003; 106:151-158

13. Rowbotham MC, Davies PS, Verkempinck C, Galer BS: Lidocaine patch: double-blind controlled study of anew treatment for postherpetic neuralgia. Pain 1996; 65:39-44


1. Attal N, Brasseur L, Chauvin M, Bouhassira D: Effects of single and repeated applcations of a eutectic mixture of local anesthetics (EMLA) cream on spontaneous and evoked pain in post-herpetic neuralgia. Pain 1999; 81:203-209

2. Barbano RL, Herrmann DN, Hart-Gouleau S, Pennella-Vaughan J, Lodewick PA, Dworkin RH: Effectivess, tolerability, and impact on quality of life of the 5% lidocaine patch in diabetic polyneuropathy. Arch Neurol 2004; 61:914-918

3. Davis KD, Treede RD, Raja SN, Meyer RA, Campbell JN: Topical application of clonidine relieves hyperalgesia in patients with sympathetically maintained pain. Pain 1991; 47:3009-317

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4. Gammaitoni A, Gallagher RM, Welz-Bosna M: Topical ketamine gel: possible role in treating neuropathic pain. Pain Med 2000; 1:97-100

5. Katz NP, Gammaitoni AR, Davis MW, Dworkin RH: Lidocaine patch 5% reduces pain intensity and interference with quality of life in patients with postherpetic neuralgia: an effectiveness trial. Pain Med 2002; 3:324-332

6. Lynch ME, Clark AJ, Sawynok J, Sullivan MJ: Topical amitriptyline and ketamine in neuropathic pain syndromes: an open-label study. J Pain 2005; 6:644-649

7. Mathias B, Dillingham T, Zeigler D, Chang A, Belandres P: Topical capsaicin for chronic neck pain. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 1995; 74:39-44

8. McCleane G: Topical application of doxepin hydrochloride can reduce the symptoms of complex regional pain syndrome: a case report. Injury 2002; 33:88-89

9. Robbins WR, Staats PS, Levine J, Fields HL, Allen RW, Campbell JN, Pappagallo M: Treatment of intractable pain with topical large-dose capsaicin: preliminary report. Anesth Analg 1998; 86:579-583

10. Ushida T, Tani T, Kanbara T, Zinchuk VS, Kawasaki M, Yamamoto H: Analgesic effects of ketamine ointment in patients with complex regional pain syndome type 1. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2002; 27:524-528

Physical/restorative therapy:


1. Aure OF, Nilsen JH, Vasseljen O: Manual therapy and exercise therapy in patients with chronic low back pain: a randomized, controlled trial with 1-year follow-up. Spine 2003; 28:525-531

2. Frost H, Klaber Moffett JA, Moser JS, Fairbank JC: Randomized controlled trial for evaluation of fitness programme for patients with chronic low back pain. BMJ 1995; 310:151-154

3. Frost H, Lamb SE, Doll HA, Carver PT, Stewart-Brown S: Randomized controlled trial of physiotherapy compared with advice for low back pain. BMJ 2004; 329:708

4. Hansen FK, Bendix T, Skov P, Jensen CV, Kristensen JH, Krohn L, Schoieler H: Intensive, dynamic back-muscle exercises, conventional physiotherapy, or placebo-control treatment of low back pain. Spine 1993; 18:98-106

5. Harkapaa K, Jarvikoski A, Mellin G, Hurri H: A controlled study of the outcome of inpatient and outpatient treatment of low back pain. Scand J Rehab Med 1989; 21:81-89

6. Kankaanpaa M, Taimela S, Airaksinen O, Hanninen O: The efficacy of active rehabilitation in chronic low back pain: Effect on pain intensity, self-experienced disability, and lumbar fatigability. Spine 1999; 24:1034-1042

7. Klaber-Moffett J, Torgerson D, Bell-Syer S: Randomised controlled trial of exercise for low back pain: clinical outcomes, costs and preferences. Br Med J 1999; 319:279-283

8. Maul I, Laubli T, Oliveri M, Krueger H: Long-term effects of supervised physical training in secondary prevention of low back pain. Eur Spine J 2005; 14:599-611

9. Mitchell RI, Carmen GM: The functional restoration approach to the treatment of chronic pain in patients with soft tissue and back injuries. Spine 1994; 19:633-642

10. Soukup MG, Glomsrod B, Lonn JH, Larsen S: The effect of a Mensendieck exercise program as secondary prophylaxis for recurrent low back pain. A randomized, controlled trial with 12-month follow-up. Spine 1999; 24:1585-1591

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11. Staal JB, Hlobil H, Twisk JW, Smid T, Koke AJ, van Mechelen W: Graded activity for low back pain in occupational health care: a randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 2004; 140:77-84

12. Weber H: Lumbar disc herniation. A controlled, prospective study with ten years of observation. Spine 1983; 8:131-140


1. Bendix T, Bendix A, Labriola M, Haestrup C, Ebbehoj H: Functional restoration versus outpatient physical training in chronic low back pain: a randomized comparative study. Spine 2000; 25:2494-2500

2. Bentsen H, Lindgarde F, Manthorpe R: The effect of dynamic strength back exercise and/or a home training program in a 57-year-old with chronic low back pain. Results of a prospective randomized study with a 3-year follow-up period. Spine 1997; 22:1494-1500

3. Cherkin DC, Deyo RA, Battie M, Street J, Barlow W: A comparison of physical therapy, chiropractic manipulation, and provision of an educational booklet for the treatment of patients with low back pain. N Engl J Med 1998; 339:1021-1029

4. Elnaggar R, Nordin M, Sheiknzaden A, Parnianpour M, Kahanovitz N: Effects of spinal flexion and extension exercises on low back pain and spinal mobility in chronic mechanical low back pain patients. Spine 1991; 16:967-971

5. Friedrich M, Gittler G, Arendasy M, Friedrich KM: Long-term effect of a combined exercise and motivational program on the level of disability of patients with chronic low back pain. Spine 2005; 30:995-1000

6. Ginn KA, Cohen ML: Exercise therapy for shoulder pain aimed at restoring neuromuscular control: a randomized comparative clinical trial. J Rehabil Med 2005; 37:115-122

7. Glomsrod B, Lonn JH, Soukup MG, Bo K, Larsen S: "Active back school", prophylactic management for low back pain: three-year follow-up of a randomized, controlled trial. J Rehabil Med 2001; 33:26-30

8. Hemmila HM, Keinanen-Kiukaanniemi SM, Levoska S, Puska P: Long-term effectiveness of bone-setting, light exercise therapy, and physiotherapy for prolonged back pain: a randomized controlled trial. J Manipulative & Physiol Ther 2002; 25:99-104

9. Huge V, Scholderer U, Steinberger M, Wuenschmann B, Schops P, Beyer A, Azad SC: Impact of a functional restoration program on pain and health-related quality of life in patients with chronic low back pain. Pain Med 2006; 7:501-508

10. Jousset N, Fanello S, Bontoux L, Dubus V, Billabert C, Vielle B, Roquelaure Y, Penneau-Fontbonne D, Isabelle R: Effects of functional restoration versus 3 hours per week physical therapy: a randomized controlled study. Spine 2004; 29:487-493

11. Manniche C, Lundberg E, Christensen I, Bentzen L, Hesselsoe G: Intensive dynamic back exercises for chronic low back pain: a clinical trial. Pain 1991; 47:56-63

12. Mannion AF, Muntener M, Taimela S, Dvorak J: Comparison of three active therapies for chronic low back pain: results of a randomized clinical trial with one year follow-up. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2001; 40:772-778

13. Nelson BW, O'Reilly E, Miller M, Hogan M, Wegner JA, Kelly C: The clinical effects of intensive, specific exercise on chronic low back pain: A controlled study of 895 consecutive patients with 1-year follow up. Orthopedics 1995; 18:971-981

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14. Petersen T, Kryger P, Ekdahl C, Olsen S, Jacobsen S: The effect of McKenzie therapy as compared with that of intensive strengthening training for the treatment of patients with subacute or chronic low back pain: a randomized controlled trial. Spine 2002; 27:1702-1709

15. Terman GW, Loeser JD: A case of opiate-insensitive pain: malignant treatment of benign pain. Clin J Pain 1992; 8:255-259

16. Torstensen TA, Ljunggren AE, Meen HD, Odland E, Mowinckel P, Geijerstam S: Efficiency and costs of medical exercise therapy, conventional physiotherapy, and self-exercise in patients with chronic low back pain. A pragmatic, randomized, single-blinded, controlled trial with 1-year follow-up. Spine 1998; 23:2616-2624

Psychological treatment/counseling:

Cognitive behavioral therapy, biofeedback/relaxation training


1. Basler HD, Jakle C, Kroner-Herwig B: Incorporation of cognitive-behavioral treatment into the medical care of chronic low back patients: A controlled randomized study in German pain treatment centers. Patient Education and Counseling 1997; 31:113-124

2. Frost H, Lamb SE, Klaber Moffett JA, Moffett JA, Fairbank JC, Moser JS: A fitness programme for patients with chronic low back pain: 2-year follow-up of a randomized controlled trial. Pain 1998; 75:273-279

3. Klaber-Moffett J, Torgerson D, Bell-Syer S: Randomised controlled trial of exercise for low back pain: clinical outcomes, costs and preferences. Br Med J 1999; 319:279-283

4. Linton SJ, Goetestam KG: A controlled study of the effects of applied relaxation and applied relaxation plus operant procedures in the regulation of chronic pain. Br J Clin Psychol 1984; 23:291-299

5. Thieme K, Gromnica-Ikle E, Flor H: Operant behavioual treatment of fibromyalgia: a controlled study. Arthritis Rheum 2003; 49:314-320

6. Turner JA: Comparison of group progressive-relaxation training and cognitive-behavioral group therapy for chronic low back pain. J Consult Clin Psychol 1982; 50:757-765

7. Turner J, Clancy S, McQuade K, Cardenas D: Effectiveness of behavioural therapy for chronic low back pain: a component analysis. J Consult Clin Psychol 1990; 58:573-579

8. Turner JA, Jensen MP: Efficacy of cognitive therapy for chronic low back pain. Pain 1993; 52:169-177

9. Williams DA, Cary MA, Groner KH, Chaplin W, Glazer LJ, Rodriguez AM, Clauw DJ: Improving physical functional status in patients with fibromyalgia: a brief cognitive behavioral intervention. J Rheumatol 2002; 29:1280-1286


1. Geiger G, Todd DD, Clark HB, Miller RP, Kori SH: The effects of feedback and contingent reinforcement on the exercise behavior of chronic pain patients. Pain 1992; 49:179-185

2. Kerns RD, Turk DC, Holzman AD, Rudy TE: Comparison of cognitive-behavioral and behavioral approaches to the outpatient treatment of chronic pain. Clin J Pain 1986; 195-203

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3. Peters J, Large RG, Elkind G: Follow-up results from a randomised controlled trial evaluating in- and outpatient pain management programmes. Pain 1992; 50:41-50

4. Philips HC: Changing chronic pain experience. Pain 1988; 32:165-1725. Subramanian K, Sheldon DR: Social work and the treatment of chronic pain. Health Soc

Work, 1988; 13:49-60


1. Anderson TP, Cole TM, Gullickson G, Hudgens A, Roberts AH: Behavior modification of chronic pain: a treatment program by a multidisciplinary team. Clin Ortho Related Research 1977; 129:96-100

2. Bryant RA: Memory for pain and affect in chronic pain patients. Pain 1993; 54:347-3513. Caudill M, Schnable R, Zuttermeister P, Benson H, Friedman R: Decreased clinic use by

chronic pain patients: response to behavioral medicine intervention. Clin J Pain 1991; 7:305-310

4. Fordyce WE, Fowler RS, Lehmann JF, DeLateur BJ, Sand PL, Trieschmann RB: Operant conditioning in the treatment of chronic pain. Arch Phys Med 1973; 54:399-406

5. Gottlieb H, Alperson BL, Schwartz AH, Beck C, Kee S: Self-management for medication reduction in chronic low back pain. Arch Phy Med Rehab 1988; 69:442-448

6. Gottlieb H, Strite LC, Koller R, Madorsky A, Hockersmith V, Kleeman M, Wagner J: Comprehensive rehabilitation of patients having chronic low back pain. Arch Phys Med Rehab 1977; 58:101-108

7. Linssen ACG, Zitman FG: Patient evaluation of a cognitive behavioral group program for patients with chronic low back pain Soc Sci Med 1984; 19:1361-1365

8. McArthur D, Cohen MJ, Gottlieb HJ, Naliboff BD, Schandler SL: Treating chronic back pain. II. long-term follow-up. Pain 1987; 29:23-38

9. Moseley GL: Graded motor imagery for pathologic pain: a randomized controlled trial. Neurology 2006; 67:2129-2134

10. Roberts AH, Sternbach RA, Polich J: Behavioral management of chronic pain and excess disability: long-term follow-up of an outpatient program. Clin J Pain 1993; 9:41-48

11. Skultety FM, Meilman PW, Guck TP, Berman BM: Results of treatment of chronic pain at a multidisciplinary pain center. Nebraska Med J 1986; 71:93-97

12. Williams AC, Nicholas MK, Richardson PH, Pither CE, Justins DM, Chamberlain JH, Harding: Evaluation of a cognitive behavioural programme for rehabilitating patients with chronic pain. Br J Gen Pract 1993; 43:513-518

Supportive psychotherapy, group therapy


1. Fildes PG: An approach to the management of chronic pain. Australian Family Physician 1989; 18:1493-1496

2. Gainer MJ: Somatization of dissociated traumatic memories in a case of reflex sympathetic dystrophy. Am J Clin Hypnosis 1993; 36:124-131

3. Gottlieb H, Alperson BL, Schwartz AH, Beck C, Kee S: Self-management for medication reduction in chronic low back pain. Arch Phy Med Rehab 1988; 69:442-448

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Trigger point injections


1. Cheshire WP, Abashian SW, Mann JD: Botulinum toxin in the treatment of myofascial pain syndrome. Pain 1994; 59:65-69

2. Ferrante FM, Bearn L, Rothrock R, King L: Evidence against trigger point injection techniques for the treatment of cervicothoracic myofascial pain with botulinum toxin type A. Anesthesiology 2005; 103:377-383

3. Frost FA, Jessen R, Siggaard-Anderson J: A controlled, double-blind comparison of mepivacaine injection versus saline injection for myofascial pain. Lancet 1980; 1:499-500

4. Garvey TA, Marks MR, Wiesel SW: A prospective, randomised, double-blind evaluation of trigger-point injection therapy for low-back pain. Spine 1989; 14:962-964

5. Graboski CL, Gray DS, Burnham RS: Botulinum toxin A versus bupivacaine trigger point injections for the treatment of myofascial pain syndrome: a randomized double blind crossover study. Pain 2005; 118:170-175

6. Wheeler AH, Goolkasian P, Gretz SS: A randomized, couble-blind, prospective pilot study of botulinum toxin injection for refractory, unilateral, cervicothoracic, paraspinal, myofascial pain syndrome. Spine 1998; 23:1662-1667

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Documents

1: Kozarovich LH - Lippincott Williams & Wilkinsdownload.lww.com/wolterskluwer_vitalstream_com/PermaLink/... · Web viewRichardson IH, Richardson PH, Williams AC, Featherstone J,