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L2: Structures 2: Observational laws and proper theories. SSC: S2 (9-12), S12 (40)
• Nagel: intuitive distinction: +/- theoretical terms• Dynamic factor for explanatory programs and
between descriptive and explanatory programs• However: no theory-free/-neutral observation terms• Hence, explication to be based on a theory-relative
explication of theoretical and observation terms• Ex. the ideal gas law: first/second face
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Theory-relative explication
proper theory: terms laden with theory itselfobservational laws: improper theories
• epistemological distinction/stratification• byproducts:
– the hierarchy of knowledge and the long-term dynamics
– disentanglement “theory-ladenness of observations”:example: the periodic table of the chemical elements
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Fragment from the hierarchy ofknowledge
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Classification of observations in relation to theory X
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Ontological stratification
• Two essentially independent distinctions that frequently go together
• ontological: two (or more) kinds of entities, one kind being components of the other
• micro-level and macro-level• principles that only concern the micro-entities:
micro- or internal principles, • principles that connect: bridge principles• atomic theory: both stratifications
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Non-empirical theories• metaphysical theories are supposed to make claims about
reality without assuming any particular conceptualization or, equivalently, they make claims generalizing over conceivable conceptualizations of reality
• mathematical and logical theories deal with defined abstract objects, i.e., mental constructs, e.g., group theory
• conceptual theories concern ways of looking (perspectives) at a certain domain,
• normative theories deal with what is (supposed to be) ethically, legally, aesthetically (in)admissible
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The structuralist approach to (empirical) theories
Ex: the slide balance
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The naïve theory
------> contains <P,Pl,d,w> iff
1) P is a finite set (particles) and Pl a subset of P (particles left of S)2) d: P IR+ (d(p): distance p S)
SBp 3) w: P IR+ (w(p): weight of p) 4) the law of the balance
SB pPl d(p).w(p) = pP Pl d(p).w(p)
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Naïve claims
SBp SB empirical content:: non-empty
E SBp conceptual claim: the intended domain of
applications D can be represented as potential models, the naïve intended applications
E SB naive weak empirical claim the intended applications are equilibrium models
E=SB naive strong empirical claim
SBp
SB
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The refined theory <SBp,SBpp,SB, ,D,E>
------> contains <P,Pl,d,w> iff ---> contains <P,Pl,d>= <P,Pl,d,w> iff
1) P is a finite set (particles) and Pl a subset of P (particles of S)
SBpp 2) d: P IR+ (d(p): distance p S) SBp 3) w: P IR+ (w(p): weight of p)
4) the law of the balance
SB pPl d(p).w(p) = pP Pl d(p).w(p)
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Refined claims
SBpp SB empirical content without w-constraint empty, with w-constraint non-empty
E SBpp conceptual claim: the intended domain of
applications D can be represented as potential partial models, the refined intended applications
E SB weak empirical claim the intended applications can be extended to models
E= SB strong empirical claim
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<Mp, Mpp, M, , D, I> is an epistemologically stratified theory iff
Mp: potential models: a set of structures of a certain typeMpp: potential partial models: the substructures of Mp restricted to
non-theoretical componentsM models: the potential models (M Mp) satisfying all axioms : Mp Mpp: the projection function (from Mp onto Mpp)
X={ (x)/xX}, for XMp, hence X Mpp M: projected modelsMpp M: empirical contentD: intended domain of applicationsI Mpp: intended applications (non-theoretical):
conceptual claim: non-theoretical representation of D leads to the subset I of Mpp
I M: empirical claim (strong claim: I = M)
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Refined empirical claim: shaded area empty
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Mpp (potential partial models): NAMp (potential models): NA + TAMpart (partial models): NA + NSM (models): NA + TA + NS + TS
Decomposition of axioms by controversial distinction(s)
A/S: analytic / substantive axioms
N/T: non-theoretical / theoretical
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Absolute and relative empirical content
Mpp M: (absolute) empirical content AEC
Mpp Mpart: partial empirical content PEC
Mpart M: relative empirical content REC
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The set of intended applications I, and its determination
• “I is D seen through Mpp”• Determination of D, Mpp (hence I), Mp, M is a
‘dialectical process’• If Mpp is supposed to be fixed, 3 ways for I
– empirical determination: if interested in all nomic Mpp-possibilities To (or a well-defined subset of it)
– auto-determination: I = To M– paradigmatic determination, see below
• Always: two sides:conceptually relative & objective
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Definition: I is paradigmatically determined if there
are PAR and SIM such that 0. To : set of nomic Mpp-possibilities1. I is a subset of To
the intended applications2. PAR is a finite subset of I
the paradigmatic examples3. SIM is a binary relation on Mpp
a similarity relation
4. for all x in I PAR there is y in PAR such that SIM(x,y)
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Mpp
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Constraints of and links between theoriesDefinition: C is a constraint on the set S iff
1) C is a set of subsets of S2) the union of the sets in C exhausts S (UC=S)3) if X is in C and Y is a subset of X then Y is in C (subset-preservation)
Links• specialization: subsets of D and/or M • theoretization: (new) theoretical components• reduction: reproduction of one theory in another
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A theory net
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Hiërarchie van epistemologische posities
Q0: onafhankelijke natuurwerkelijkheid? Nee ontologisch idealisme Ja: ontologisch realisme
Q1: ware claims mogelijk? Nee epistemologisch relativisme - ervarings-scepticisme
Ja: epistemologisch realisme - inductief scepticismeQ2: voorbij waarneembaar? Nee observational realisme
- instrumentalisme Ja: wetenschappelijk realisme - constructief empiricisme
Q3: voorbij referentie? Nee referentieel realisme entiteiten realisme
Ja: theorie-realismeQ4: ideale conceptualisering? Nee constructief realisme
Ja: essentialistisch realisme
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Vier perspectieven voor theorie-realisme
ModusFocus
actueel nomisch
waarheids-waarde
standaard/traditioneel
Giere
waarheids-benadering
Peirce/Niiniluoto
Popper
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Soorten actuele en nomische waarheidsbenadering
• PM: het beste afleidingsinstrument: instrumentalist• observationeel: constructive empiricist• referentieel: referentieel realist• theoretisch: constructief realist• essentialistisch: essentialistisch realist
PM: “de waarheid”: de sterkste ware theorie over een gegeven domein in een gegeven vocabulair
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Conclusies ICRvooruitblik: How to approach the truth?
• goede redenen voor overstap:instrumentalist 1 constructief empiricist 2 referentieel realist 3 constructief realist, maar niet voor 4 essentialist
• 1,2 3 tbv lange termijn dynamiek: theorieën als waar accepteren levert nieuwe observatietermen
• instrumentalistische methode efficiënter voor waarheids-benadering dan falsificationistische methode
• hiërarchie van heuristische posities, geen dogma– everything goes sometimes– reculer pour mieux sauter