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1. The Characteristics of Life
• 1. Cell - smallest unit capable of life functions (basic unit of life)
• 2.Metabolism - the sum of all chemical reactions, metabolism refers to a living organism's ability to consume and use energy (from food or from the sun)
• 3. Reproduction - the process by which organisms make more of their own kind
• 4. Homeostasis - maintaining stable internal conditions (biological balance)
• 5. Heredity - the passing of traits from parents to offspring. The unit of heredity is the GENE - which codes for a trait. When a gene changes, it is called a MUTATION
• 6. Responsiveness: reaction to select stimuli, physiologically and/or behaviorally
• 7. Growth: conversion of materials from the environment into components of organism
# 2
• Homeostasis means
“same state” and it is
the process of keeping
the internal body
environment in a
normal state.
Sweating allows the body to cool,
maintaining normal body
temperatures
Insulin Injections allow diabetics
to maintain normal glucose levels
In order to maintain homeostasis, it is most
important for an animal to be able to —
A. change its habitat
B. increase its prey population
C. hide from its predators
D. respond to its environment
The concentration of glucose must be
maintained within a fairly narrow range in
most vertebrates. This statement is an
example of —
A. fermentation
B. glycolysis
C. homeostasis
D. excretion
#3 Scientific Method
Scientific Method is presented 20 different ways in 20 different books. Don’t get hung
up on it! Remember that a Hypothesis is a Prediction!
#6 Scholarly Journals: best choice Scholarly journals are
often key resources for academic research.
Journal articles are "peer-reviewed," meaning their content is reviewed and approved by experts in the discipline.
Watch out, encyclopedias
may have worked in middle school, but they no longer should be you best reference!
#7 Control Group
Control group
the group that is not
changed; “normal
conditions”
used for comparison
# 8 Experimental Variables
Independent variable
experimenter changes
(“I” change)
Dependent Variable
is measured or
observed
changes due to the
independent variable
The only way to eliminate
experimenter bias
#9. Mr. Brodowski wanted to test how effective note cards were on helping students prepare for tests. He divided his class into two groups. He told Group A to make note cards each day for the next ten days, and Group B did not make note cards. He found that Group A scored 10 points higher on the test than Group B.
Identify:
Independent Variable Dependent Variable
Control Group
Experimental Group
#9 (cont.) Bart thinks that mice exposed to microwaves will become stronger. He decided to do this as an experiment in his mother’s microwave. He placed 10 mice in the microwave for half a minute. He then compared the “waved” mice to a group of “non-waved” mice. To test his hypothesis, the mice would have to move a heavy block of wood that covered their food. Bart found that 8 “waved” mice and 8 “non-waved” mice could move the block of wood.
•
• Identify: – Control Group ______________
– Independent Variable ___________
– Dependent Variable ______________
A scientist designed an experiment to test the effect of temperature on bacterial growth. He grew three different cultures of the bacterium E. coli under three heat lamps at different temperatures. What was the independent variable in this experiment? A. Temperature B. Reproduction rate
C. Number of bacteria D. Length of the experiment
• A student’s experiment showed that
earthworms move away from light. This
statement should be classified as —
A. an inference
• B. a predictiona
• C. hypothesisa
• D. conclusion
• A student wanted to look at plant growth in five
different soil samples. He planted the same type
of seeds in identical containers and left them
together in full sunlight. He gave each plant the
same amount of water and charted the growth of
each plant stem. What is the independent
variable in this experiment?
• A. Light
• B. Seeds
• C. Soil
• D. Container
Lipids
1.Fats
2. Oils
3. Waxes
4.Cholesterals
5. Steroids
Proteins
1. Pigments – Provide
skin color and
protection
2. Structure – Cell
structure
3. Keratin – Nail and Hair
4. Carriers – Hemoglobin
5. Enzymes
Nucleic Acids DNA – Deoxyribonucleic acids
- DNA is our genetic code
- It contains the
information for our cells
RNA – Ribonucleic acids
- RNA reads the DNA and
provides instruction
Carbohydrates Polysaccharide: many
sugar units
1. starch = plant storage
(bread, potatoes)
2. glycogen = animal
storage (beef muscle)
3. cellulose = Plant
structure (lettuce, corn)
#12
#13
• The monomer or building block of carbohydrates is monosaccharides
• Protein’s building blocks (monomers) of amino acids
• The Building Blocks (monomers) of nucleic acids are nucleutides
• Lipids: Triglycerides:composed of 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids.
#14 • Protein/Amino acids are composed of
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen (CHON)
• Carbohydrates/monosaccharides Composed of Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen (CHO) 1:2:1 C6H12O6
• Nucleic Acids (DNA, RNA) are composed of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen and Phosphate (CHONP)
# 15 Hydrolysis
• Separates monomers by “adding water”
• Used to separate macromolecules
HO HO H H
HO H
H2O
#16 Dehydration Synthesis • Also called “condensation reaction”
• Forms polymers by combining monomers by “removing water”.
• Used to form macromolecules.
HO H
HO HO H H
H2O
#17
• Ice is less dense as a solid, so
ice floats
• Cohesion: attraction between
particles of the same substance
Ex. Surface Tension
• Adhesion : attraction between
two different substances.
– Ex. Capillary action
#17 cont. • Polar water molecules act like magnets and attract each other
• Water is often said to be the universal solvent, because it can dissolve many substances (think Kool-Aid)
Salt in water will
dissolve because it is
polar, thus the universal
solvent name
What is the function of enzymes in biological systems?
A. Enzymes act as substrates when the necessary proteins are unavailable.
B. Enzymes act as catalysts to drive chemical reactions forward.
C. Enzymes act as products to create new chemical reactions.
D. Enzymes bond with substrates to create the new reaction products.
# 20 Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity (denature= Stopping its function)
•Temperature •pH •Cofactors & Coenzymes
•Inhibitors
Denatured by pH or temp
change: substrate no longer fits
#21 Enzyme-Substrate Complex
• Enzymes are substances present in the cell in small amounts which
speed up or catalyze chemical reactions. Enzymes speed up the
rate of chemical reactions because they lower the energy of
activation, the energy that must be supplied in order for molecules to
react with one another. Enzymes lower the energy of activation by
forming an enzyme-substrate complex.
BTW, Change the pH or temperature and this enzyme might
not work (denatured)
#22 CELL SHAPE
• 1. Cells come in a variety of Shapes.
• 2. Notice the neurons on the wall, the basic cell of our Nervous System. This diversity of form reflects a diversity of function.
• 3. Most Cells have a Specific Shape.
• 4. THE SHAPE OF A CELL DEPENDS ON IT'S FUNCTION.
• 5. Cells of the Nervous System that carry information from your toes to your brain are long and threadlike.
• 6. Blood Cells are shaped like round disk that can squeeze through tiny blood vessels.
#23 The Cell Theory consist of
THREE Principles:
A. All living things are composed of one or more cells.
B. Cells are the basic units of structure and function in an organism.
C. Cells come only from reproduction of existing cells. (remember the Redi experiment)
#24 • It is harder for a large cell to pass materials in and out of the
membrane, and to move materials through the cell
• Bottom Line: You want a large surface area to volume ratio,
which mean a small cell! Look how long it would take
for stuff to get to the
nucleus. NOT GOOD!!
The
Good
The Bad The UGLY
#26 Cell Membrane
• The Cell Membrane Functions like a GATE, Controlling what ENTERS and LEAVES the Cell
• This "Selectively Permeable" Membrane regulates what passes into and out of the cell
FLUID- because individual phospholipids and proteins can move around freely within the layer, like it’s a liquid.
MOSAIC- because of the pattern produced by the scattered protein molecules when the membrane is viewed from above.
#26 FLUID MOSAIC MODEL
Maybe TMI, but discuss.
#26 cont.
• Hydrophilic (water-loving)
polar heads of the
phospholipid molecules
lie on the outward-facing
surfaces of the plasma
membrane.
• Hydrophobic (water-
fearing) nonpolar tails
extend to the interior of
the plasma membrane.
Yea, I know it is a cheesy picture. It is not
like I get these from Sports Illustrated!
What characteristic does the small animal
have that makes him adapted to the change
in the environment?
Can animals choose
to adapt to their
environment?
What has to be
present in the
population before
these fish can go on
land?
#28 Prokaryotes (Bacteria)
• Pro (before) Karyon (kernel)
• No nuclear membrane
• Lack membrane bound organelles
• Simple and often small
#28 Eukaryotes (animal)
• Eu (true) Karyon (kernel)
• Membrane bound
organelles
• More complex and often
bigger
• Membrane bound
nucleus
#31 Plant Cell
• Eukaryotes for they have membrane bound organelles and a true nucleus
• Have cell wall, central vacuum and chloroplast
• Lack flagella, cilia, lysosomes and centrioles
#32 Endosymbiosis
• Process by which prokaryotes
gave rise to the first eukaryotic
cells
• Cells are living together within
cells
• Mitochondria and Chloroplast
• Lynn Margulis discovered
Isotonic Solution
NO NET MOVEMENT OF Both in and out
equally
Hypotonic Solution
IN
Hypertonic Solution
OUT
#33
Small molecules and larger hydrophobic molecules move through easily. e.g. O2, CO2, H2O
# 35 Semipermeable Membrane
Ions, hydrophilic molecules larger than water, and large molecules such as proteins do not move through the membrane on their own.
#35 Semipermeable Membrane
#39 Overview of Cellular Respiration
1. Process that releases energy by breaking
down food molecules in presence of oxygen
Carried out by both plants and animals!
#39 cont. Photosynthesis
The process of converting light energy
to chemical energy and storing it as
glucose.
This process occurs in plants and some
algae.
The process of photosynthesis takes
place in the Chloroplast.
#40 Chloroplast
• Chloroplast is an organelle found in plants.
• Chloroplast is the organelle where photosynthesis takes place.
• Photosynthesis is the process of converting light energy to chemical energy and storing it as glucose
• Chloroplast contains a pigment called chlorophyll.
• Chlorophyll is the green pigment found in most plants.
Yea, that pretty much sums up #40.
6O2 + C6H12O6 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
Look familiar?
What was the equation for
photosynthesis?
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
light
What do we make that plants need, and what
do plants make that we need?
#41
Cellular Respiration
G0:
nondividing
interphase
Interphase: G1= carry out cell functions, live!
S= replication of chromosomes
G2= checkpoints
S: Synthesis
of DNA
G1: Growth
G2: Growth
#43/46
#43
• Cytokinesis: entire
cell divides in two
• Process in which the
cytoplasm of a cell is
divided after nuclear
division (mitosis) is
complete.
Mitosis Meiosis
Number of
divisions 1
2
Number of
daughter cells 2 4
Genetically
identical? Yes No
Chromosome # Same as parent Half of parent
Where Somatic cells Gamete cells
When Throughout life At sexual maturity
Role Growth and repair Sexual reproduction
~ 47 to 52 Know this chart
Somatic cells (body
cells)
Gamete (reproductive cells –
Sperm/eggs)
Diploid Haploid
#55 Mutations
• Mutation – any change in the DNA
• Gene mutation
• Chromosomal mutation
• Agents causing mutations –
radiation, chemicals, excess heat
• They eventually lead to evolution if
the organism survives
#55 Recombination
(crossing over)
• Occurs in prophase of
meiosis I
• Generates diversity
Letters denote genes
Case denotes alleles
•Creates chromosomes with new combinations of alleles for genes A to F.
A
B
C
D
E
F
a
b
c
d
e
f
c
d
e
f
C
D
E
F
Homologous chromosomes
Sister chromatids Sister chromatids Tetrad
#56 Homologous Chromosomes Pair of chromosomes (maternal and paternal) that are similar in
shape and size
Homologous pairs (tetrads) carry genes controlling the same
inherited traits
Interphase : The chromosomes (blue) are uncondensed..
Metaphase: The chromosomes move along the spindle microtubules to line up at the center of the cell. Think Middle.
Prophase: Chromosomes condense and are visible for first time Think Pasta.
#57 Phases of Mitosis (PMAT)
Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate, and each of two full sets of chromosomes. Think Apart
Telophase: The chromosomes gather into two clusters. Think Two.
Next interphase: Chromosomes are decondensed. Spindle fibers are gone.
#57cont. Phases of Mitosis
# 58 Pedigree
Key: = Males
= Females
Shading = Recessive Trait
No Shading = Dominant Trait
(Attached Earlobes = f )
(Free Earlobes = F)
1 2
1 2 3
I
II
4 5
1 2 3
3 4 1 2
1 2 3 6
I
II
What are the Genotypes of the people shown below?
ff
ff
ff
F F F
F F
F
F
F F F
f f f
? ?
?
f f f
f
#58 cont. So you think your soo smart?
Genotype & Phenotype
• Genotype :represents the exact genetic make-up. (What are the letters)
Ex. Ss or SS
• Phenotype: represents the actual physical properties, such as height, weight, hair color, and so on. (What is on the outside or expressed)
BTW, Let’s get this out of the way before we start the heredity stuff
#59/64/65 Genotype & Phenotype Yes, I know it does not align with the review, but you know what I mean!
Genotype Phenotype
SS or Ss Round
ss Wrinkled
Genotype frequency
1:2:1
Phenotype frequency
3:1
BTW Dihybrid
Cross
Dihybrid – 2 traits
Gametes per parent = 4
Punnett Square – 16
boxes
Genotype ratio
1:2:1:2:4:2:1:2:1
Phenotype ratio
9:3:3:1
#60 Dominant vs. Recessive
• Dominant – always expressed Capital letters – N
Homozygous - NN
Heterozygous - Nn
• Recessive – prevented by dominant Lower case letters – n
Homozygous - nn
#61 Linkage – Sex Linkage
• Linkage – genes on the same
chromosome inherited as a group
• Sex-linkage – genes on sex
chromosomes (esp. X)
• Y-chromosome shorter – some genes
from X missing
• X-linked traits more common in men
• Men get X-chromosome from mom
• Red-green colorblindness, hemophilia
#62 Hemophilia
• Hemophilia (heem-a-FILL-
ee-ah) is a rare inherited
bleeding disorder in which
the blood does not clot
normally.
• Hemophilia is a sex-linked
trait in humans
• Women are most often
“carriers”, not having the
symptoms but carrying the
trait on their genes.
#63 Test-Cross
• The crossing of an
organism, with an
unknown genotype, to
a homozygous
recessive organism
(tester).
KNOWN
Homozygous
Recessive
So, What is the unknown
genotype?
UNKNOWN
#66 Incomplete Dominance
• Hybrid is a blend of
two traits
• Genotype frequency
1:2:1
• Phenotype frequency
1:2:1
• Examples:
Flowers, Animal fur
#66 cont. Co-dominance
• More than one dominant allele
• Blood types – A,B,O alleles
• Phenotypes Genotypes
A I AI A or I Ai (AA or (AO)
B IBIB or IBi (BB or BO)
AB I AIB (AB)
O ii (oo)
#66 cont. Polygenetic Traits
• More than one gene determines the phenotype.
• 2 or more genes affect 1 phenotype usually with quantitative characters, with a continuous scale of measurement... - height, weight, skin color* (and a polygenic*model), etc...
Notice the multiple alleles
#67 Karyotype
• What species? How do you know?
• Boy or girl? How do you know?
• What are the first 22 chromosomes called?
• Anything else going on with this karyotype?
Human Genome Project
• Completed in 2003, the Human Genome Project (HGP) was a 13-year project coordinated by the U.S. Department of Energy and the National Institutes of Health.
• Goal – identified all the approximately 25,000-30,000 genes
in human DNA
– Basically they mapped the human genome (all of our genes
#68
#70 Find the Gene for Whirling Disorder!
• When individuals afflicted with Whirling Disorder hear old
Rolling Stones tunes, they let loose and dance uncontrollably.
#71 Environmental influence on
genes expression • Gene function is influenced by
environment as with identical twins
• Genes have blueprint for proteins or parts of proteins
• Proteins can be structural proteins (parts of body) or functional proteins (hormones/enzymes)
Evidence for DNA
GRIFFITH
Griffith studied Streptococcus pneumonia, a nasty bacteria
to create a vaccine.
A vaccine is a substance made from dead or weakened
bacteria. You body is given the vaccine and is ready for a
live version when it comes.
X X Virulent: A substance
that causes disease
or death
Heat Treated
Dead Virulent
Harmless
non-virulent
Griffith’s Conclusion:
Transformation: Bacteria have the ability to transfer genetic information from one
bacteria to another.
#72
More Evidence for DNA
Hershey Chase
Hershey and Chase studied a
bacteriophage.
A Bacteriophage is a virus that infects
bacteria and causes them to burst.
Bacteriophage
Bacteria
Hershey & Chase
Experiment
Bacteriophage w/
Blinking DNA
Bacteria Frozen Daiquiri Baby Viruses w/
Blinking DNA
Conclusion: DNA is the unit of genetics,
because the babies blink!!!
#72 cont
Chagraff’s Puzzle Pieces
Chagraff
G
C C
Simply put:
- Where you find an adenine (A) there will be a thymine (T)
-Where you find a guanine (G) there will be a cytosine (C).
**** A + T spells AT ******
The base pairs are
complimentary for
A=T
G=C
Notice Purines
Are large.
#73
Rosalind Franklin
A picture is worth a thousand nucleotides
Rosiland Franklin took the first ‘picture’ of
DNA using complex X-Ray
Crystallography
Her X-ray was instrumental to
figuring out the structure of DNA
She did not receive the Nobel Prize
because she died before the award was
given.
#73
Watson & Crick
Watson and Crick made the first model of the DNA
molecule that showed the double helix structure.
Watson, Crick and Wilkins won the Nobel prize in
1962
#73
DNA Replication (Review)
See Chromosomes, Genes and DNA
See Cell reproduction
DNA Replication
1. The DNA material is
doubled
2. Occurs in the Nucleus
3. Helicase is the
untwister and
unzipper
4. Happens prior to
mitosis/meiosis
during interphase (S)
We go from dis to dat
#74
1) Many Genes
are on one of
these structures
in the nucleus
called;
___________
2. A mutation is
any change in
the _____ of an
organism.
3. T or F all
mutations are
bad
#76
• Adenine must pair with Thymine
• Guanine must pair with Cytosine
• Their amounts in a given DNA molecule will be
about the same.
G C T A
Transcription
DNA mRNA
1. DNA is copied to mRNA (messengerRNA)
2. Occurs in the Nucleus
3. mRNA carries genetic message out a nuclear pore
4. Polymerase enzyme connects the new mRNA nucleotides
#77
BTW, Translation
mRNA Protein
1. mRNA is used to make proteins (polypeptides)
2. Occurs in the cytoplasm
3. A ribosome is used as the binding site for the protein
synthesis
RIBOSOME
mRNA
See BioCoach
Codon / Anti Codon
See BioCoach
CODON
Anti codon
#79
#80 Peptide Bond
• Used to hold the amino acids together
to form a protein
See BioCoach
Peptide bond
Two Types of Nucleic Acids (in case you forgot)
DNA RNA
Double stranded Single stranded
Deoxyribose Sugar Ribose Sugar
Thymine Uracil
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
• Made up of nucleotides (DNA molecule) in a
DNA double helix.
• Nucleotide is made up of :
1. Phosphate group
2. 5-carbon sugar = deoxyribose
3. Nitrogenous base
#83
#83 cont. DNA Nucleotide
O
O=P-O
O
Phosphate
Group
N Nitrogenous base
(A, G, C, or T)
CH2
O
C C
C C
Sugar
(deoxyribose)
#84 cont Recombinant
DNA Process • Isolate Plasmid and Human
DNA
• Apply RE to both human
and Bacteria Plasmid
• Insert Human spliced DNA
into spliced Plasmid
• Add ligase enzyme to bond
covalently
• Put plasmid into bacteria
• Clone human DNA fragment
through normal bacteria
replication w/ nutrient
medium.
#85 Transgenic Organism
• Plant, animal,
bacterium, or other
living organism that
has had a foreign
gene added to it by
means of genetic
engineering.
Tobacky plant spliced with
bioluminescence gene
which causes it to glow
#86 Cloning
• Cloning is the
process of creating
an identical copy of
something
• The terms
"recombinant DNA
technology," "DNA
cloning," "molecular
cloning,"or "gene
cloning" all refer to
the same process.
#87 Bacteria DNA
• Plasmid: small
circular DNA
molecule that
replicates within
bacteria cell,
separate from the
bacteria
chromosome.
• Often used for
genetic technology
Plasmid
Chromosome
Bacteria Cell
• Restrictive Enzymes:
(1960’s) Bacteria
enzymes that work by
cutting up foreign
DNA, like a phage
• Each R.E. cuts at a
specific sequence.
There are hundreds
of different RE, each
with its own cutting
sequence
Restrictive Enzyme
DNA
#88
#89 DNA Fingerprinting
• Like the fingerprints
that came into use by
the police, each
person has a unique
DNA fingerprint.
• The fingerprints are
made from the base
pairs (A-T, G-C).
#90 Evolution
• Evolution is the slow , gradual change in a population of organisms over time
• Through Mutations and survival of the fittest, evolution occurs
BTW, Lamarck’s Theory of
Evolution • Use & Disuse - Organisms
Could Change The Size Or Shape Of Organs By Using Them Or Not Using Them
• Blacksmiths & Their Sons (muscular arms)
• Giraffe’s Necks Longer from stretching)
• Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics
#91 Survival of the Fittest Darwin, Darwin, Darwin
• Fitness
– Ability of an Individual To Survive &
Reproduce
• Adaptation
– Inherited Characteristic That
Increases an Organisms Chance for
Survival
#93 Homologous Body
Structures
• Similar Bone Structure
but different function
• Implies a common
ancestor
• Limb Bones Develop In
Similar Patterns
• Arms, Wings,
Legs, Flippers
#94 Relative Dating
• Fossil record provides
relative dating of rock
layers; top layers of
rock are younger than
lower layers.
#94 cont. Absolute Dating
– Absolute dating method uses radioactive
isotopes. – Isotopes each have particular half-life or time it takes for
half of isotope to decay and become nonradioactive.
– Carbon-14 (14C) used to date organic matter; half decays
to 14N each 5,730 years; limited to about last 50,000 years.
– Half of potassium-40 (40K) decays to argon-40 (40Ar) each
1.3 million years; estimates age of younger rocks.
– Uranium-238 decays to lead-207; estimates age of older
rocks.
a) Punctuated
equilibrium b) Gradualism
small changes over
long time periods
Change occurs in
bursts, separated by
long time periods of
no change
#95
Orange to
Red takes
forever
BAM
Four Things You Must Know About
Darwin
• Wrote the “Origin of Species”
• The “Survival of the Fittest”
Guy
• The “Natural Selection” Guy
• He Loved Bumper Cars
#96
• Three domains
• Archaea and Eubacteria are unicellular prokaryotes (no nucleus or membrane-bound organelles)
• Eukarya are more complex and have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
• Broadest, most inclusive taxon
Domains #97 -98
#100 Autotrophs
• Autotrophs are also called Producers because they produce all of the food that heterotrophs use
• Ex. Plants and Algae
#101 Heterotrophs
• Organisms that do not make their own food
• Another term for Heterotroph is consumer
because they consume other organisms in order
to live
• Ex. Rabbits, Deer, Mushrooms
Homologous Features
Internally these organisms have
similar bone structure. The main
reason that the structures are
different is
a. They are different sizes
b. They eat different things
c. They evolved at different times
d. The limbs are adapted to a different
function.
Differences between amino acid
sequences in the same protein
are examined. The fewer differences
the more closely related the
organisms are thought to be.
A V J D C F T M S
A B J D C F S M D
Other factors that affect population
growth
• Carrying Capacity- the
maximum population size
that can be supported by
the available resources
• There can only be as
many organisms as the
environmental resources
can support (limiting
resources) # 105
Carrying Capacity
Carrying Capacity (k)
N
u
m
b
e
r
Time
J-shaped curve
(exponential growth)
S-shaped curve
(logistic growth)
#105
cont.
#106
• Ecosystem: Populations of plants and animals that interact with each other in a given area with the abiotic components of that area. (terrestrial or aquatic)
BTW, • Population:
A group of organisms, all of the same species, which interbreed and live in the same place at the same time.
REMEMBER: To be a species, you must be able to breed
and have young that can breed (viable)
Don’t over think this with Mules and Ligers!!!!
BTW,
• Community: All the populations of different species that live in the same place at the same time.
#108 Food Web
• Notice that the
direction the arrow
points the arrow
points in the
direction of the
energy transfer,
NOT “what ate
what”
#110 Ecological Succession
• A change in the community in which new
populations of organisms gradually replace
existing ones
– 1. Primary Succession – occurs in an area where
there is no existing communities and for some reason
(s) a new community of organisms move into the area
• Think Glaciers and Lava Flows
– 2. Secondary Succession – occurs in an area where
an existing community is partially damaged
• Think Forest Fires
– 3. Climax Community – a community that is stable
and has a great diversity of organisms
#111
Water Cycle:
Transpiration and
evaporation
causes water to
go up
Precipitation
causes water to
go down
Nitrogen Fixation:
Bacteria can
absorb nitrogen
directly and convert
to a form plants can
use
Release Carbon:
Burning Fossil Fuels,
Volcanoes, and
animal Respiration
Absorb Carbon:
Photosynthetic
Plants and algae,
and dissolved
#112 Heterotrophs
• Consumers – 1. Scavengers/Detritivores – feed on the tissue of
dead organisms (both plans and animals) • Ex. – Vultures, Crows, and Shrimp
– 2. Herbivores – eat ONLY plants • Ex. – Cows, Elephants, Giraffes
– 3. Carnivores – eat ONLY meat • Ex. – Lions, Tigers, Sharks
– 4. Omnivores – eat BOTH plants and animals • Ex. – Bears and Humans
– 5. Decomposers – absorb any dead material and break it down into simple nutrients or fertilizers
• Ex. – Bacteria and Mushrooms
#112 cont.
– Primary Consumers – eat autotrophs
(producers)
– Secondary Consumers – eat the primary
consumers
– Tertiary Consumers – eat the secondary
consumers
– Decomposers – bacteria and fungi that break
down dead organisms and recycle the material
back into the environment
What type of symbiosis
is this?
a. predation
b. parasitism
c. commensalism
d. mutualism
read Despite the shark’s expression, these remoras with
their suction cup heads, do not harm or help the
shark, they get a free ride and leftover food
#113 Ecological Pyramid
• Which level has the most energy?
• Which level has the most organisms?
• Which level has the least organisms?
• Which level has the least energy?
BTW, Symbiosis
• A close and permanent association between
organisms of different species
– Commensalism – a relationship in which one
organism benefits and the other is not affected
• Example: Barnacles on a whale
– Mutualism – a relationship in which both organisms
benefit from each other
• Example: Birds eating pest off a rhino’s back
– Parasitism – A relationship in which one organism
benefits and the other is harmed
• Example: Ticks on a dog
#115 Habitat & Niche • Habitat is the
place a plant or animal lives
• Niche is an organism’s total way of life
#116 The Nonliving Environment
• Abiotic factors- the nonliving parts of an organism’s environment.
• Examples include air currents, temperature, moisture, light, and soil.
#117 (this is a basic, incomplete answer to this question, but it
points you in the right direction)
• Carbon dioxide and other air pollution that
is collecting in the atmosphere like a
thickening blanket, trapping the sun's heat
and causing the planet to warm up.
• The chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are likely
to be the main source of ozone depletion.
#118
• Biodiversity is the variety of life forms
within a given ecosystem, biome or for the
entire Earth.
• The greater the Biodiversity, the healthier
the environment.
#124 Cuticle
• The outer surface of
the leaf has a thin
waxy covering called
the cuticle.
• This layer's primary
function is to prevent
water loss within the
leaf.
#124 cont. Stoma
• The stoma is responsible for the interchange of gases for respiration and photosynthesis.
• The stomata allow for the loss of excess water in the form of water vapour, which also allows for cooling.
#125 Roots Hairs
• Root hairs greatly increase the surface area of roots
• Root hairs absorb nutrients and water.
#128 Xylem
• Conducts water
and dissolved
minerals
• Conducting cells
are dead and
hollow at maturity
vessel
member tracheids
#128 cont. Phloem:
• Transports sugars
• Main conducting
cells are sieve-
tube members
• Companion cells
assist in the
loading of sugars
sieve plate
sieve-tube
member
companion
cell
Things to know
• Angiosperm
– Have flowers
– Have fruits with seeds
– oak, maple, elm, apple
• Gymnosperm
– Lack flowers and fruit
– Often cone trees
– Conifers (pine trees),Ginkos
The SOL loves these two terms, so know them!!!!
• Coniferous trees keep their leaves throughout the year – conifer family are pines,
spruces, firs, and hemlocks.
• Deciduous trees are also known as broadleaf trees – They often lose their
leaves in fall
– Apple, elm, oaks, maples
• Marsupials: female marsupials have pouches for young. Some marsupials include the koala, kangaroo, and the numbat.
•
Monotremes: egg-laying mammals. Modern-day monotremes include the echidnas (spiny ant-eaters) and the duck-billed platypus.
•
•
Placental mammals: Live Birth. Pretty much most mammals you know
#130
Characteristics of Mammals
• Hair
• Sweat Glands
• Mammary Glands
– For milk production
• Vertebrates
• Endothermic (inside
heat)
#129
Characteristics
of All Reptiles
1. They are ectothermic vertebrates. (outside heat)
2. Their skin has scales. 3. They have three-chambered hearts 4. They have claws on their toes
• 5. They are the first animals, in evolution, to develop the amniotic egg. This allows reptiles to lay eggs on land.
BTW