1 low Humans Evolved

Robert HowlI O I I I B Silk

UNIVERS1. i 1 \ . .UK I. .1 I \ N v | I

Technische Unive-^itdt DarmstadtFACHDCRLICH 10 — BIOLOGIE

— B i !. I i o t h p k -_ScLninspilinstiafiG 10

D-6 4 2 8 7 D a r m s t a d t

inv.-Nr.

\\ \\ Nmtoii «.\ ( ompiny\ oik London

Conlcnls

1'iolo.u \,\ | i \ SUMl\ llunii'i I liiimn*

Part One: How Evolution Works

Chapter 1: AdaptatiorubyjNatinal Selection I

Explaining- Adaptation beton. Dai win IDarwin's ^Theory of Adaptation 4

N* V ̂ Darwiii'-s Postulates Sfffil^y- An Examplev'of Adaptation In Natural Seleition,";;4.'"4 Individual Selection 14

"/T-^/Fhe, Evolution of Complex Ad.ipt.itions 16<1 "}-'Why Small Variations -\ic Important U>

«-; Why IntermediijeJ^leps Aie f-.ivored In S(.leitionRates of Eyolutionary^iiaiii;!. 211 )aiv\ ID'S I )itfkulties Expl.imuiii Vatiation !(•>

IS

Chapter 2: Cienetus 29

Mcndfli.in ; ^Cell Division and the"Role ol Chromosomes m Inheiiunc i-

Mitosis and-,Meiosis V3Chromosomes and'Mendel's r\pennionral Results 35Linkage and Recombiiution 40

Molecular Genetics 4f>.. Genes Are DNA 4~

The Chemical Basis., of Life <̂'DMA Codes for Protein ^2Not All DNA C lodes loi Proteins SS

C O N T E N T S

Chapter 3: The Modern Synthesis 63

Population Genetics 63Genes in Populations 64How Random Mating and Sexual Reproduction Change

Genotypic Frequencies 65How Natural Selection Changes Gene Frequencies 70

The Modern Synthesis 72The Genetics of Continuous Variation 72How Variation Is Maintained 78

Natural Selection and Behavior 82Constraints on Adaptation 86

Correlated Characters 86Disequilibrium 89Genetic Drift 90Local versus Optimal Adaptations 95Other Constraints on Evolution 97

Chapter 4: Speciation and Phylogeny 103

What Are Species? 103The Biological Species Concept 105The Ecological Species Concept 107

The Origin of Species 109Allopatric Speciation 110Parapatric and Sympatric Speciation 113

The Tree of Life 121Why Reconstruct Phylogenies? 124How to Reconstruct Phylogenies 130

Problems Due to Convergence 131Problems Due to Ancestral Characters 132Reconstructing Phylogenies Using Genetic Distance

Data 136Taxonomy—Naming Names 141

Part Two: Primate Behavior and Ecology

Chapter 5: Introduction to the Primates 147

Two Reasons to Study the Primates 147Primates Are Our Closest Relatives 148Primates Are a Diverse Order 148

Features That Define the Primates 149Primate Biogeography 156A Taxonomy of Living Primates 157

The Prosimians 158The Anthropoids 164

Primate Conservation 174

C O N T E N T S

Chapter 6: Primate Ecology 179

The Distribution of Food 180Activity Patterns 193Ranging Behavior 195Predation 199

Chapter 7: Primate Mating Systems 203

The Language of Adaptive Explanations 205The Evolution of Reproductive Strategies 206Reproductive Strategies of Primate Females 209

Female Dominance Hierarchies 212Reproductive Tradeoffs 215

Primate Sociality 219Why Do Primates Live in Groups? 220How Big Should Groups Be? 225What Kinds of Groups Should Primates Form? 226

Sexual Selection and Male Mating Strategies 231Intrasexual Selection in Primates 234Intersexual Selection in Primates 236

Sexual Selection and Primate Behavior 239Monogamous Males 239One-Male, Multifemale Groups 241Multimale, Multifemale Groups 247

Chapter 8: The Evolution of Social Behavior 253

Kinds of Social Interactions 254Altruism: A Conundrum 255Kin Selection 258

Hamilton's Rule 260Evidence of Kin Selection in Primates 263

Reciprocal Altruism 271

Chapter 9: Primate Intelligence 281

What Is Intelligence? 281Why Are Primates So Smart? 283

Hypotheses Explaining Primate Intelligence 284Testing Models of the Evolution of Intelligence 286

The Value of Studying Primate Behavior 307

Part Three: The History of the Human Lineage

Chapter 10: From Tree Shrew to Ape 311

Continental Drift and Climate Change 314The Methods of Paleontology 317

C O N T E N T S

The Evolution of the Early Primates 319The First Anthropoids 324The Emergence of the Hominoids 334

Chapter 11: The Earliest Hominids 342

Australopithecus afarensis 343Morphology 346Bipedal Locomotion 347Other Features of A. afarensis 356When Is a Hominoid Also a Hominid? 357

Hominids before A. afarensis 359Australopithecines after A. afarensis 362

A. africanus 362Robust Australopithecines 365

Early Homo 373Traits Defining Early Homo 374How Many Species? 375Flaked Stone Tools 377

Hominid Phylogenies 386Before Discovery of WT 17000 386After Discovery of WT 17000 386

Chapter 12: The Lives of Early Hominids 392

From Ape to Human 393Early Hominid Environments 396Early Hominid Ecology—The Emergence of Meat Eating 397

Why Meat Eating Is Important 398Comparison with Hunting in Chimpanzees 399Seasonality and Meat Eating 401Archaeological Evidence in Early Hominids 403Hunters or Scavengers? 412

Early Hominid Social Organization 416Sexual Division of Labor 417Food Sharing 420Archaeological Evidence 421

Chapter 13: The Ancients 427

Homo erectus 428Acheulean Tools 435Homo erectus Peoples the World 437

j Cultural Adaptations of H. erectus 440Archaic Homo sapiens 448The Neanderthals and Their Contemporaries 450

Mousterian and Middle Stone Age Tools 456Neanderthal Lifeways 458

C O N T E N T S

Chapter 14: The Moderns 464

The Emergence of Anatomically Modern People 464The Upper Paleolithic—the Human Revolution 467

Technology and Culture 471Symbolic Behavior 474Subsistence and Social Organization 481

Models for the Origin and Spread of Anatomically ModernHumans 486

Evidence from Fossils and Tool Kits 488Genetic Data 491

Chapter 15: The Evolution of Language 500

Language Is an Adaptation 501Speech Production and Perception 503Grammar 506Language Capacities Are Derived 512

How Language Evolved 515When Language Evolved 519

Did Language Arise Early? 519Did Language Arise Late? 523

Part Four: Evolution and Modern Humans

Chapter 16: Human Genetic Diversity 531

Explaining Human Variation 531Variation in Traits Influenced by Single Genes 535

Causes of Genetic Variation within Groups 537Causes of Genetic Variation among Groups 541

Variation in Complex Phenotypic Traits 549Genetic Variation within Groups 550Genetic Variation among Groups 552

The Race Concept 556

Chapter 17: Evolution and the Human Life Cycle 571

Maternal-Fetal Conflict during Pregnancy 572Why There Is Parent-Offspring Conflict ; 572Spontaneous Abortion 574Blood Sugar 576Placental Blood Supply 577

The Evolution of Senescence 580Two Evolutionary Theories of Senescence 582Evidence for the Theories 586

The Evolution of Menopause 588

C O N T E N T S

Chapter 18: Evolution and Human Behavior 597

Why Evolution Is Relevant to Human Behavior 597Evolutionary Psychology 600

The Logic of Evolutionary Psychology 600Reasoning about Reciprocity 603

Evolutionary Psychology and Human Universals 607Color Terms 607Inbreeding Avoidance 613

Evolution and Human Culture 620Culture Is a Derived Trait in Humans 624Culture Is an Adaptation 630

Human Behavioral Ecology 634

Chapter 19: Human Mate Choice and Parenting 641

The Psychology of Human Mate Preferences 642Some Social Consequences of Mate Preferences 648

Kipsigis Bridewealth 648Nyinba Polyandry 650

Raising Children 653Child Abuse and Infanticide 654

Cross-Cultural Patterns of Infanticide 655Child Abuse in the United States and Canada 657

Adoption 658Adoption in Oceania 659Adoption in Industrialized Societies 661

Family Size 662Is Human Evolution Over? 667

Epilogue: There Is Grandeur in this View of Life . . . 673

Appendix The Skeletal Anatomy of Primates AlGlossary A3Credits A19Index A25