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The Big Three of Literary The Big Three of Literary AnalysisAnalysis

Diction, Syntax and Diction, Syntax and ImageryImagery

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DICTIONDICTION Diction Defines Style / Character:Diction Defines Style / Character: Diction is an author’s choice of wordsDiction is an author’s choice of words

modified by modified by his own unique stylehis own unique style also also called the called the author’s “voice”.author’s “voice”.

Like a good closet of clothes, a skillful Like a good closet of clothes, a skillful author selects the appropriate author selects the appropriate “verbal “verbal wardrobe”:wardrobe”:

to fit the occasion or situationto fit the occasion or situation to reach his audienceto reach his audience to achieve his purpose.to achieve his purpose.

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DICTIONDICTION Some writers, like John Steinbeck in Some writers, like John Steinbeck in The The

Grapes of WrathGrapes of Wrath and and Cannery RowCannery Row, use a , use a very wide range of diction to make their very wide range of diction to make their characters distinctive. characters distinctive.

For instance, the used car salesman speaks in For instance, the used car salesman speaks in repeated repeated clichés and slangclichés and slang such as, such as, “It’s a “It’s a real bargain”,real bargain”, or or “The deal’s a steal”;“The deal’s a steal”;

Some characters speak in more Some characters speak in more formal formal languagelanguage when they are repeating the edict when they are repeating the edict from the bank, from the bank, “You must vacate the “You must vacate the premises immediately”.premises immediately”.

Other characters speak in Other characters speak in colloquial colloquial languagelanguage showing their lack of “proper” showing their lack of “proper” education. education. “Shucks”, pa, “Ain’t no use “Shucks”, pa, “Ain’t no use fightin’ ‘em…”.fightin’ ‘em…”. Many authors use various Many authors use various sorts of diction to distinguish their characters sorts of diction to distinguish their characters one from the other.one from the other.

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DICTIONDICTIONType of Type of DictionDiction

AudienceAudience PurposePurpose ExampleExample

SophisticatedSophisticated Highly Highly educated or educated or refinedrefined

To impress To impress The meal was The meal was exquisiteexquisite

FormalFormal Strangers, Strangers, notables; notables; professional professional

To show To show good good manners manners

My stomach is My stomach is fullfull

InformalInformal Friends and Friends and Colleagues Colleagues

To share To share feelings feelings

My belly is My belly is stuffed with food stuffed with food

ColloquialColloquial Family and Family and close friends close friends

To share To share feelings feelings without without pretense pretense

That there finger That there finger lickin’ grub lickin’ grub stuffed my gut. stuffed my gut.

SlangSlang Close friends Close friends To be cool To be cool and “in” and “in”

That belly-That belly-buster filled me buster filled me up. up.

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DICTIONDICTION Denotation and Connotation are Denotation and Connotation are

Cultural Nuances of Diction:Cultural Nuances of Diction: In analysis, the dictionary definition of the word In analysis, the dictionary definition of the word

“birthday” is simply the day one is born, or the “birthday” is simply the day one is born, or the annual celebration of the date of birth. We call annual celebration of the date of birth. We call the the dictionary definition, dictionary definition, “denotation”.“denotation”.

Authors, and especially poets, use Authors, and especially poets, use “loaded “loaded words”words” we call we call “connotation”“connotation” that are packed that are packed with extra meaning with extra meaning from their cultural from their cultural experienceexperience..

For instance, what American 16 year-old For instance, what American 16 year-old doesn’t know that “birthday” means driver’s doesn’t know that “birthday” means driver’s license, and if he is lucky, maybe even a car.license, and if he is lucky, maybe even a car.

But those definitions are But those definitions are NOTNOT to be found in to be found in the the denotation denotation of the word, “birthday”. of the word, “birthday”.

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SYNTAXSYNTAX Syntax Defines Style Through Syntax Defines Style Through

Variety of Sentence Structure:Variety of Sentence Structure: Syntax refers to sentence structureSyntax refers to sentence structure

and the variation of phrases and and the variation of phrases and clauses within, which the author clauses within, which the author manipulates:manipulates:

to fit the occasion or to fit the occasion or situationsituation to reach his to reach his audience audience to achieve his to achieve his purposepurpose..

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SYNTAXSYNTAX A Sentence is a Clause:A Sentence is a Clause: All clauses have a subject (S), a verb All clauses have a subject (S), a verb

(V)(V), and sometimes a direct object (DO) , and sometimes a direct object (DO) and an indirect object (IO). and an indirect object (IO).

A sentence with only A sentence with only one one subject (S) + subject (S) + verb (V) combination is called a verb (V) combination is called a simple simple sentencesentence. . Adding phrases to a simple Adding phrases to a simple sentence can make it very long, sentence can make it very long, but it is but it is still simplestill simple..

Sometimes a sentence has Sometimes a sentence has twotwo or more or more clauses (S+V) + (S+V), joined by a clauses (S+V) + (S+V), joined by a coordinating conjunctioncoordinating conjunction such as: and, such as: and, but, or, and the result is a but, or, and the result is a compound compound sentencesentence..

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SYNTAXSYNTAX Sometimes, long sentences are Sometimes, long sentences are

complexcomplex, with , with two two or more subject-or more subject-verb-object combinations (S+V) + (S+V) verb-object combinations (S+V) + (S+V) joined by a joined by a subordinating conjunctionsubordinating conjunction such as: however, although, which, that, such as: however, although, which, that, nonetheless, and many of the personal nonetheless, and many of the personal pronouns that can sometimes be used pronouns that can sometimes be used as subordinating conjunctions. as subordinating conjunctions.

So the terms, So the terms, simple, compound and simple, compound and complexcomplex refer to the type of sentence refer to the type of sentence structurestructure used by the author. used by the author.

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SYNTAXSYNTAX Another way to distinguish sentences is Another way to distinguish sentences is

by their function:by their function: declarative, declarative, interrogatory, exclamatory or imperative. interrogatory, exclamatory or imperative. Their end punctuation provides the biggest Their end punctuation provides the biggest clue to the sentence type. clue to the sentence type.

The The declarative declarative sentence makes a sentence makes a statement and ends with a period statement and ends with a period (.)(.). The . The interrogative interrogative sentence ends with a question sentence ends with a question mark mark (?)(?), and the , and the exclamatory exclamatory sentence sentence ends with and exclamation point ends with and exclamation point (!)(!). .

The The imperativeimperative sentence ends with a period sentence ends with a period (.)(.), but it is distinguished because it starts , but it is distinguished because it starts with a verb and the subject is understood. with a verb and the subject is understood.

The imperative is easiest to remember by The imperative is easiest to remember by associating it with authority figures giving associating it with authority figures giving orders: “Clean up”, “Be quiet”, “Sit down”.orders: “Clean up”, “Be quiet”, “Sit down”.

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SYNTAXSYNTAX Phrases do NOT have a Subject and a Verb:Phrases do NOT have a Subject and a Verb: Phrases are important to enrich the detail of the Phrases are important to enrich the detail of the

sentence. Their function is to describe or modify sentence. Their function is to describe or modify either the subject or the verb, or to replace a either the subject or the verb, or to replace a noun.noun.

Prepositional phrasesPrepositional phrases add description and add description and work like adjectives modifying nouns or adverbs work like adjectives modifying nouns or adverbs modifying verbs. For instance, the prepositional modifying verbs. For instance, the prepositional phrase can be used as an adjective as in, “The phrase can be used as an adjective as in, “The roadroad ((to school)to school) ended.” or as an adverb, “The ended.” or as an adverb, “The road road ended ended (beyond the bridge)(beyond the bridge).”.”

Appositive phrases Appositive phrases are set off by commas are set off by commas andand simply restate the noun such as: Bob, simply restate the noun such as: Bob, my my friendfriend, lives next door. , lives next door.

The The Verbal phrasesVerbal phrases are actually verb words are actually verb words with the “en” “ing” or “ed” ending working as with the “en” “ing” or “ed” ending working as nouns, adjectives or adverbs. They are: nouns, adjectives or adverbs. They are: participles, gerunds and infinitives.participles, gerunds and infinitives.

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SYNTAXSYNTAX Participles Participles do the work of do the work of adjectivesadjectives (to modify (to modify

nouns or pronouns) or nouns or pronouns) or adverbsadverbs (to modify (to modify verbs). For example the participle phrase can be verbs). For example the participle phrase can be used as an adjective as in, “The used as an adjective as in, “The speedingspeeding car car crashed.”, or as an adverb in, “The car crashed crashed.”, or as an adverb in, “The car crashed speedilyspeedily.” .”

Gerunds Gerunds are verb forms that replace are verb forms that replace nounsnouns or or pronounspronouns as in, “ as in, “RunningRunning is my best sport.” is my best sport.”

Infinitives Infinitives always start with the word, “to” and always start with the word, “to” and end with a verb, as in end with a verb, as in “to work”.“to work”. They replace They replace nounsnouns or or pronounspronouns as either the subject or as either the subject or object of a sentence; as object of a sentence; as adverbs adverbs that modify that modify verbs, or as verbs, or as adjectivesadjectives that modify nouns. that modify nouns. Infinitives are easy to spot because “to” followed Infinitives are easy to spot because “to” followed by a noun in the by a noun in the prepositional phase (to + prepositional phase (to + noun)noun) is very different than the “to” followed by is very different than the “to” followed by a verb of the a verb of the infinitiveinfinitive phrasephrase (to + verb). (to + verb).

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SyntaxSyntaxSentences = Sentences = Clauses:Clauses:

Subject +Subject + Verb +Verb + Direct Object Direct Object ++

Indirect Indirect ObjectObject

Must have, Must have, unless sentence unless sentence is a commandis a command

Must haveMust have OptionalOptional Must first have a Must first have a direct objectdirect object

Sentence TypesSentence Types Simple Simple ==One S+V One S+V

CompoundCompound = =Two equal S+V’sTwo equal S+V’sjoined by and, joined by and, but or yet but or yet

ComplexComplex = One = Onemain S+V and main S+V and one or more one or more subordinate S+V subordinate S+V

Compound/Compound/ComplexComplex = Two = Twoequal S+V’s, +equal S+V’s, +one or more one or more subordinate SV subordinate SV

Sentence Sentence PatternsPatterns

Declarative Declarative = = makes a makes a statementstatement

InterrogativeInterrogative = = asks a questionasks a question

ExclamatoryExclamatory = = makes a strong makes a strong or sudden or sudden statement statement

ImperativeImperative = a = a command with command with a verb and “you” a verb and “you” understood understood

Sentence LengthSentence Length PeriodicPeriodic – less – less common with common with S+V lastS+V last

CumulativeCumulative – – more common more common with S+V first with S+V first

Phrases:Phrases: No SubjectNo Subject No VerbNo Verb

Phrase TypesPhrase Types PrepositionsPrepositions – – work as work as adjectives or adjectives or adverbsadverbs

AppositivesAppositives – – work as a repeat work as a repeat or clarification of or clarification of a noun a noun

VerbalsVerbals – verb – verb words that work words that work as nouns, adjects as nouns, adjects or adverbs or adverbs

Types of Verbal Types of Verbal PhrasesPhrases

ParticiplesParticiples – – verb words verb words ending in “en”, ending in “en”, “ed” or “ing” that “ed” or “ing” that work as adverbs work as adverbs or adjectivesor adjectives

InfinitivesInfinitives – verb – verb words with “to” in words with “to” in front that work as front that work as nouns adjectives nouns adjectives or adverbs or adverbs

Gerunds Gerunds – verb – verb words ending in words ending in “ed” or “ing” that “ed” or “ing” that work as nouns work as nouns

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SYNTAXSYNTAX Syntax also includes the Syntax also includes the author’s author’s

variationsvariations of sentence components as an of sentence components as an element ofelement of style used to emphasize style used to emphasize his his message. message.

Some common variations of emphasis Some common variations of emphasis are:are:

word order word order (inversion)(inversion) juxtaposition of opposites juxtaposition of opposites (oxymoron)(oxymoron) repetition of words, phrases or clausesrepetition of words, phrases or clauses rhetorical questions to explore ideas rhetorical questions to explore ideas

(not expecting and answer)(not expecting and answer) variations of punctuationvariations of punctuation

The careful reader will spot them easily.The careful reader will spot them easily.

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SYNTAXSYNTAXSynatx variationsSynatx variations Examples of syntax variations for emphasisExamples of syntax variations for emphasis

Inversion Inversion Carried (V), she (S) wasCarried (V), she (S) was, by others in her study group. , by others in her study group. The verb of the sentence is placed before the subject.The verb of the sentence is placed before the subject.

JuxtapositionJuxtaposition Do not weep, maiden, for Do not weep, maiden, for war is kind. war is kind. The italicized The italicized words are opposite in meaning giving a sudden words are opposite in meaning giving a sudden contrast of ideas that signals something is wrong. contrast of ideas that signals something is wrong.

RepetitionRepetition I have a dreamI have a dream that all men are equal; that all men are equal; I have a dreamI have a dream that my sons can aspire to the highest positions; that my sons can aspire to the highest positions; I have I have a dreama dream… … is a clause that is repeated 17 times in the is a clause that is repeated 17 times in the famous Martin Luther King speech for dramatic effect.famous Martin Luther King speech for dramatic effect.

Rhetorical Rhetorical QuestionQuestion

Shall we not rise up and be counted, make our cause Shall we not rise up and be counted, make our cause be known? If we do not, we are fool-hardy in that be known? If we do not, we are fool-hardy in that choice. choice. A question posed, and then answered. The A question posed, and then answered. The function is to prod the listener to thought. function is to prod the listener to thought.

Parallel StructureParallel Structure Marlene enjoyed the outdoor sports of skiing, hiking Marlene enjoyed the outdoor sports of skiing, hiking and riding horses, but much preferred the indoor sport and riding horses, but much preferred the indoor sport of ice-skating. of ice-skating. Items or ideas in a series must appear in Items or ideas in a series must appear in the same grammatical form.the same grammatical form.

PunctuationPunctuation I heard a fly buzz when I died – He landed – Where I I heard a fly buzz when I died – He landed – Where I could not see to see. could not see to see. Here, the dash is used to signal Here, the dash is used to signal an extended pause for dramatic effect. an extended pause for dramatic effect.

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IMAGERYIMAGERY

Imagery refers to words that Imagery refers to words that appeal to the appeal to the five senses:five senses: sight, sound, taste, feel, smell;sight, sound, taste, feel, smell; or or create a mental picture for create a mental picture for the readerthe reader. .

The The figurative languagefigurative language of of imagery also includesimagery also includes simile simile (“like” or “as” comparisons)(“like” or “as” comparisons) and and metaphormetaphor (direct comparisons (direct comparisons with “is”).with “is”).

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IMAGERYIMAGERY Imagery is Description and a Function of Imagery is Description and a Function of

Style:Style: All great writers paint All great writers paint “word pictures”“word pictures” with with

their descriptive imagery. their descriptive imagery. TheyThey show usshow us about settings and characters about settings and characters rather than rather than tell ustell us. .

Many authors are especially notable for their Many authors are especially notable for their skill at complex and detailed imagery such skill at complex and detailed imagery such as the non-fiction essay writer, as the non-fiction essay writer, Annie Annie Dillard,Dillard, author of author of A Pilgrim at Tinker A Pilgrim at Tinker Creek, Creek, and fiction writer, and fiction writer, F. Scott Fitzgerald F. Scott Fitzgerald

Dillard describes the gory detail of a Dillard describes the gory detail of a praying praying mantismantis chewing the innards out of a chewing the innards out of a live live waspwasp at the same time that he (the wasp) at the same time that he (the wasp) was squeezing a was squeezing a honey beehoney bee to death to lick to death to lick her disgorged honey.her disgorged honey.

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IMAGERYIMAGERY ““He [J. Henry Fabre] He [J. Henry Fabre] describes a bee-eating describes a bee-eating

waspwasp, the Philanthus, , the Philanthus, who has killed a honey-who has killed a honey-bee. bee.

If the bee is heavy with honey, the wasp If the bee is heavy with honey, the wasp squeezes its crop ‘so as to make her disgorge squeezes its crop ‘so as to make her disgorge the delicious syrup, which she drinks by licking the delicious syrup, which she drinks by licking the tongue which her unfortunate victim, in her the tongue which her unfortunate victim, in her death agony, sticks out of her mouth at full death agony, sticks out of her mouth at full lengthlength….….(visual) (gustatory) (tactile)(visual) (gustatory) (tactile)

At the moment of some such horrible banquet, I At the moment of some such horrible banquet, I have seen the Wasp, with her prey, seized by have seen the Wasp, with her prey, seized by the Mantis: the bandit was rifled by another the Mantis: the bandit was rifled by another bandit. bandit.

And here is an awful detail: while the And here is an awful detail: while the Mantis Mantis held her transfixed under the points of the held her transfixed under the points of the double saw and was already munching her double saw and was already munching her belly, the belly, the Wasp Wasp continued to lick the honey of continued to lick the honey of her her BeeBee, unable to relinquish the delicious food , unable to relinquish the delicious food even amid the terrors of death. even amid the terrors of death.

Let us hasten to cast a veil over these horrors.’”Let us hasten to cast a veil over these horrors.’”

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IMAGERYIMAGERYImageryImagery Figurative languageFigurative language

Visual Visual words: red, blue, all colors, words: red, blue, all colors, shapely, ugly, pretty, handsome, tall, shapely, ugly, pretty, handsome, tall, short, barren, wooded short, barren, wooded

SimileSimile: She is nothing : She is nothing likelike the the Sun… Sun…

Auditory Auditory words: (onomatopoeia) words: (onomatopoeia) cracked, clang, snap, loud, whisper, cracked, clang, snap, loud, whisper, discordant, harmonious, cacophony, discordant, harmonious, cacophony, blare, trumpet, melodious, raspy, blare, trumpet, melodious, raspy, croaking croaking

Her eyes were Her eyes were as as big big as as saucers saucers when she saw the horror movie.when she saw the horror movie.

Gustatory Gustatory words: delicious, sweet, words: delicious, sweet, sour, tart, tangy, scrumptious, hot, sour, tart, tangy, scrumptious, hot, cold, spicy, creamy, warm, crunchycold, spicy, creamy, warm, crunchy

MetaphorMetaphor: The window darkened : The window darkened upon my soul and none could upon my soul and none could discern me hiding within. discern me hiding within.

TactileTactile words: soft, scratchy, silky, words: soft, scratchy, silky, rough, hard, dented, knobby, satiny, rough, hard, dented, knobby, satiny, weathered, pliable, flexible weathered, pliable, flexible

There are many, many variations There are many, many variations of metaphors, but all function as of metaphors, but all function as direct comparisons. direct comparisons.

OlfactoryOlfactory words: stinky, perfumed, words: stinky, perfumed, odorous, reeking, stench, putrid, odorous, reeking, stench, putrid, steamy, sweaty, pungentsteamy, sweaty, pungent