str

ON,rd W

Received 6 December 2007

Keywords:Pedagogical beliefsActivity structureAdultchild participationEarly childhood education

ur c

examine the link between underlying pedagogical beliefs andintentions, the choice and structure of the activities, and theinteractional roles of adults and children during one type ofactivity in nursery settings.

Keer, 2008; Isenberg, 1990).Research has been carried out to understand how practices in

preschool education are inuenced in part by the pedagogicalbeliefs of teachers. For example, links have been establishedbetween teachers beliefs about child development theory andpractice (Daniels & Shumow, 2003); developmentally appropriatepractice (Charlesworth, Hart, Burts, Mosley, & Fleege, 1993;McCarty, Abbott-Shim, & Lambert, 2001); literacy development(Lim & Torr, 2007; Miller & Smith, 2004); and childrens social

* Corresponding author. Tel.: 1 416 979 5000.

Contents lists availab

Teaching and Tea

.e

Teaching and Teacher Education 25 (2009) 11051116E-mail address: jblay@ryerson.ca (J.A. Blay).The study sought to explore relationships between peda-gogical beliefs and intentions, activity choice and structure, andthe nature of adultchild participation in the nursery froma sociocultural perspective. A series of observations were carriedout to analyse adultchild interactions whilst undertakingcooking activities in a naturalistic setting of three classrooms intwo state nursery schools in London, UK. The interactions werecategorised, and in conjunction with these interactions, thestructure of the activities was analysed. The teachers wereinterviewed to gain insight into their pedagogical beliefs andintentions for the activities. New ndings are presented that

The literature on pedagogical beliefs has established thatteachers perceptions and judgements are informed by their beliefs,which in turn, inuence their classroom behaviours and practices(Pajares, 1992). Understanding the association between teachersbeliefs and classroom practices has proved valuable in under-standing differences in classroom practice. In general, teachersdeliberate consideration of their theories and beliefs is an essentialcomponent of successful teaching and it is believed that a moreexpansive view of teaching to include teachers thinking and beliefshelps improve teacher education and practice (for example, seeDaniels & Shumow, 2003; Fang, 1996; Hermans, van Braak, & van1. Introduction0742-051X/$ see front matter Crown Copyright 2doi:10.1016/j.tate.2009.03.009recorded and transcribed, and a grounded theory approach was adopted to analyse the adultchildinteractions. Semi-structured interviews were undertaken with the adults which provided insight intotheir pedagogical beliefs and rationale for their teaching approaches. Analysis of the data revealsa dichotomy in the cooking activity choices made by the adults between baking recipes which requireda high level of adult control, and other cooking activities which required minimal adult intervention.Observations of the cooking activities demonstrate differences in the structure of the activities and thenature of adultchild participation. The interviews reveal how the teachers pedagogical beliefs andintentions informed their choice and structure of the cooking activities. This study provides an illus-tration of the relationship between the adults pedagogical beliefs, activity structure, and the interactionsbetween the adults and children in one type of activity in a nursery setting. The appropriateness of thedesign and feasibility of the observation method is also considered.

Crown Copyright 2009 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

2. Pedagogical beliefs and classroom practices3 February 2009Accepted 17 March 2009choice with a small group of children, as part of a normal nursery session. The activities were videoReceived in revised formbetween the adults pedagogical beliefs, the choice and structuring of activities, and the nature of adultchild participation. Four adults each planned and carried out separately, one cooking activity of theirPedagogical beliefs, activity choice andinteraction in nursery classrooms

Josepha A. Blay a,*, Judith Ireson b

a School of Early Childhood Education, Ryerson University, 350 Victoria Street, Toronto,b Faculty of Children and Health, Institute of Education, University of London, 20 Bedfo

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:

a b s t r a c t

A qualitative analysis of fo

journal homepage: www009 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Allucture, and adultchild

M5B 2K3 Canadaay, London WC1H 0AL, UK

ooking activities undertaken in two nursery classes reveals relationships

le at ScienceDirect

cher Education

lsevier .com/locate/ taterights reserved.

achbehaviours (Arbeau & Coplan, 2007), but there remains a need toexamine how this relationship impacts the experience of childrenin preschool settings in terms of the nature of the activities they areoffered and the interactions that subsequently ensue. The presentstudy illuminates how the adults underlying pedagogical beliefsabout appropriate activities for preschool children inuenced theirchoice and structuring of cooking activities, which lead to differentinteractional experiences for the children.

3. Activity context

The literature on language learning has revealed an associationbetween different activity contexts and variations in adultchildinteractional patterns. OBrien and Bis (1995) study of adultchildinteractions with 1 and 2 year olds in different play situationsfound, for example, that teachers asked many questions and mademany comments when the children were playing with dolls andhouses. This differed from adultchild interactions when playingwith blocks and trucks in which teachers used a balance of ques-tions and descriptions of ongoing activities. They asked fewerquestions and made more suggestions, and children responded bytalking the most in this activity and using more complex language.Girolametto, Weitzman, and van Lieshout (2000) and Girolamettoand Weitzman (2002) found activity context played an importantrole in mediating teachers directiveness and responsiveness inpreschool settings. Greater behaviour and response controloccurred during book reading, and greater conversation control inthe playdough activity, and the playdough activity elicited thehighest levels of caregiver responsive interactions.

Research on the role of activity context in shaping adultchildinteractional patterns has revealed context consistency for sometypes of activity in early years settings. This study seeks to conrmwhether such consistency can be taken for granted in a cookingactivity, by examining differences in the structure in this activity inlight of the adults pedagogical beliefs.

4. Theoretical framework

This research adopted a sociocultural approach, based on thework of Vygotsky, which has provided a theoretical framework forunderstanding the role of social context in individual development(Vygotsky, 1978). The sociocultural approach asserts that cognitivefunctioning in the individual originates in social life. Social inter-action between partners, and social inuence on broader levels ofsociety including cultural traditions and social practices isemphasised. Cross-cultural studies have highlighted the prioritiesgiven to separate developmental goals, and differences in beliefsabout appropriate ways for parents to interact with their children.This has been shown to result in differences between culturalcommunities in the learning context they provide for children andin the types of interaction and activities they are exposed to (forexample, see Rogoff, Mistry, Goncu, & Mosier, 1993).

Vygotsky proposed a theory of internalisation, inwhich childrenlearn how to approach and solve problems by interactions withadults. Children initially undertake activities with adult guidanceand gradually learn to carry out these activities independently. Inthe beginning the childs behaviour is regulated on a social level,through the adults instruction, but it eventually becomes intern-alised on a mental level (Elbers, Maier, Hoekstra, & Hoogsteder,1992). Social interaction structures the developing independentcognitive activity of the child. Cognitive processes have specicorganisational properties that reect the social arrangement fromwhich they are derived, so variations in how social functioning isorganised leads to variation in individual psychological functioning.

J.A. Blay, J. Ireson / Teaching and Te1106A child who has participated in a task which has been carried out ina particular way, is likely to adopt the same approachwhen tacklinga similar task. Although the processes and structures of individual(intramental) functioning originate on the social (intermental)plane, they are transformed by the individual, and so are not directcopies of socially organised processes (Rogoff & Wertsch, 1984;Wertsch, 1991; Wertsch & Kanner, 1992).

The literature has paid particular interest to Vygotskys formu-lation of the concept of the zone of proximal development, whichhighlights the importance of childrens collaboration with moreexperienced partners in acquiring skills, as children need to prac-tice skills in a social context before internalising them and usingthem independently. Research from this theoretical framework hasexamined processes of adultchild interactions in light of thebeliefs and goals of the adults involved. For example, Rogoffs modelof guided participation describes the nature of adult guidance inadult- and child-initiated goal-orientated activity (Rogoff, 1990,2003).

The wider social and cultural context played a role in deter-mining what children experienced in their nursery classes in thisstudy. The north London local education authority in which theparticipating nursery classes were located, favoured child-centredplay-based activities in which children are encouraged to set theirown goals and to initiate and undertake activities. It was antici-pated that understanding the role of broader contextual inuenceswould inform our understanding of the teachers beliefs andintentions and their practices, as in earlier research. For example, inan earlier study by the authors, a naturalistic study of adultchildinteraction during an open-ended Lego construction activity ina preschool setting highlighted how cultural context mediated therelationship between the adults beliefs and their classroom prac-tice (Ireson & Blay, 1999). In that study, interviews with the adultsrevealed how beliefs regarding their role in supporting childrenslearning, and their goals and intentions for the activity wereembedded in the broader cultural context of early years educationand the principles of the Preschool Playgroup Association(a voluntary organisation which promotes childrens growth anddevelopment through play and provides playgroups offeringinformal play activities to children aged two-and-a-half to four).

A further study by Ireson (2000) provides an illustration of howprogram and activity structuring occurs within a cultural context.Tutors interpretations of their role and the role of the learner werefound to vary according to the age and ability of the learner and theparticular programme being followed. Ireson suggests that differ-ences in approach and activities may stem from beliefs aboutappropriate pedagogy for children of different stages, and linkspedagogical beliefs and programme principles with teachers0 goalsand classroom practices.

Rogoff (1990) developed a model of guided participation, inwhich a childs cognitive development can be understood in termsof an apprenticeship. Rogoffs work warrants particular consider-ation because it makes a valuable contribution to advances inunderstanding adultchild interactions pertinent to this study. Thepreschool nursery can be considered an informal learning envi-ronment in which children may initiate goal-orientated activities.Rogoff explicitly acknowledges the active role of the child in initi-ating as well as contributing to interactions in adult- and child-initiated goal-orientated activity, and has studied how adultchildinteractions are managed in some informal as well as structuredlearning situations (Rogoff, 1990, 2003).

Rogoffs model is based on the notion of apprenticeship, inwhich the child can be likened to a novice. The novice (child) is anactive participant who collaborates with the expert (e.g. adult), ina mutually created activity or event. The child and adult builda shared framework of understanding, in activities which are

er Education 25 (2009) 11051116historically and culturally derived and meaningful, and social in an

preparation and sandwich preparation.

independently of an adult by a workshop-style arrangement of theactivities where resources are displayed on open shelves for chil-

6.2. The participants

Table 1 shows four nursery staff and children from three nurseryclasses in two schools participated in the study, and the cookingactivity each chose, planned and carried out. From the school nowreferred to as School X the adults were both trained teachers andhad worked in early years education for over 20 years. From the

eacher Education 25 (2009) 11051116 1107dren to select from, combined with an extended period of free-choice time. This is followed by a 20-mi story and snack timewhichis adult-led. The primary role of the adult is to provide resourcesand assistance, and to elaborate and extend the childrens learning6.1. The nursery schools

State nursery schools in the UK are funded by the local educa-tion authority and cater for children aged two-and-a-half to ve.Classes within nursery schools typically have between 20 and 26children, and 2 adults. One adult is a qualied teacher, and the otheris usually a trained nursery nurse or classroom assistant.

The two nursery schools involved in the study share similarcultures. They are both local education authority nursery schoolsfrom the same borough, and situated within several miles of eachother. They share the same in-service training and directives fromthe local education authority, and are subject to similar budgetaryand political issues associated with the borough. The nurseries alsotend to attract families from similar backgrounds, which are frompredominantly private housing, with some from local authorityhousing areas. A similar style of programme operates within eachschool, and the arrangement of the nursery sessions reects thecultural practices associated with this type of nursery. Children areencouraged to undertake activities and explore their own ideas6. Design

This was an observational study of naturally occurring activitiesin classrooms in two state nursery schools in a north Londonborough, UK. Four sets of data were collected from two nurseryschools. Adults and children were observed and video recordedduring cooking activities undertaken in three nursery classes, andaudio taped interviewswere conductedwith the adults. The chosencooking activities were cake baking, biscuit baking, fruit saladimmediate sense. From guided participation children appropriateknowledge and skills relevant to functioning and contributing totheir community (Rogoff, 1990).

5. Aim of study

In this research the relationship among pedagogical beliefs,choice and structure of the activity, and the nature of adultchildparticipation in nursery classrooms was examined. The aim was totake our current understanding of the link between teachersbeliefs and practices one step further by examining not only whatthe teacher did, but what the teacher and child did together. A linkbetween teachers pedagogical beliefs and their classroom practiceshas been established in the literature on teacher education, butresearch in teachers beliefs and practices that is based on obser-vations of actual teaching in classrooms rather than hypotheticaltasks and self-reported practices is missing (Fang,1996). Also, manyof the studies adopting a sociocultural perspective in examining theprocesses of adultchild interactions have focused on dyadicencounters, often in contrived scenarios. There is a need to examinejoint processes of interaction as they occur naturally, and where anadult is interacting with more than one child. The intention of thisresearch is to address this need by making authentic observationsin nursery classrooms of adults and small groups of children.

J.A. Blay, J. Ireson / Teaching and Tin a supportive and responsive manner.school now referred to as School Y, the teacher had worked as anearly years teacher for over 20 years, and the nursery nurse hadworked at the school for 5 years, since qualifying.

The head teacher at School X was no longer assigned to a class,and chose to work in a different class to that of the other partici-pating teacher. The childrens ages ranged between 3 years 4months and 4 years 8 months. Each child is referred to as Childfollowed by a letter of the alphabet, for example Child B.

6.3. Data collection

Entry into the nursery schools was initially negotiated with thehead teachers through telephone calls, then formal meetings withall the teaching staff at the schools to explain the purpose andnature of the study. The researcher then made several lengthiervisits to the classes, observing several sessions. These visits wereundertaken in order to assess the suitability of the classrooms forobservations with video recording equipment, to develop a rapportwith the staff and children, and to coordinate arrangements withthe staff.

Informal interviews were held separately with each partici-pating staff member. The staff were asked about their training andwork experience, and asked to describe the most important aspectsof their role. The adults were also given brief pre- and post-activityinterviews, in which they were asked about their intentions andrationale for the activity, and what they felt the children wouldlearn from it. After the activity they were asked to describe how ithad gone. The head teacher, A2 was not interviewed pre-activitydue to her schedule, but was asked the same pre-interview ques-tions post-activity. The interviews were semi-structured in nature,and each adult was asked the same set of opening questions (seeAppendix). The adults answers were then explored in greaterdepth with further questioning by the researcher.

7. Transcription and coding of the videotaped activities

Through a coding procedure of transcriptions of the videotapes,categories were developed that described the structure of theactivity and adultchild interactions. From this a conceptualframework was developed. For example, the cooking activities werecategorised as prescribed or open, and the adults role as expertor facilitator, and the roles of the children as novice or designer.

7.1. Transcription sampling procedure

Selected excerpts were selected of the videotapes of the activi-ties. Following recommendations by Erickson (1982), the video-tapes were initially reviewed in their entirety to inform samplingdecisions. Notes were made on what the overall activity was, how

Table 1Summary of participant information.

Adult Designation School Class Cooking activity

A1 Teacher X Class a Bake biscuitsA2 Head teacher X Class b Bake cakesA3 Teacher Y Class c Prepare sandwiches

A4 Nursery nurse Y Class c Prepare fruit salad

Linkages are created between categories, comparisons are drawnbetween instances and categories, and theoretical sampling of newcases is undertaken to extend theory.

To assist in the development of categories, descriptivecommentaries of the course of events and of individual participa-tion were written to gain a deeper understanding of the context ofthe activity and the purpose of the interactions. Rogoff and Gauvain(1986: p. 266) argue that understanding of the meaning or purposeof an interaction can be achieved by attending to the evidence thatparticipants provide to each other as a necessary part of jointactivity.

In this study open coding was then carried out. This involvedclose examination of the transcripts and breaking the data downinto discrete parts, labelling and categorising them. The range ofinteractions was identied through labelling each interactionalturn of the participants in each activity. Interpreting the purpose ofthe interactions was undertaken by taking account of the utter-ances and gestures of the speaker, and the context of the interactionin terms of what activity the participants were engaged in, and theinteractional turns preceding and following the one in focus. Forexample, the label ensure foods and utensils are within easy reachdescribes behaviours of the adults to move items around the table,

achthe adult arranged it, the identity of the participants, the nature ofparticipation by the adults and children, and what Erickson(1982: p. 220) termed major constituent segments. Identicationof major segments then provided the basis for selecting excerpts forfurther analysis. The type of segments differed for the bakingactivities and the food preparation activities. For the baking activ-ities the segments were consistent with each stage of adding andmixing ingredients. For example, the rst ve segments of thebiscuit making with A1 (Adult 1) are as follows:

Segment 1: Start of activity: introduction and explanation;Segment 2: Adding our to bowls;Segment 3: Adding fat and rubbing in;Segment 4: Adding sugar;Segment 5: Kneading dough.

The sandwich and fruit salad preparation activities were notbroken down into separate stages by the adult, as the childrenwereleft to prepare the food in ways they chose and proceeded at theirown pace. One segment of these activities consisted of the intro-duction to each activity to the group of children, and the nextsegment consisted of the completion of the activity by individualchildren, for example, the completion of preparing a sandwich, orthe chopping of a piece of fruit.

The start and early phases of each activity were selected fortranscription, and transcription was continued for between 12 and18min. The decision to end transcribing wasmadewhen a segmentwas clearly over, or the nature of the segments became repetitive,and it was determined an adequate selection of interactions andactions had been captured.

7.2. Transcription format

The work of Ochs (1979) was referred to in order to informjudgements about the organisation of the transcription layout. Therecording of several or more children at an activity posed particularproblems for the transcription of the video recordings, as it wasnecessary to consider how simultaneously occurring interactionsand behaviours of up to ve or six participants could best be rep-resented temporally. For instance, whilst the adult was assistingone child, two other children might be holding a conversation, andanother child trying to attract the adults attention.

The segments were divided into events. An event comprisesa sequence of behaviours and interactions with a recognisablefocus, and for which the researcher could identify a beginning andan end, for example, cutting an apple, adding ingredients to a bowl,or exchanges occurring between some of the participants. It wasusual for more than one event to occur simultaneously, beginningand ending at varying times, and continuing for different lengths oftime. Out of those simultaneously occurring events, the eventinvolving the greater part of the adults participation was nomi-nated to be the event in focus, and the others additional. Theevent in focus was then transcribed in rich detail, while the addi-tional events were tracked in less detail.

A column layout was developed, consisting of three participantcolumns containing the transcriptions, and three additionalcolumns containing information of the line number and thechildrens identities (Table 2).

7.3. Coding procedure

A qualitative approach to examining the processes of interac-tion was implemented in this study. Pascal (1993) argued thatqualitative methods are well suited for examining processes and

J.A. Blay, J. Ireson / Teaching and Te1108linkages which characterise the social world in their entirecomplexity (p. 73). Rogoff, Mistry, Goncu, and Mosier (1993)found that coding schemes focusing on independent behavioursand their frequencies were not as useful in understandingdynamic processes of interaction as a qualitative perspectivewhich enabled them to regard the adultchild dyad as a unit andto consider the meaning of actions.

In this research, the analysis draws on a grounded methodapproach, and was also informed by sociocultural theoreticalnotions of the role of communication between adults and childrenin childrens learning, in particular Rogoffs model of guidedparticipation (Rogoff, 1990). The analysis was also informed by oneresearchers personal knowledge as a nursery teacher who wasfamiliar with working with children and staff in similar settings.The grounded method approach adopted was originally developedby Glaser and Strauss (1967), and later modied by Strauss andCorbin (1990). This method uses procedures in a systematic way,and is particularly suited for making sense of largely unstructureddata, including observations, interview transcripts, and otherdocumentary evidence. By systematically working through thedata, conceptual labels are generated and grouped into categories.

Table 2Transcription column layout using an example of a transcript excerpt.

Line number Childsidentity

Event infocus.Childrensinteractions

Adultsinteractions(Adult A2)

Childsidentity

Additionalevent.Childrensinteractions

.

.

.33 All Looking

at A2Ah, we needsome

34 children bowls. Good35 heavens have

I got36 any bowls?37 Searches in cool Child C Enters cooking38 bag. How many area, observes39 In

chorus,Four bowls do I need? activity

40 all41 children...

er Education 25 (2009) 11051116and infers the adults purpose.

eacheThere were four cooking activities, cake baking, biscuit baking,fruit salad preparation and sandwich preparation. The range ofinteractions was labelled for the adults and children in each of theindividual activities observed, and were then compared with eachother. It emerged that there were similarities between the twobaking activities, and further similarities between the fruit saladand sandwich preparation activities. The labels from the twobaking activities were then combined to form one set of data, andthe labels from the fruit salad and sandwich preparation activitieswere combined to form another set of data. From each set of datathe labels were reviewed and grouped into more expansive cate-gories according to the overall or broader purpose. For example, thecategory Ensure access to foods and utensils includes ensure suf-cient utensils for growing numbers of children participating,ensure all food items and utensils are with in easy reach,removing sharp knives and items not in use and resolvingdisputes between children over utensils and food items.

Interpretations about the style of teaching and role of the adult,the childs role, and the structure of the activity were then devel-oped by reviewing the completed categories. For example, theactivity structure was interpreted as either adult-determined orchild-determined. The categories revealed a number of similaritiesand differences between the four cooking activities, and fromwhich a conceptual framework was developed.

8. Transcription and coding of the audio taped interviews

Several interviews were held with each adult separately. Aninitial interview focused on their prior training and experience.Pre- and post-activity interviews concentrated on the adultsintentions for the activity and reections on how it had gone.Analysis of the interviews with each of the adults revealed theirunderlying pedagogical beliefs and intentions for the activity.

8.1. Coding

All adult interviews were recorded onto audiotape and latertranscribed. Analysis of the interviews involved open coding of thetranscripts by the researcher which identied statements in thetexts relating to the adults beliefs about their practices, rationalesfor the activities, and intentions for learning outcomes. Forexample, the belief, learning should be enjoyable encompasses theadults view that learning ought to occur in an encouraging andpositive climate, emerged from comments such as one made by A2,Its (the nursery) got to be fun. It shouldnt be a punitive atmo-sphere. The properties of each belief were also identied for eachadult. For A2 the properties of this belief included foster a positivedisposition to learning, and participation in activities is optional.

8.2. Alignment between the adults stated and enacted beliefs

Alignment between the adults stated beliefs (from the inter-views) and their enacted beliefs (as evidenced through theirbehaviours and interactions during the cooking activities, and theirpost-activity comments) was then examined. Each stated belief wascompared with the categories identied in the conceptual frame-work and with the activity and interview transcripts. For example,for the stated belief above evidence was sought in the transcriptsfor each of the properties identied, such as whether the childrenwere given the option to participate in the activities.

8.3. The adults rationale and intensions

The rationale given by each adult for their choice of cooking

J.A. Blay, J. Ireson / Teaching and Tactivity was also obtained, as were their intentions for the learningoutcomes. For example, adults A3 and A4 rationale for their choiceof activity was to enable children to make choices and decisionsabout their work. Learning outcomes were identied in terms ofthe program curriculum and reected skills and knowledge fromthose areas, such as handeye coordination and ne motor skillpractice for physical development, sharing and social interaction insocial development, and learning new vocabulary for languagedevelopment.

9. Findings of the analysis of the cooking activities and thealignment between the stated and enacted beliefs

Findings regarding the analysis of the adults beliefs are pre-sented together with the analysis of the cooking activities. Analysisof the interviews revealed three overarching stated pedagogicalbeliefs common to all adults, and their rationales for their choice ofcooking activity. Further analysis revealed whether their statedbeliefs were enacted in the cooking activities. During analysis of thetranscriptions of the activities it became apparent that there weretwo distinct sets of cooking activities. One set comprised the twobaking activities, making biscuits and cakes undertaken at onenursery school, School X, with teachers A1 and A2, the other setcomprised the preparation of fruit salad and sandwiches, under-taken at School Y, with teachers A3 and A4.

Tables 35 provide a summary of the conceptual framework thatemerged from the analysis of the interviews with the adults, and ofthe analysis of the baking activities and the cold food preparationactivities. Each table centres around one of the stated beliefs, anddemonstrates the alignment between the stated and enacted beliefby comparing the properties drawn from analysis of the interviewswith each adult, and properties from the analysis of the activitiesand interviews. Also included in the framework are the categoriesdeveloped from the two sets of cooking activities. The categoriesfrom each set are listed separately, as the structure of these twotypes of cooking activities and the interactional roles of the adultand children contrasted with each other. In the tables the lists arearranged side by side to enable the reader to make comparisonsbetween the two types of activities.

9.1. The adults beliefs

Three overarching stated beliefs common to all four adults wereidentied in the interviews; ownership of the activity resides withthe child, the adults role is to promote childrens independentlearning, and learning should be enjoyable.

9.1.1. Belief: ownership of the activity resides with the childTable 3 illustrates the relationship between the stated belief,

ownership of the activity resides with the child, the given ratio-nales for the cooking activities, and the enacted belief. The beliefthat ownership of the activity resides with the child reects theadults view that activities ought to be child-determined. Child-rens active engagement should primarily involve exploring thenursery environment to develop their interests and set their owngoals.

Analysis of the structure of the four activities reveals that thearrangement of the baking activities differed from that of thesandwich and fruit salad preparation activities, and did not reectthe stated belief of the adults.

9.1.1.1. Activity structure. Differences between the two types ofcooking activities: Table 3 shows that the baking activities wereadult-determined with xed outcomes. The baking recipesrequired many stages to be carried out in sequence, with xed

r Education 25 (2009) 11051116 1109ingredients and amounts, and methods involving a range of ne

chil

itkingcon

thetly

ned

achmotor and cognitive skills the children were unpracticed in, forexample, cracking open an egg, mixing ingredients together usinga prescribed rubbing in method, and using weighing scales tomeasure ingredients including our and butter. To accommodate

Table 3Comparison of stated and enacted belief: ownership of the activity resides with the

AdultCookingActivity

A1 Bake biscuits A2 Bake cakes

Selectedbeliefquote

But you also have to givethem time to make senseof the things they havelearnedby allowing to followit throughthemselves.

.but theyve got to bring tosomething of themselves.mait much more that they are inof the activity.

Properties ofstated belief

Children exercise controlover their experiences,work independently andmake choices

Children exercise control overexperiences, work independenand make choices

A1 and A2Enacted Belief Ownership of the

activity resides withthe adult

Properties ofenacted belief

Adult-lead activityChildren worked as a groupFixed ingredients,amounts, methodsRequired broad rangeof skillsMany stages involved inpreparationA1 A2

Rationale foractivity

Baking biscuits in orderto decorate later as acreative activity

It is valuable for children toexperience ways of workingthat differ from a self-determiapproach

J.A. Blay, J. Ireson / Teaching and Te1110the childrens inexperience, the adults imposed a rigid structurethat afforded them greater control. The adults restricted thenumber of children participating, and arranged the activity insequential stages. The adults directed the children through eachstage of the activity as a group. The children were actively engagedin the preparation of the mixtures, but there were no opportunitiesfor them to work autonomously.

The structure of the sandwich and fruit salad preparationactivities was more open-ended than that of the baking activitiesand allowed for a child-determined approach. Offered a variety offoods to work with, the children were encouraged to select whichfoods to prepare, the methods to prepare them, and determinewhen it was completed. As the dishes involved fewer stages andsimpler skills restricted to spreading, slicing and chopping, thechildren were able to achieve their task either independently orwith some assistance on request. Although only four places wereinitially set for the children, as the activities required little adultdirection, additional children who wanted to join in wereaccommodated.

The structure of the sandwich and fruit salad preparationactivities reected the adults stated beliefs that ownership of theactivity resides with the child, and contrasts with the structure ofthe baking, which did not.

The rationales for the cooking activities: Table 3 shows therationale given by each adult for their choice of cooking activity.The rationales explain the adults intentions for the activity andshed light on the discrepancy between the stated and enactedbelief for the baking activities.

The baking activities: A1 explained that her intention was toprovide a creative activity of decorating biscuits, and decided to letthe children bake the biscuits too:They wont be able to just put all the ingredients in and do whatthey want to because we want an end product today that wedont normally go for. The idea of having the end product is thatthey can actually decorate biscuits themselves.

d.

A3 Preparesandwiches

A4 Prepare fruit salad

trol

You dont get what you hopeto get out of it (activity),because the children havetheir own agendas.

.youre just another provisionfor them. If they want you theyll get you.

ir Children exercise controlover their experiences, workindependently and make choices

Children exercise control over theirexperiences, work independentlyand make choices

A3 and A4Ownership of activity resideswith the child

Child-lead activityChildren worked independentlyChoice of ingredients, amounts, methods

Required narrow range of skills

Few stages involved in preparation

A3 and A4Children make choices and decisions

er Education 25 (2009) 11051116Typically, A1 chose recipes that required less direction. I try todo things, as I say that the children can actually cope with, withouta lot of, too much direction. Vegetable soup was one dish shepreferred because, It doesnt matter how they chop it becauseyoure going to cook it.

Unlike the other adults, A2 regarded directed activity as havingimportant learning opportunities because of, not in spite of, itsprescribed nature:

They, they cant just charge in, and you know, put an extra oneon the table as they might do if they were nger painting. Thereis a process we need to go through to get the nished product.And its unlike most of the activities in the nursery. So itsa different way of working. And thats ne in itself, so itsshowing them really, this is a different kind of activity, whichneeds different kinds of skills.

A1 was uncomfortable with providing an adult-determinedactivity, but justied it in her rationale as a means to a later child-determined activity of decorating biscuits. A2 viewed this activityas complimenting child-determined activity and having value inexposing children to different ways of working.

Sandwich and fruit salad preparation activities: In contrast, therationales given by adults A3 and A4 for the sandwich and fruitsalad preparation activities did reect their stated belief thatownership of the activity resides with the child. The adultsexplained that the dish chosen and the activity arranged in a waythat offered choice and decision-making opportunities to the chil-dren. For example, A3 explained, Theyll be a variety of breads andllings for the sandwiches, so that the children can choose whatthey want to do.

depe

ythin

ry

eacheTable 4Comparison of stated and enacted belief: the adults role is to facilitate childrens in

Adult A1 A2

Selectedbeliefquote

By having all the activitiesdisplayed like workshops,so that the children can usethe provision at whateverstage they are at.

Organising it in such a waythat actually theyre doingthe work, they could do ever

Properties ofstated belief

Arrange environment tofoster independenceIntervene only whennecessaryAdult follows childs lead

Arrange environment tofoster independenceIntervene only when necessaAdults to follow childs lead.

Cookingactivity

Bake biscuits Bake cakes

A1 and A2Enacted belief Adult as expert,

child as noviceProperties of

enactedbelief:

Role of adult Adult as expertIntroduce the cookingactivityDivide the activity intomanageable stepsDirect the progress of the

J.A. Blay, J. Ireson / Teaching and T9.1.1.2. Summary. Differences were found in the alignmentbetween the stated and enacted beliefs of the adults for the bakingactivities and the sandwich and fruit salad preparation activities.The belief, ownership of the activity resides with the child islinked to how the activities are structured in terms of whether theyare adult- or child-determined. The baking activities were adult-determined as they involved a level of difculty too great for thechildren to complete alone. In contrast, the fruit salad and sand-wich preparation activities comprising few stages and simple skillsaccommodated independence of, and decision-making by thechildren.

The rationale given by each adult for their choice of cookingactivity reveals how the adults intentions for the activity wereconsistent with the adults stated beliefs in the case of the sandwichand fruit salad preparation activities, and were inconsistent withtheir stated beliefs as in the baking activities. The rationales help usto understand why their enacted beliefs were or were not alignedwith their enacted beliefs.

9.2. Belief: the adults role is to facilitate childrensindependent learning

Table 4 illustrates the alignment between the adults statedbelief, the adults role is to facilitate childrens independentlearning, and its enactment. This is closely linked to the previous

activityLimit access to ingredientsKeep children focusedon the activityService the cooking areaElaborate the activity

Role of child Child as NoviceJoin the activityReliant on adults expertiseDemonstrate active involvementto the adultMonitor progress of otherchildren and the activityTry to take initiative

Become distractedndent learning.

A3 A4

g.

. a lot of what comesout today will depend on thechildren themselves.I will try and follow their direction.

I will support them asmuch as they actuallyneed me to. If they cantpersist I will help thempersist.but I want themto do it.

Arrange environment to fosterindependenceIntervene only when necessaryAdult follows childs lead.

Arrange environment tofoster independenceIntervene only when necessaryAdult follows childs lead.

Prepare sandwiches Prepare fruit salad

A3 and A4Adult as Facilitator, child asdesigner

Adult as facilitatorIntroduce the cooking activity

Facilitate the progress of the activity

Ensure access to ingredients and utensils

r Education 25 (2009) 11051116 1111belief, in that it centres on the role of the adult in promotingchildrens ownership of the activity. This belief is reected in theways in which the adults organised the learning environment ingeneral, as evidenced in the classroom and adult interviews, and inthe interactional roles of the adults with the children during thecooking activities. The adults carefully arranged the nursery class-room in a workshop style to encourage children to independentlyexplore and pursue their own interests. For example, the literacyarea comprised open shelving with a range of coloured paper in anassortment of sizes, writing tools such as pencil and crayons,envelopes, and scissors for children to select and use in ways theychose.

The adults were sensitive to both the need to encourage childrento be independent and self-directed, and to intervene appropriatelyin order to move a child on to more challenging tasks and newlearning. A3 described her role as one of following the childrensdirection. A1 explained this approach, I have to be aware of whento interact and not to interact, and move a child along by intro-ducing perhaps a new piece of equipment or **, or some newvocabulary, like that.

The alignment between the stated and enacted belief isconsidered in terms of the adults and childrens roles in theactivities. Table 4 shows that the roles of the adults and children inthe baking activities did not reect the stated belief. The adultadopted the role of expert with the child as novice in which the

Service the cooking areaElaborate the activity

Child as DesignerJoin the activityRegard the adult as a resourceMake choices

Demonstrate active involvementto the adultMonitor progress of other childrenand the activityCompete in a group situationBecome distracted

t

achchild was dependent on the adults expertise and was required tofollow the adults direction. This differed from the participatoryroles of the adults and children in the sandwich and fruit saladpreparation activities. In line with the stated belief, the adults A3and A4 adopted the role of facilitator, and encouraged the childrento be designers of their activity, offering choice and decision-making. The analysis of the videotapes reveals that the adults rolewas that of responding to childrens approaches for assistance, andto make attempts to incorporate learning through elaborating onand extending the activity.

9.2.1. Differences in the participatory roles of the adults in thebaking and sandwich and fruit salad preparation activities

The adults role in the baking activities was that of expert, andwas instructional and managerial in nature. Differences in the waythe adults managed the progress of each type of cooking activity are

Table 5Comparison of stated and enacted belief: learning should be enjoyable.

Adult A1 A2

Selected beliefquote

To create a warmand secure qualityplace of learning foryoung children.

It shouldnt be a punitiveatmosphere. Learning iswonderful, help them get tha

Properties of statedbelief

Foster positivedisposition to learningParticipation inactivity is optionalEncourage quiet orshy children to observeand/or participate

Foster positivedisposition to learningParticipation in activityis optional

Cooking Activity Bake cakes Bake cakesEnacted belief (all adults)

Properties of enactedbelief

Children eagerto participate,affective supportfrom adults welcomedquieter children andencouraged all childrensefforts Optional participationin cooking activities;adults welcomed all children;adults providedaffective support

J.A. Blay, J. Ireson / Teaching and Te1112revealed in the categories Divide the activity into manageable stepsand Direct the progress of the activity in the baking activities, andFacilitate the progress of the activity in the fruit salad and sandwichpreparation activities. The adults in the baking activities assumedresponsibility for directing and managing the activities by intro-ducing each stage with explanations, questions and demonstra-tions, and closely monitoring the progress of each stage. The adultsresponded contingently to each childs efforts by indicating whereappropriate progress was being made, or providing furtherinstruction and direction. Individual instruction, demonstrationand explanation punctuated group instruction and management toensure each child progressed through each stage acquiring skills asneeded, such as learning to rub in the our, fat and sugar betweenngers and thumb until the mixture resembled ne bread crumbs.The adults performed some tasks if they were considered beyondthe childrens capabilities or potentially hazardous, such as settingthe oven temperature, and placing or removing the biscuits andcakes in or from the heated oven. The adults determinedwhen eachstage was completed, for instance, when each child had weighedout the correct amount, or when the mixture had reached theappropriate consistency.

Unlike the baking activities, adults in the sandwiches and fruitsalad preparation activities primarily provided individual attention,rather than group instruction. Adults invited children to makechoices from the foods available, and the method of preparation.They responded to childrens individual requests for assistance, forexample, when one child informed A4 that hewas unable to cut theorange, she suggested he try an alternative method of using hisngers to peel it. The adults assisted with skills, such as holdinga hand over the childs to guide and apply pressure whilst the childsliced fruit. The adults also encouraged children to consider addi-tional ingredients, for example adding tomato to a cheesesandwich.

The category Limit access to the ingredients in the baking activ-ities was necessitated by adherence to a given recipe. This stands incontrast to the category Ensure access to ingredients and utensilswhich illustrates how the adults facilitated choice in the fruit saladand sandwich preparation activities by providing a wide range offoods to prepare, either a variety of types of breads and llings, ora choice of fruits, and sufcient or sharing of knives and choppingboards. Adults also resolved disputes between the children over

A3 A4

.well try and encouragechildren who are a littlebit shy.just showing that wereaware of them and make them welcome.

To be individual, to have a go,and not worry about makinga mistake.

Participation in activity is optionalEncourage quiet or shy children toparticipate

Foster positive disposition to learningParticipation in activity is optionalEncourage quiet or shychildren to participate

Prepare sandwiches Prepare fruit salad

er Education 25 (2009) 11051116ingredients and utensils, which tended to occur when childrenwere unable to reach an ingredient or therewas a lack of spacewitha high number of children participating.

The category Keep children focused on activity includes a range ofthe strategies adopted by adults in the baking activities that werenot evidenced in the fruit salad and sandwich preparation activi-ties. These included curbing conversations unrelated to the activityand responses to other events in the classroom, discouragingchildren from initiating use of or play with ingredients and utensils,and checking the intentions of the children, for example, Do youwant to continue?

9.2.2. Similarities in the participatory roles of the adults in thebaking and sandwich and fruit salad preparation activities

Similarities were evident across all four activities in some of thecategories describing the interactions displayed by both adults.Table 4 includes the categories Introduce the activity, for the adults.In each activity the adults helped children prepare or asked them towash their hands or don aprons. Once the childrenwere settled, theadults elicited the childrens attention and involvement by intro-ducing the activity, for example, A1 announced to the group ofchildren, Were going to make biscuits.

Once the activity was underway, another category shared by alladults is that of Service the cooking area. The adults took responsi-bility for maintaining the activity area by clearing away used

eacheutensils, and in the case of the baking activities, for clearing awayingredients that had already been added and were no longerneeded.

Table 4 shows that there were also similarities in the way theadults interacted with children in ways that extended and sup-ported each activity. The category Elaborate the activity describesthe strategies adults used to test the childrens knowledge andrecall, drawing on the childrens home experiences and relatingthem to the activity. For example, children were asked whatingredients go into a cake, or whether they ate sandwiches whenthey went on picnics. They were also asked to observe and describethe foods. For example, the children were encouraged to comparethe inside and outside of the fruits, or describe the changingconsistency of the cake mixture as the sugar dissolved.

9.2.3. SummaryDifferences in the interactions of the adults in the two types of

activities arose from the different roles they adopted. In the bakingactivities the adult adopted the role of expert, which resulted instrategies that enabled them to assume responsibility for theactivity by directing and managing the children and controlling theingredients. In contrast, the adults in the sandwich and fruit saladpreparation activities displayed a facilitatory role that encouragedchildren to assume responsibility, and maintained their role to oneof support and assistance. Despite some differences, the adults alsoshared several strategies. These included strategies related tohealth and safety, such as washing hands and removing utensilsand foods no longer needed or used; announcing the start of theactivity, and elaborating the activity in order to nd ways to havethe children think about aspects of the activity.

9.2.4. Differences in the participatory roles of the children in thebaking and sandwich and fruit salad preparation activities

Differences emerged in the interactional roles of the children,which are characterized as that of a novice or designer. In thebaking activity the children adopted the role of novice, and the roleof designer in the fruit salad and sandwich preparation activities.These differences are captured in the categories Reliant on theadults expertise in the baking activities, and Regard the adult asa resource and Make choices, in the fruit salad and sandwich prep-aration activities. In the baking activities the children lacked theknowledge and skills to be able to carry out this activity alone, andwere dependent on the adult to guide and direct them. The childrenattended to the adult, observing the techniques she demonstratedand following her instructions and explanations.

In contrast to the baking activities, the childrens role during thefruit salad and sandwich preparation activities was that of designer.This term is used to describe the childs role in designing or creatingtheir dish. The children regarded the adult as a resource, there toprovide assistance when required, for example, one child asked,Can you help me? when she was unable to slice an apple. Inaddition children asked the adults to bring utensils and food itemswithin reach, as well as to check the procedure, for example,whether to wash fruit before chopping.

Table 4 shows that the children in the fruit salad and sandwichpreparation activities made choices in ways children in the bakingactivities were unable to do. The category Make choices lists thechoices the children offered, such as choosing which foods toprepare. For example, when asked by the adult, So what would youlike to choose to cut? a child replied, I think Ill choose an orange.One child decided to halve her bread before making the sandwich,whilst another decided not to halve his sandwich at all. Children alsochose the method of preparation, such as chopping or slicing, howmuch to do, and when they had completed the activity. Some chil-

J.A. Blay, J. Ireson / Teaching and Tdren refused adults offers of assistance. For examplewhen one childtold the adult he is was unable remove the peel from an orange, theadult offered to cut the peel off using a knife. The child changed hismind and insisted on peeling the orange himself. Children alsochallenged instructions, as demonstrated by one child who initiallyrefused to wash her hands in readiness for the activity.

The category of Try to take initiative in the baking activitydemonstrates the childrens attempts to assert themselves, andcontrasts with childrens ability and expectation to assumeresponsibility through making choices in the sandwich and fruitsalad preparation activities. Some children tried to negotiate moreresponsibility for the activity, such as adding more of an ingredient.When A1 added more our to one childs mixture because it wastoo sticky, several children chimed in, And mine, Can you giveme just a little tiny bit? At other times children tried to add or playwith ingredients without negotiating. Some children showedinitiative by deciding to leave before the activity was completed.The children also occasionally attempted to initiate conversationwith each other and with the adult, but their attention was gentlysteered back to the activity by the adult.

The category Compete in a group situation for the fruit salad andsandwich preparation activities arose from the high number ofchildren participating at these activities. This resulted in morerequests for assistance and a longer wait time for an adult response.The children devised a variety of tactics to attract the adultsattention, for example, some children repeated their requests withincreasing loudness, or leant nearer the adult. As well as competingfor the adults attention, children also had to compete for resources.In the fruit salad activity one child tried to prize a chopping boardaway from another, and the adult stepped in and suggested theyshare the board. There was no competition for resources in thebaking activities as the number of participating childrenwas limitedto that planned, and sufcient quantities of items were available.

9.2.5. Similarities in the participatory roles of the children in thebaking and sandwich and fruit salad preparation activities

Join the activitywas common to all activities. In each activity thechildren approached the adult and asked permission to join in, orprepared for the activity by sitting down, donning an apron, orrolling up their sleeves. The children were seemingly drawn to theactivity by the adults earlier preparations and setting up of theactivity.

Once the activity was underway the children shared categoriesrelating to involvement with the adults and the other participatingchildren. Demonstrate active involvement to the adult describes thestrategies the children adopted in drawing attention to or seekingreassurance about their progress. During the cakemaking activityone child said, This look like cake, then a little later showed themixture by pushing the bowl to the adult, saying, There you are.The children also turned to the adult when they found somethinginteresting or puzzling, shared short commentaries on their actionsor intentions, and talked of home events related to the activities,and asked or answered questions to the adult. The categoryMonitorprogress of other children and the activity includes the childrensobservations of and comments about each others mixtures anddishes, and when they thought another child was misbehaving.

The children in both types of cooking activities were brieydistracted by conversations with each other and the adult on topicsunrelated to the activity, as described in the category, Becomedistracted. In the baking activities, the childrens attention was alsodiverted to other events occurring simultaneously in the classroom,such as a sudden loud noise.

9.2.6. SummaryIn the baking activities the children took on the role of novice,

r Education 25 (2009) 11051116 1113and their strategies reected a reliance on the adults expertise.

achDespite being restricted to following the adults lead, they tried toassume some independence by taking initiative in several ways.This differed from the children in the salad and fruit salad prepa-ration dishes, inwhich the children assumed the role of designer. Inthis role the children displayed interactions that required them totake initiative and only turn to adults when they needed assistanceor advice. Working independently also entailed competing for theadults attention and resources in ways that the children who werecloselymonitored andworking as a group did not. Despite adoptingvery different roles children from both types of activity chose tojoin the activity, closely attended to the activity overall, becomingdistracted occasionally and for short periods.

9.3. Belief: learning experiences should be enjoyable

Table 5 illustrates the relationship between the adults beliefthat learning should be enjoyable, and its enactment. The align-ment between the stated belief and enacted belief is considered interms of the ways in which the adults fostered an inviting andsupportive learning environment. These are reected in the adultsexpectations of childrens participation in the activity and theaffective support the adults provided to them.

As much emphasis was placed on the emotional tone of theenvironment as on the physical layout. The adults believed theemotional tone of the environment impacts how well childrenlearn, and how they feel about learning. Properties of this beliefinclude fostering a positive disposition to learning, participation inactivities should be optional, and quiet or shy children should begently encouraged to observe and/or participate in activities. Theadults believed it important for children to feel condent anddevelop a positive view of themselves as competent, independentlearners as described by A2, .so that any interaction should bebased on the positive.making them feel very capable little humanbeings.

The adults believed it is important to foster a positive disposi-tion to learning and they cited characteristics children shoulddevelop that will underpin and promote independent learning,such as condence, competence, persistence, perseverance andself-discipline. Offering an inviting and supportive environmentwas believed to be an effective way to foster a positive dispositionto learning. The adults believed it is important not to force childrento participate, but to bewelcoming, especially to childrenwhowereconsidered quiet or shy.

Table 5 shows that the enacted belief reects the stated belief.Children eagerly volunteered to participate in each cooking activity,and when others approached and observed, they actively tried toengage them, as recounted by A4 when she was approached by twochildren, And when they came over, I invited them to have a pieceof fruit, because it brought Child M and Child L in.

The properties of the enacted belief include a variety of strate-gies adopted by the adults to provide affective support to encouragethe children to remain engaged in the activity and overcome theiranxieties and frustration. The adults offered encouragement andpraise; acknowledged progress made by children, as well as dif-cult aspects of the activity; and alleviated frustration and anxiety.For example A2 acknowledged Child Bs difculty of getting the rawegg onto a spoon as she struggled, It is very difcult to get on yourspoon. Can you get, can you get it on your spoon? Can you geta spoonful, cause it rolls off, doesnt it. Its really difcult.

9.3.1. SummaryThe adults were concerned not only with what children learn,

but how they felt about learning. The adults believed that it isimportant to promote the development of attitudes and skills that

J.A. Blay, J. Ireson / Teaching and Te1114would lead to a positive disposition through creating enjoyable andsecure learning experiences. This they set out to achieve by creatinga welcoming and supportive environment through attention tochildrens emotional and social differences and needs.

10. Discussion

This study examined the relationship between the adultspedagogical beliefs, choice and structure of the activity, and thenature of participation of the adults and children during a cookingactivity in the nursery classroom.

10.1. Pedagogical beliefs and classroom practices

This research provides an illustration of the link betweenteachers pedagogical beliefs and their classroom practices. Ofparticular interest in this study is the nding that beliefs andpractices were sometimes aligned, but not always. The enactedbeliefs of the adults who undertook the sandwich preparation andfruit salad preparation activities did reect their stated beliefsregarding their preference for self-directed and free-choice activi-ties, unlike the adults who chose the baking activities. The adultsrecognised their activities did not reect this approach because ofthe need for a high level of adult direction, and addressed thiscontradiction in different ways. One adult felt uncomfortable withsuch a structured activity, and justied her choice as a means to anend (baking cookies in order for the children to creatively deco-rate). The other adult believed having a more controlled activitywas acceptable on occasion, as it provided an alternative type oflearning experience.

Without taking account of the nature of the activities and thepedagogical beliefs and intentions of the adults the ndings wouldhave been interesting but puzzling. Insights into the teachersbeliefs enhances our understanding of what the teachers regard asvaluable and appropriate learning experiences for children. Inaddition, the analysis of observational data highlights contradic-tions between stated beliefs and actual practice, and offers anopportunity to examine the impact of these choices on the partic-ipatory experiences of children as well as the adults. This researchthus complements the studies that focus only on self-reportedteaching practices (Fang, 1996).

10.2. Tensions between pedagogical approaches

Interview data revealed that the adults rationales and justi-cation for their choicesmediated the alignment between stated andenacted beliefs, creating tensions between their beliefs in a child-centred approach and their adult-controlled activities. The tensionsbetween teacher control and a child-centred approach has been thesubject of recent discussion (Tzuo, 2007; Wood, 2007). Wooddescribes the existence of tensions in child-centred educationbetween responding to and provoking childrens interests, or inother words, between responsive and proactive pedagogicalmodels, especially in relation to play (Wood, 2007: p.125). Theadults who conducted the baking activities expressed awareness ofthe tensions between these two approaches, which presented themwith a dilemma. Of notable interest is the difference in theirresponse. One adult revealed her discomfort with an adult-leadactivity in contrast with the other who found value in it. Thisteacher appears to have adopted what Lim and Torr (2007) term aneclectic approach which they observed in a study of early yearsliteracy teachers. They found that teachers were aware of differentapproaches, but did not so much take sides, as take an eclecticapproach to literacy development according to the needs andinterests of the children and demands of classroom management

er Education 25 (2009) 11051116(p. 425).

the nature of the activity inuenced the interactional roles of

This study throws light on the inter-related nature of adult and

eache10.3. Activity context

The differences in activity choice and context provide an illus-tration of how the teachers created contrasting contexts in whichadults and children pursued joint participation, and contribute tothe literature on teacherchild interaction early years settings. Insome studies, adultchild language and interactional patterns wereconsistent within some types of activity, for example OBrien and Bi(1995), Girolametto et al. (2000) and Girolametto and Weitzman(2002).

In contrast with the studies cited above, of note in the presentstudy are the striking differences in the nature of adultchildinteractions in a cooking activity. The differences appear to bedependent on whether the activity was adult-lead with a pre-determined recipe and outcome, or child-lead and more open-ended. This distinction highlights how different pedagogicalapproaches chosen by the adults had a strong inuence oncreating an activity context, and was not dependent on the type ofactivity per se.

10.4. A sociocultural perspective

Sociocultural theory recognises the role of broader social andcultural practices in differing developmental goals and contexts forchildrens learning experiences. The adults beliefs in this studyreect the approach espoused by the local education authority forwhich they worked. As in the authors earlier work (Ireson & Blay,1999), insights into the adults beliefs made it possible to explainthemore child-centred approach (evident in the sandwich and fruitsalad preparation activities here), which differ from the adult-determined closed tasks favoured in other studies examiningprocesses of interaction in adultchild dyads such as buildinga block pyramid (Wood, Bruner, & Ross, 1976), completing a puzzle(Wertsch, McNamee, McLane, & Budwig, 1980) and sorting(Goncu & Rogoff, 1998).

Rogoff (1990) considered several types of activity context,including adult-determined closed tasks inwhich the adult recruitsthe child to participate and in which the adult intentionallyinstructs, and child-initiated participation in household chores androutines, and involvement in childrens games in which the adult isnot intentionally instructing. Unlike Rogoffs studies in whichadults are either conscious of their instructional role or not theadults in this study were clearly aware of their teaching role in bothtypes of activities. They selected activities knowing the differentroles they would adopt, and the different participatory opportu-nities the childrenwould be offered. In activities which emphasisedchildrens decision-making the adults consciously adopted a leadby following approach aimed at supporting the childs own efforts.In this type of activity the child was no longer in an apprenticeshiprole to the adult, but rather the designer, using the adult as anadditional resource.

Much of the research on adultchild interaction stemming froma sociocultural perspective has focused on dyadic encounters. Thisstudy shows that the nature of participation between adults andchildren is changed in a group scenario. Nursery settings oftencomprise a large number of childrenwith relatively few adults in aninformal environment. Children competed for the adults attentionand for equipment. In the baking activities, the children weremanaged as a group; they had to wait their turn to add ingredients,stir the mixture, and for others to nish.

10.5. Design and methodology

This research provides insights into the usefulness of the

J.A. Blay, J. Ireson / Teaching and Tdesign and methodology adopted in the study. Pascal (1993)child participation and activity structure in the nursery, andpedagogical beliefs and activity choice. The choice made by theadults resulted in both adult-led and child-led cooking activities,and analysis revealed not only how the structuring of these areassociated with different interactional experiences for the children,but also reect differences and tensions in their beliefs about theappropriateness and value of this type of activity in a child-centrednursery classroom.

Appendix

Interview questions

About the adults teaching experience(1) How long have you worked in childcare?(2) What areas of childcare have you worked in?(3) What training have you had?(4) What do you think are the most important aspects of role?(5) How do you put these aspects into practice with the children?(6) What level or type of interaction do you think childcare

workers ought to give?

Pre-activity questions(1) How will you structure the activity itselfdthe materials, table,

etc.?(2) Inwhat sorts of ways do you anticipate supporting the children

during this activity?(3) Do you vary your approach/support with different children?

How?adults and children.The drawbacks with the design are acknowledged. Only

a selection of excerpts was used for transcription and analysis. Thesample size was very small, and consequently the conclusions thatcan be drawn from this small study are tentative, and not intendedto be generalised. Despite these drawbacks, the methodologyresulted in a data set that is very detailed and provides new insightsthat may be useful in future research.

10.6. Conclusionargued for the need for innovative approaches to researching theprocesses which form the educational experiences of children.The design employed in this study has enabled observations tobe made of interactions occurring naturally in their usualcontext, and which would have been difcult to replicate inarticial conditions. The use of a video camera to lm in thenursery environment has enabled the collection of a rich set ofdata that is authentic and detailed. The interviews with theadults enabled further insights and understanding of the adultsbeliefs and intentions, and the tensions they faced in the choicesthey made.

A grounded approach complemented the design by providingsystematic procedures that helped make sense of and analysea vast amount of unstructured data. Not constrained by pre-determined constructs or observation schedules, out of theanalysis it was possible to generate new descriptions andemergent categories of interaction, which can take account ofcontext and purpose. Interviews with the staff regarding theirpedagogical beliefs and approaches provided valuable insightsinto how beliefs inuenced the nature of the activities, and how

r Education 25 (2009) 11051116 1115(4) What do you think the children learn from this activity?

Post-activity interview questions(1) How did the activity go?(2) Did it go as expected?(3) Did you deliberately change your support for different chil-

dren? How?(4) What do you think the children got out of the activity?

References

Arbeau, K. A., & Coplan, R. J. (2007). Kindergarten teachers beliefs and responses tohypothetical prosocial, asocial, and antisocial children. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly,53, 291318.

Charlesworth, R., Hart, C. H., Burts, D. C., Mosley, J., & Fleege, P. O. (1993). Measuringthe developmental appropriateness of kindergarten teachers beliefs andpractices. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 8, 255276.

Daniels, D. H., & Shumow, L. (2003). Child development and classroom teaching: Areview of the literature and implications for educating teachers. AppliedDevelopmental Psychology, 23, 495526.

Elbers, E., Maier, R., Hoekstra, T., & Hoogsteder, M. (1992). Internalisation and adultchild interaction. Learning and Instruction, 2, 101118.

Erickson, F. (1982). Audiovisual records as a primary data source. SociologicalMethods and Research, 11, 213232.

Fang, Z. (1996). A review of research on teacher beliefs and practices. EducationalResearch, 38, 4765.

Girolametto, L., & Weitzman, E. (2002). Responsiveness of child care providers ininteractions with toddlers and preschoolers. Language, Speech, and HearingServices in School, 33, 268281.

Girolametto, L., Weitzman, E., & van Lieshout, R. (2000). Directiveness in teacherslanguage input to toddlers and preschoolers in day care. Journal of SpeechLanguage and Hearing Research, 43, 11011114.

McCarty, F., Abbott-Shim, M., & Lambert, R. (2001). The relationship betweenteacher beliefs and practices, and Head Start classroom quality. Early Educationand Development, 12, 225238.

Miller, L., & Smith, A. P. (2004). Practitioners beliefs and childrens experiences ofliteracy in four early years settings. Early Years, 24, 121131.

OBrien, M., & Bi, X. (1995). Language learning in context: Teacher and toddlerspeech in three classroom play areas. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education,15, 148163.

Ochs, E. (1979). Transcription as theory. In E. Ochs, & B. B. Schieffelin (Eds.),Developmental Pragmatics. New York: Academic Press.

Pajares, M. F. (1992). Teachers beliefs and educational research: Cleaning upa messy construct. Review of Educational Research, 62, 307332.

Pascal, C. (1993). Capturing the quality of education provision for young children: Astory of developing professionals and developing methodology. European EarlyChildhood Education Research Journal, 1, 6980.

Rogoff, B. (1990). Apprenticeship in thinking. New York: Oxford University Press.Rogoff, B. (2003). The cultural nature of human development. New York: Oxford

University Press.Rogoff, B., & Gauvain, M. (1986). A method for the analysis of patterns, illus-

trated with data on mother-child instructional interaction. In J. Valsiner(Ed.), The role of the individual subject in scientic psychology. New York:Plenum Press.

Rogoff, B., Mistry, J., Goncu, A., & Mosier, C. (1993). Guided participation in culturalactivity and caregivers. Monographs of the society for Research in Child Devel-opment, 58. (8, Serial No. 236).

Rogoff, B., & Wertsch, J. V. (1984). Editors notes. In B. Rogoff, & J. V. Wertsch (Eds.),Childrens learning in the zone of proximal development. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Strauss, A. L., & Corbin, J. (1990). Basics in qualitative research: Grounded theoryprocedures and techniques. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Tzuo, P. W. (2007). The tension between teacher control and childrensfreedom in a child-centred classroom: Resolving the practical dilemmathrough a closer look at the related theories. Early Education Journal, 35,3339.

J.A. Blay, J. Ireson / Teaching and Teacher Education 25 (2009) 110511161116Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies forqualitative research. New York: Aldine.

Goncu, A., & Rogoff, B. (1998). Childrens categorization with varying adult support.American Educational Research Journal, 35, 333349.

Hermans, R., van Braak, J., & van Keer, H. (2008). Development of the Beliefs aboutPrimary Education Scale: Distinguishing a developmental transmissivedimension. Teacher and Teacher Education, 24, 127139.

Ireson, J. (2000). Activity and interaction in pedagogical contexts. In H. Cowie, &G. van der Aalsvoort (Eds.), Social interaction in learning and instruction: Themeaning of discourse for the construction of knowledge. Amsterdam: Pergamon.

Ireson, J., & Blay, J. A. (1999). Constructing activity: Participation by adults andchildren. Learning and Instruction, 9, 1936.

Isenberg, J. P. (1990). Teachers thinking and beliefs and classroom practice. Child-hood Education, 66, 322327.

Lim, C., & Torr, J. (2007). Singaporean early childhood teachers beliefs about literacydevelopment in a multilingual context. Asia-Pacic Journal of Teacher Education,35, 409434.Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Wertsch, J. V. (1991). Voices of the mind: A sociocultural approach to mediated action.

Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Wertsch, J. V., & Kanner, B. (1992). A sociocultural approach to intellectual devel-

opment. In R. Sternberg, & C. Berg (Eds.), Intellectual development. New York:Cambridge University Press.

Wertsch, J. V., McNamee, G. D., McLane, J. B., & Budwig, N. A. (1980). Theadultchild dyad as a problem-solving system. Child Development, 51,12151221.

Wood, D., Bruner, J. S., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving.Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 17, 89100.

Wood, E. (2007). Reconceptualising child-centred education: Contemporarydirections in policy, theory and practice in early childhood. Forum: ForPromoting 319 Comprehensive Education, 49, 119134, Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.2304/forum.2007.49.1.119. Accessed 19.08.07.

Pedagogical beliefs, activity choice and structure, and adult-child interaction in nursery classroomsIntroductionPedagogical beliefs and classroom practicesActivity contextTheoretical frameworkAim of studyDesignThe nursery schoolsThe participantsData collection

Transcription and coding of the videotaped activitiesTranscription sampling procedureTranscription formatCoding procedure

Transcription and coding of the audio taped interviewsCodingAlignment between the adults stated and enacted beliefsThe adults rationale and intensions

Findings of the analysis of the cooking activities and the alignment between the stated and enacted beliefsThe adults beliefsBelief: ownership of the activity resides with the childActivity structureSummary

Belief: the adults role is to facilitate childrensindependent learningDifferences in the participatory roles of the adults in the baking and sandwich and fruit salad preparation activitiesSimilarities in the participatory roles of the adults in the baking and sandwich and fruit salad preparation activitiesSummaryDifferences in the participatory roles of the children in the baking and sandwich and fruit salad preparation activitiesSimilarities in the participatory roles of the children in the baking and sandwich and fruit salad preparation activitiesSummary

Belief: learning experiences should be enjoyableSummary

DiscussionPedagogical beliefs and classroom practicesTensions between pedagogical approachesActivity contextA sociocultural perspectiveDesign and methodologyConclusion

AppendixInterview questions

References