1 yl

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | NOVEMBER 18-24, 2014 11

Executive director of the University College of the Caribbean foundation, Carla Seaga (right), and Dr Dameon Black, deputy president of the UCC (left) flank the three topcontestants in the Miss Teen Jamaica 2014 contest who were awarded scholarships by the Foundation on Thursday. They are (from left) second runner-up Zalika Francis; firstrunner-up Kelsey-Jo Sharp; and Miss Teen Jamaica 2014 Meca-Gaye Francis.

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | 12 NOVEMBER 18-24, 2014

yl:chemistry

FFRRAANNCCIINNEE TTAAYYLLOORR--CCAAMMPPBBEELLLLContributor

THE REACTIVE metals are found in nature as compoundscalled ores. These compounds contain the metal incombination with oxygen, sulphur or chlorine, along withother impurities. Metals that are not very reactive are usuallyfound in its free state, that is, uncombined for example, gold.

To extract a metal Mx+ from its ore, the process of reductionis used; that is, the metal ions gain electrons to becomeatoms. M

x++ xe M

For the process of reduction, a reducing agent such ascarbon or hydrogen is generally used. The reducing agentworks by displacing the metal from its ore. However, for veryreactive metals ( for example, sodium and potassium), theprocess of electrolysis is used to supply electrons to themolten ore to extract the metal.

In the extraction of aluminium the ore (bauxite) is purifiedand dissolved in molten cryolite (Na3AlF6) from which itproduces the ions Al3+ and O2-. The aluminium oxide/cryolitesolution is then electrolysed in a cell using graphite (carbon)electrodes. Aluminium ions (+ve) move towards the cathodewhere they gain electrons and form molten aluminium.

Extraction of metalsAl3+ (l) + 3e Al (l)

This molten aluminium is collected at the bottom of thecell. The oxide ions (-ve) move towards the anode where theylose electrons to form oxygen, which is collected.

2O2-(l) O2 (g) + 4e

DDiiaaggrraamm sshhoowwiinngg tthhee mmeetthhoodd ooff eexxttrraaccttiinngg aalluummiinniiuumm..

The extraction of iron is different from that of aluminium.This is because iron is not as reactive, hence, a reducingagent such as carbon monoxide can be used to extract it fromits ore.

In this process, the ore (haematite) is mixed with limestone(CaCO3) and coke (carbon) and heated in a blast furnace. Thereaction occurs in different stages:

1. The carbon burns to form carbon dioxideC (s) + O2 (g) CO2 (g)

2. The carbon dioxide reacts with more coke (carbon) toform carbon monoxide, which is the reducing agent in thismethod.

CO2 (s) + C (s) 2CO (g)

3. The carbon monoxide reduces the haematite to ironwhich is collected at the bottom of the furnace as molten iron.

Fe2O3 (s) + 3CO (g) 2Fe (s) + 3CO2 (g)

Impurities in the ore, mainly silica, are removed byreacting with calcium oxide formed from the decompositionof limestone.

CaCO3 (s) CaO (s) + CO2 (g)

CaO (s) + SiO2 (s) CaSiO3 (l) slag orcalcium silicate

This slag is also collected at the bottom of the furnace.This reaction is facilitated because the calcium oxide is

basic while silica is acidic.

The slag produced is used for road building and also as afertilizer. The iron produced is impure, containing carbon,which is removed by reacting it with oxygen. From this steeland other types of iron are produced.

Francine Taylor-Campbell is an independent contributor. Send questionsand comments to kkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm

Jamaica College (JC) students celebrate after Carlo Redwood (left), vice-president of marketing ofLIME, presents the LIME Super Cup and a cheque for $1million to the principal, Ruel Reid (right), andthe schools football team at JC during a presentation ceremony on Monday, November 10, 2014 afterJC defeated Holy Trinity 2-0 in the final of the LIME Super Cup.


yl:biology

MMOONNAACCIIAA WWIILLLLIIAAMMSSContributor

HOW ARE you all this week? Good! Youmust be good, how could you beanything else but good? You havelearnt to see the bright side of everything andyou are learning that there is a good solutionto all problems. Notice that I did not say easy,I said good because it may not be easy, but itwill be good! So what is there to stop youfrom achieving your dream? Nothing, exceptyour attitude!

Did you know that you cannot conclude astudy of digestion without learning aboutenzymes? Do you remember how many timesthe word was used in the previous lessons? Ifyou do not, then you need to read over thoselessons to refresh your memory.

WHAT ARE ENZYMES?Enzymes are biological catalysts. They are

protein in nature and are made by livingorganisms. They are used to speed upchemical reactions.

WHAT IS A CATALYST?A catalyst alters the rate of a chemical

reaction without itself changing.

WHY DOES THE BODY NEEDENZYMES?

Do you remember why the body has tobreak down starch? Of course you do. It hasto do so because the starch molecule is toolarge to diffuse through the membrane of thecells. If you were to make a mixture of starchand water and leave it at a temperature that isthe same as your body temperature, thestarch would be broken down to glucose, butonly after a very long time. However, thishappens very quickly in the alimentary canal.Why is there a difference in the rate at whichthe starch is broken down? The difference isthat in the alimentary canal the enzymeamylase is present and this enzyme speedsup the breakdown.

HOW DOES AN ENZYME WORK? There are two main types of enzymes.

One type breaks down large molecules intosmaller ones. These are the ones that we have

met in the lessons so far. The other type ofenzyme speeds up the reactions in whichsmaller units are joined together to makelarger ones. For example, after digestion theglucose (small molecule) from the breakdownof starch is used to form glycogen (largemolecule) in the liver.

Each enzyme is made up of long chainsof amino acid units joined together to give itits own, peculiar three-dimensional shape.The folding of the molecule produces anactive site. The active site is an area of theenzyme where the molecule to be brokendown (the substrate) attaches itself. Thereaction can only take place at the active site.

When the substrate attaches itself to theenzyme, it forms a complex that is known asthe enzyme substrate complex.The productsproduced are known as the end products.

WHAT ARE THE PROPERTIES OFENZYMES?

1. All enzymes are proteins and because ofthis, they are affected by all the factors thataffect proteins.

2. Enzymes are affected by changes intemperature. If the temperature at which anenzyme-controlled reaction is taking place isincreased, then the rate at which the endproducts are formed will also increase.However, this increase will stop as soon asthe temperature goes above 40oC and the ratewill begin to decrease. As soon as thetemperature goes above 60oC, the reactionstops. Note carefully that the reaction doesnot continue to slow down, it stops. So, if youwere drawing a graph to show the rate ofreaction, the line would come back down tozero. Why does this happen? It happensbecause the high temperature changes thestructure of the enzyme and when this

happens the enzyme will no longer have anactive site. When the active site is destroyed,the substrate has nowhere to fit and thereaction cannot continue. The enzyme is saidto be denatured.

3. There is a temperature at which thereaction goes at its fastest rate; this is knownas the optimum temperature. The optimumtemperature for digestive enzymes is about37oC.

4. Enzymes work best at different pHs. Doyou remember that when we were discussingdigestion we said that amylase could notwork in the stomach because the conditionwas now acidic, but it could work in thebuccal cavity and the duodenum because theconditions there were alkaline? The condition,acidic or alkaline, is defined by the pH. If thepH is low, the condition is acidic; if the pH ishigh, the condition is alkaline. If it is midwayon the scale, then the condition is neutral.Some enzymes work best at low pH, forexample, pepsin, and some at mid range, forexample, amylase.

5. Enzymes are catalysts they remainunchanged at the end of a reaction so theycan be used over and over in livingorganisms.

6. Enzymes are required in smallquantities. Since they are unaffected at theend of the reaction, they can be used againand again.

7. Enzymes are specific. Each enzyme actson only one type of substrate for exampleamylase acts on starch, breaking it down toglucose, and sucrase acts on sucrose. Bothstarch and sucrose are carbohydrates and thegeneral name given to enzymes which act oncarbohydrates is carbohydrase. Proteases acton proteins and lipases act on lipids.

The work of enzymes is one of thepreferred topics for exam questions so youneed to learn everything there is to knowabout this topic. It is also a favourite forlaboratory work. Next week, we will look atsome practical instances of how enzymeswork. See you then!

Monacia Williams is an independent contributor. Sendquestions and comments to kkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm

Enzymes

Suzette Shaw-Reid (second left), assistant public relations manager at Sagicorand Sandra Swyer-Watson (centre), principal of St Jago High School, look onas students (from left) Leon Clarke, Joel Jean-Pierre, Thaleetio Green,Donovan Palmer, Keenan Lawrence and Jevaugh Palmer open the packaging oftwo Lenovo desktop computers.


yl:history

DDEEBBBBIIOONN HHYYMMAANNContributor

OBJECTIVESAT THE end of the lesson, students should be able to:1. Describe the experiences of the African captives during the Middle Passage journey.2. Outline five reasons there was a high mortality rate for African captives during the Middle Passage journey.3. Empathise with the plight of the African captives as they journeyed through the Middle Passage.

The focus of this weeks lesson is on the experience ofAfrican captives as they journeyed through the MiddlePassage. This weeks lesson incorporates extracts from thetext OOllaauuddaahh EEqquuiiaannoo -- TThhee IInntteerreessttiinngg NNaarrrraattiivvee ooff tthhee LLiiffee ooffOOllaauuddaahh EEqquuiiaannoo,, oorr GGuussttaavvuuss VVaassssaa,, TThhee AAffrriiccaann.

EXTRACTOOllaauuddaahh EEqquuiiaannooWhile we stayed on the coast I was mostly on deck; and

one day, to my great astonishment, I saw one of these vesselscoming in with the sails up. As soon as the whites saw it, theygave a great shout, at which we were amazed; and the moreso, as the vessel appeared larger by approaching nearer. Atlast, she came to an anchor in my sight, and when the anchorwas let go, I and my countrymen who saw it, were lost inastonishment to observe the vessel stop and were nowconvinced it was done by magic. Soon after this the othership got her boats out, and they came on board of us, and thepeople of both ships seemed very glad to see each other.Several of the strangers also shook hands with us blackpeople, and made motions with their hands, signifying Isuppose, we were to go to their country, but we did notunderstand them.

At last, when the ship we were in, had got in all her cargo,they made ready with many fearful noises, and we were all putunder deck, so that we could not see how they managed thevessel. But this disappointment was the least of my sorrow.The stench of the hold while we were on the coast was sointolerably loathsome, that it was dangerous to remain therefor any time, and some of us had been permitted to stay onthe deck for the fresh air; but now that the whole ships cargo

were confined together, it became absolutely pestilential. Thecloseness of the place, and the heat of the climate, added tothe number in the ship, which was so crowded that each hadscarcely room to turn himself, almost suffocated us. Thisproduced copious perspirations, so that the air soon becameunfit for respiration, from a variety of loathsome smells, andbrought on a sickness among the slaves, of which many died thus falling victims to the improvident avarice, as I maycall it, of their purchasers

One day, when we had a smooth sea and moderate wind,two of my wearied countrymen who were chained together (Iwas near them at the time), preferring death to such a fife ofmisery, somehow made through the nettings and jumped intothe sea; immediately, another quite dejected fellow, who, onaccount of his illness, was suffered to be out of irons, alsofollowed their example; and I believe many more would verysoon have done the same, if they had not been prevented bythe ships crew, who were instantly alarmed

At last we came in sight of the island of Barbadoes, atwhich the whites on board gave a great shout, and mademany signs of joy to us. We did not know what to think ofthis; but as the vessel drew nearer, we plainly saw the harbor,and other ships of different kinds and sizes, and we soonanchored amongst them, off Bridgetown. Many merchantsand planters now came on board, though it was in theevening. They put us in separate parcels, and examined usattentively. They also made us jump, and pointed to the land,signifying we were to go there. We thought by this, we shouldbe eaten by these ugly men, as they appeared to us; and,when soon after we were all put down under the deck again,there was much dread and trembling among us, and nothingbut bitter cries to be heard all the night from theseapprehensions, insomuch, that at last the white people gotsome old slaves from the land to pacify us. They told us wewere not to be eaten, but to work, and were soon to go onland, where we should see many of our country people. This

report eased us much. And sure enough, soon after we werelanded, there came to us Africans of all languages.

We were not many days in the merchants custody, beforewe were sold after their usual manner, which is this: On asignal given (as the beat of a drum), the buyers rush at onceinto the yard where the slaves are confined, and make choiceof that parcel they like best. The noise and clamor with whichthis is attended, and the eagerness visible in thecountenances of the buyers, serve not a little to increase theapprehension of terrified Africans, who may well be supposedto consider them as the ministers of that destruction to whichthey think themselves devoted. In this manner, withoutscruple, are relations and friends separated, most of themnever to see each other again.

ACTIVITYInstruction: Complete any one of the following activities

below.

1. Write a poem in the form of a ballad describing theexperiences of the African captives aboard the slavers andhow it accounted for the high mortality during the middlepassage journey. The ballad should be between 15-18 lines,excluding the refrain.

TToottaall 1155 mmaarrkkss

or

2. Imagine you are a newly arrived African slave on aJamaican plantation in the mid-1700s. Using historicalimagination, create a dialogue piece in which you explain to agroup of enslaved Africans the condition aboard the slaversand how it accounted for a high mortality rate during themiddle passage journey.

TToottaall 1155 mmaarrkkss

SOURCE1. Olaudah Equiano - TThhee IInntteerreessttiinngg NNaarrrraattiivvee ooff tthhee LLiiffee

ooff OOllaauuddaahh EEqquuiiaannoo,, oorr GGuussttaavvuuss VVaassssaa,, TThhee AAffrriiccaann

Debbion Hyman is an independent contributor. Send questions andcomments to kkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm

The Middle Passagepart 2


yl:information technology

NNAATTAALLEEEE AA.. JJOOHHNNSSOONNContributor

GOOD DAY, students. This is lesson 11 inour series of IT lessons. In this weekslesson, you will be learning about base 8(octal) conversions and base 16(hexadecimal) conversions.

PRACTICE QUESTIONSHere are two questions to recap what we

did in the previous lesson.1. Using an 8-bit binary representation,

give the(i) binary representation for the decimal

number 19(ii) ones complement representation for

the decimal number -19(iii) twos complement representation for

the decimal number -19(iv) sign and magnitude representation for

the decimal number -19

2. The ASCII representation of D is1000100. What is the ASCII representation ofB and I?

BINARY TO OCTAL CONVERSIONThe range of values for (octal) base 8 is 0

7 and the table below shows the 3-bitbinary equivalent for a given base 8 value.

Decimal Binary Base 80 000 01 001 12 010 23 011 34 100 45 101 56 110 67 111 7

To convert from an integer binary numberto octal you do the following:

1) First split the binary number into 3-bitsections from the Least Significant Bit (LSB)to the Most Significant Bit (MSB).

2) Convert the 3-bit binary number to itsoctal equivalent.

Please remember, octal conversion is theuse of base 8.

EXAMPLE 1Convert the binary number

111101011010001 into its octal equivalent.Step 1: Split the binary digit111 /101 /011/ 010/ 001

Step 2: Convert the 3-bit binary to octal (todo this you can use your BCD table and justremember you are simply using one bit less)

Binary representation and manipulation

3-bit Section of Binary Number 111 101 011 010 001

Equivalent Number 7 5 3 2 1

8 25 Remainder

8 3 1

0 3 MSD

LSD

Therefore, 0110010110100012 = 753218

DECIMAL TO OCTALThe conversion of a decimal number to its

base 8 equivalent is done by the repeateddivision method (similar to what we did whenwe learnt how to convert a decimal number tobinary). You simply divide the base 10number by 8 and extract the remainders. Thefirst remainder will be the LSD and the lastremainder will be the MSD.

EXAMPLE 2Convert 2510 to base 8.

OCTAL TO DECIMALThe procedure to do this is quite similar to

what you learnt when we looked at convertinga binary number to decimal. First, you writeout the number to be converted, placing eachdigit under the proper position. Second, youmultiply the decimal equivalent by thecorresponding digit of the octal number thenadd the subsequent answers.

82 8

1 8

0

7 4 3

EXAMPLE 3Convert 7438 to its decimal equivalent.

(64 x 7) + (8 x 4) + (1 x 3) = 48310

Write out the number from MSD to LSD asshown below: 318

2510 = 318

Please note that in your conversion, it goes up to 87 and then you skip to 810 should you beasked to convert a big number from base 8 to base 10. Base 8 does not include itself (88) andnine (89).

PRACTICE QUESTIONS1. Convert this binary digit:

011000100010 to base 8.2. Convert 40010 to octal.3. Convert 32178 to its decimal equivalent.

Let us now look at how the hexadecimalsystem works. We will start looking at it thisweek but we will conclude looking at it withsubsequent examples next week.

HEXADECIMAL SYSTEMThe hexadecimal system uses 16 digits: 0,

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F, andthus the base is 16.

Hexadecimal numbers are compact andeasy to read. It is very easy to convertnumbers from the binary system to ahexadecimal digit using this table:

Decimal (Base 10) Binary (Base 2) Hexadecimal (Base 16)

0 0000 0

1 0001 1

2 0010 2

3 0011 3

4 0100 4

5 0101 5

6 0110 6

7 0111 7

8 1000 8

9 1001 9

10 1010 A

11 1011 B

12 1100 C

13 1101 D

14 1110 E

15 1111 F

>

CONVERTING A HEXADECIMALNUMBER TO DECIMAL

The procedure to do this is quite similar towhat you learnt when we looked atconverting a binary or octal number todecimal. First, you write out the number tobe converted, placing each digit under theproper position. Second, you multiply thedecimal equivalent by the correspondingdigit of the hexadecimal number, then addthe subsequent answers.

EXAMPLE 1Convert the number 1128 hexadecimal to

decimal.163 162 161 160

1 1 2 8

(1 x 4096) + (1 x 256) + (2 x 16) + (8 x 1)(4096) + (256) + (32) + (8) = 4392112816 = 439210

Natalee A. Johnson teaches at Ardenne High Scool. Send questions and comments to kkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm


yl:english language

MMEELLIISSSSAA MMCCKKEENNZZIIEEContributor

HELLO, STUDENTS. In last weeks lesson we started ourfocus on summary writing, a topic that often poses achallenge to some students. The CXC reports onstudents performance over the years support this. Let meshare the observations that the examining body has made:

Some students do no attempt this section. The information is often misinterpreted; some students

have gone as far as to include information that is not even inthe original passage.

Too many candidates try to get by with lifting chunks oftext, cutting and pasting them together, and adding anoccasional word or phrase.

Details are misunderstood and this results inmisinformation.

A lack of vocabulary prevents some students fromputting the information in their own words (paraphrasing).

Some students demonstrate an inability to organiseinformation in a logical and coherent manner.

The word limit is often exceeded.You are discouraged from making these blunders because

you will be penalised for them.

According to a CXC English A report, summary writinginvolves two processes: information gathering andinformation giving. Information gathering includes reading,identifying, interpreting and selecting what is necessary.Information giving includes combining, organising andwriting the ideas you have selected. This pretty muchcaptures the general approach you should apply whenpreparing a summary.

Let us examine a typical extract from the CSEC English Aexamination.

Instruction: Summarise the following passage in no morethan 100 words.

The International Organisation for Migration dividesinternational migrants into two major groups: those whomigrate of their own free will, leaving to study, work or jointheir family abroad, and those who flew to escape persecution,conflict, repression or natural disasters. The two categoriesfairly rapidly become interdependent.

Migrant flows are always from the poorest countries with alow probability of employment towards less poor and moredynamic countries where there is an opportunity to find somesort of job. Over the last few years, international migration hasintensified, with the media referring to the regionalization andglobalization of migration. As if to illustrate the phenomenon,

the media recently reported the plight of Nigerians prepared totake on the desert to seek a better life.

In recent months, Europeans have become aware of thedemographic downturn and the ageing of the population thatwill set in over the next few decades. The dearth of manpowerin certain sectors is becoming a serious problem in numerouscountries, requiring a rethinking of the zero immigrationpolicies that have prevailed in recent years.

What are the effects of migration on the countries of origin?Funds sent by migrants to families back home often plays aconsiderable part in the development of the local economy.However, when highly qualified people leave their homecountry, the investment made by the developing countries intheir higher education is lost. To remedy this, programmeshave been set up to encourage immigrants to return so thatthey can contribute to the economic development of theirhome country. The problem is increasingly affecting India andcountries In Africa. It will persist as long as there is a labourshortage in wealthy countries, in sectors hungry for highlyqualified personnel and offering attractive salaries.

After reading the passage at least twice, you should be ableto say on what the extract is focusing. Did you identify that thepassage is focusing on migration, but more specifically oninternational migrants? If so, you are on the right track. Now,since a part of summarising is information gathering, we needto identify what key aspects of international migrants thepassage addresses. Let us use a graphic organise to notethese aspects.

If you are unable to create a graphic organiser like this onein the examination, then you can opt to underline the pointsthat support the main idea or make jottings. Are there anywords from this extract with which you are unfamiliar? If so,make a note of them and look up their meaning in yourdictionaries. In an examination, however, you would have touse context clues to figure out the meanings of unfamiliarwords. This is the reason you are constantly encouraged to

invest in your vocabulary so that you gain great returns in anexamination.

CXC has clearly indicated that the passages they select forthe summary section have paragraphs. Each paragraph has atopic sentence and a number of supporting points. Thepassage above is an example of this principle. When you aregathering information for your summary, you are expected toidentify the topic and supporting sentences. Using thisparagraphing principle, let us look at the passage above.

Here is an outline of the topic and supporting points:FFiirrsstt ppaarraaggrraapphh:: International migrants are divided into two

categories: those who leave voluntarily and those who leavebecause of challenging circumstances.

SSeeccoonndd ppaarraaggrraapphh:: Migrants usually move from countrieswith limited employment opportunities to developed countriesthat offer better job prospects.

TThhiirrdd ppaarraaggrraapphh:: European countries have revisited theirimmigration policies as a result of increasingly ageingpopulations and labour shortage in certain sectors.

FFoouurrtthh ppaarraaggrraapphh:: Migration has several consequences onhome countries. Also, programmes have been designed toreduce migration.

When you start writing, you may add more information but,overall, the points above capture the essence of the originalpassage.

REMINDERSYou are encouraged by CXC to: Recognise the topic sentence that is in each paragraph

of a given extract. The topic sentence does not have to be thefirst sentence or even the last; it can be implied.

Focus on text organisational patterns such as cause andeffect, problem and solution, before and after and similardevelopmental strategies. This enables greater comprehensionand synthesis of information.

Use meaning generated from the paragraphs to create ageneralised piece of writing and submit one paragraph foryour completed summary.

Use your own words.

In preparation for next weeks lesson, please attempt towrite a summary of this passage. I will provide you with asample summary you can use as a comparison and give youadditional information on summary writing.

Until then remember: Success is the sum of small efforts repeated day in and day out. ~ Robert Collier

Melissa McKenzie teaches at Old Harbour High School. Send questionsand comments to kkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm

Summary writing

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yl:principles of accounts

RROOXXAANNNNEE WWRRIIGGHHTTContributor

ERRORS MAY arise while recordingtransactions. Whenever this happens,the errors need to be corrected asquickly as possible. For errors to becorrected in accounting, we make otheraccounting entries to set off the erroridentified and, at the same time, show thecorrect financial state of the business.

There are two main types of errors:1. Errors not affecting the trial balance.This is when the trial balance will still

agree even though there are errors.

2. Errors affecting the trial balance.This is when the trial balance does not

balance. These are:In the subsidiary booksi. Error of total. In the ledgerii. Omission of one entry.iii. Posting to the wrong side of the ledger for one entry.

iv. Enter amount for one entry only.v. Error of calculation. In the trial balancevi. Error in amount.vii. Omission of a balance.

CORRECTION OF ERRORSCorrection of errors is a normal

accounting task carried out using thedouble-entry system. First, you must identifythe type of error and then follow the basicsteps below:

SStteepp 11Identify the entries that should have been made.SStteepp 22Actual entries made.SStteepp 33Cancel wrong entry.SStteepp 44 Complete the missing entries.SStteepp 55Suspense account.SStteepp 66Combine correction required.

Correcting errors

WORKED EXAMPLE1. Goods sold to Johnson for $460 was not recorded in the books.

d K

^ : ^

^ E

^ E

^ : ^ ^

^ ^ E

^ : ^

d

^ W :

^ W :

^ :

^

2. Goods bought from James for $1,000 was credited to Jamies account.

:

^ ^ E

^ ::

d W

^ ZDd

^ D d

^ D d

^ ZDd

^ ^E

^ ZD d D d

3. Repairs to motor truck paid by cheque $6,500 have been debited to motor truck account.

This is an appropriate point at which to end this weeks presentation. Always remember, Youhave to learn the rules of the game and, when you have, to play better than anyone else.

Look out next week for Correction of Errors - Part 2. See you then.

Roxanne Wright teaches at Immaculate Academy. Send questions and comments to kkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm


yl:office administration

HHYYAACCIINNTTHH TTUUGGMMAANNContributor

RECORD KEEPING is the process ofclassifying, arranging and storinginformation so that it can be easilyretrieved. Most offices today use both manualand electronic filing systems to store theirinformation.

It is important that records be preserved inorder to prevent them from getting torn,defaced, misplaced or lost. Records areretained so that they can be found years later.The length of time a record should be kept willbe determined by the organisations policy.

There are two ways to organise a record-keeping system. Record-keeping systems maybe centralised or decentralised. Decentralisedfiles are stored in different places, either nearthe persons who use them often or where theyfit best in each office.

Centralised files are located in one area.This is where all information of a company isstored and managed, either manually orelectronically, or by using a combination ofboth methods.

The essential steps for filing are inspecting,indexing, coding, sorting and storing.Sometimes cross-referencing is also done.

IInnssppeeccttiinngg Review each record todetermine whether it should be filed.

IInnddeexxiinngg Decide on a caption for therecord. A caption is a name, a letter or anumber under which a record is filed.Indexing is really a mental process thatrequires you to make a decision about fileplacement.

CCooddiinngg Once you have decided on acaption for the record to be filed, you mustassign a code to the record before filing it.With a record in paper form, coding is doneby underlining or highlighting the name underwhich the record will be filed. Thisunderlining or highlighting will also serve asa reminder to anyone who might be using therecord and refiling it in the future.

SORTINGOnce you have properly coded the records

to be filed, you are ready to sort them. Arrangethem in the order in which they will be placedin the file.

STORINGStoring involves placing a record in a file

folder in a proper file drawer if you are using amanual system, or choosing the propercommands to save a record in an electronicfiling system.

CROSS-REFERENCINGAfter indexing and coding, you will

determine whether a document may be filedand recalled under different captions. If this isso, a cross-reference sheet showingalternative locations for finding the documentmust be prepared or a photocopy of theoriginal document is placed in the alternativelocation(s).

FILING SYSTEMS AND METHODSFiling systems can be arranged in a variety

of ways but there are several considerations tobe taken into account in choosing a filingsystem. It must be:

quick and simple to operate. easily accessible, i.e., the cabinets must

be conveniently situated, and the files withinthe cabinets easy to locate.

suitable for the particular type ofcorrespondence dealt with: the size, volumeand nature of the correspondence must beconsidered

organised to hold current papers only. capable of expansion, if required. appropriate in size not using unnecessary space.

METHODS OF CLASSIFICATIONIn any record-keeping system, there are

four major methods that can be used toorganise the information. The alphabeticmethod is the most widely used methodbecause most information can be easilymanaged in this way. Other record-keepingmethods are numeric, subject, geographicand electronic all use the alphabetic methodas a part of their system.

1. ALPHABETICWhere the files contain mainly

correspondence with individuals and withother organisations. This is the simplest andmost logical classification method to adopt.Each file is given a name, usually the name ofthe person or organisation to which it relates.The files are kept in alphabetical order.

Each drawer or shelf of the filing cabinet islabelled: A-E, F-H, and so on.

ADVANTAGES it is simple to understand and operate. related documents can be conveniently grouped. it is suitable for incorporating miscellaneous papers.

DISADVANTAGES confusion may arise with common names. it is difficult to estimate space requirements. it is difficult to operate in a large organisation. it is necessary to cross-reference because some documents may be found under more than one heading.

2. NUMERICALRecords can sometimes be retrieved faster

if they are filed by number rather than byname or subject. For example, a bank hasmany customers and some of these customersmay have savings accounts as well aschequing accounts, mortgages and personalloans. Rather than combine all the records ofan individual in one file under that customersname, a bank would file them according to theaccount numbers.

Filing numerically provides severaladvantages. This method is very useful whenthe records themselves are numbers. Also,unlimited numbers of new files can be addedwithout running out of captions. Confidentialrecords can be thoroughly safeguarded.

3. SUBJECTStoring and managing information by

subject means that the subjects of documentsare more important to your office than thenames on them. In subject files, information isfiled alphabetically by subject. For example, amain file labelled Contracts would be filedbefore a file labelled Legal Cases.

Subject files can be subdivided intocategories to allow for more efficient storageand retrieval. For example, a main subject filelabelled Insurance may have subcategories:Fire, Theft, Accident, and so on.

4. GEOGRAPHICGeographic filing is useful when the

information to be stored applies to a particularlocation (country, region or town). First, breakcategories down into the most importantgeographic divisions for the companysoperations. Divide these into subdivisions,then alphabetise within each subdivision.

5. ELECTRONICElectronic record is any record that is

created, used, maintained, transmitted anddisposed of in electronic form. Such recordsmay be stored in computer memory or onflash drive.

Records maintained on electronic recordsstorage systems are more susceptible toalteration, loss and unauthorised access anddisclosure of information than records storedin other forms. As a result, a specific set ofprocedures must be included in the overallrecords-management programme to ensurethe security, accuracy and accessibility of therecords.

Next week, I will look at other aspects ofrecords and information management. Have agood week.

Hyacinth Tugman is an independent contributor. Sendquestions and comments to kkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm

Records and information management


yl:mathematics

CCLLEEMMEENNTT RRAADDCCLLIIFFFFEEContributor

WE WILL complete our review of simultaneousequations this week by looking at the solutions tosome of the practice examples that were given forhomework.

You are reminded that the two methods of note are theelimination and substitution methods. By now, you shouldknow them well.

Solve simultaneously:3x + 2y = 1 . . .(1)4x - y = 16 . . .(2) (Using the elimination method)Multiply equation (2) by 28x - 2y = 32. (3)

Add equations (1) and (3)11x = 33x = 33 = 3.

11Substituting x = 3 into equation (1):

3 x 3 + 2y = 19 + 2y = 12y = 1 - 9 = - 8

y = - 4Answer: x = 3, y = -4.

Solve simultaneously:2x = 11 + 3y . . . (1)x + 2y + 12 = 0 . . . (2)Using the substitution method:From equation (1), x = 11 + 3y

2Substituting into equation (2):11 + 3y + 2y +12 = 0.

2Multiply all terms by 2 to clear the denominator:2 x 11 + 3y + 2 x 2y + 2 x 12 = 2 x 0.

211 + 3y + 4y + 24 = 011 + 7y + 24 = 07y = - 24 -11 = - 35y = - 35 = - 5

7Substituting into equation (1):x = 11 + 3y = 11 + 3 x - 5 = 11 - 15

2 2 2x = - 4 = -2

2

Answer: x = -2, y = -5.

Solve simultaneously:2x + 3y = 3 . . . (1)5x - 2y = 17 . .(2) (Using the elimination method)Multiply equation (1) by 2 and equation (2) by 3.4x + 6y = 6 . . . (3)15x - 6y = 51 (4)(You could have multiplied equation (1) by 5 and equation

(2) by 2 with similar result; please attempt this approach. )Adding equations (3) and (4)19x = 57x = 57 = 3

19Substituting into equation (3)= 4 x 3 + 6y = 6

12 + 6y = 6

6y = 6 - 126y = - 6y = - 1Answer x = 3 , y = - 1

You may solve the following on your own:x + y = 7

2x + y = 10

3x - 4y = 325x + 2y = 10

Please continue to practise on your own, especially theword problems where reasoning is required.

Example: The width of a rectangle is 7cm less than itslength. If its perimeter is 50cm, calculate its dimensions.

SOLUTIONLet the dimensions of the rectangle be x and y.The equations are:x = y - 7 (1)2x + 2y = 50 (2) Rearranging equation (1)x - y = - 7 (3) multiply (3) by 22x - 2y = - 14 (4)Adding (2) + (4)4x = 36x = 36 / 4 = 9 Substituting in (1)9 = y - 7y = 9 + 7 = 16The dimensions are 9cm and 16cm.

Now to a new topic solving quadratic equations.

EXTRACT FROM SYLLABUSSSppeecciiffiicc OObbjjeeccttiivveess Solve quadratic equation. Solve word problems.

CCoonntteennttLinear equations, linear inequalities, two simultaneous

linear equations and quadratic equations.

The following are the methods which are commonly usedat this level.

Factorisation Graphs Formula method

We will now begin with the factorisation method.

POINTS TO NOTE Quadratic equations are expressed in the form ax2 + bx

+ c = 0, where a, b and c are constants. The factorisation method is used if, and only if, the

expression ax2 + bx + c can be factorised. The solution is represented by two values of x. Given the equation x2 + 7x + 10 = 0, then by factorising

the left-hand side, you get (x + 2 )( x + 5 ) = 0.

Continuing the method;If (x + 2 )( x + 5 ) = 0then (x + 2) = 0, that is x = - 2OR (x + 5) = 0, that is x = -5.Solutions are x = -2 or x = -5.

Be reminded that: The solutions of the equation are the values which satisfy the equation.

These can be checked by substitution as follows:If x2 + 7x + 10 = 0, then if x = -2, 4 -14 + 10 = 0.Similarly, where x = -5, then 25 -35 + 10 = 0. The equation is satisfied by both values.

We shall now look at some other examples.1. Solve 3x2 - 7x -6 = 0Using factorisation:If 3x2 - 7x -6 = 0

CONTINUED ON PAGE 20

Simultaneous equations


yl:english literature

BBEERRYYLL CCLLAARRKKEEContributor

Earth has not anything to show more fair:Dull would he be of soul who could pass byA sight so touching in its majesty:This City now doth, like a garment, wearThe beauty of the morning; silent, bare,Ships, towers, domes, theatres, and temples lieOpen unto the fields, and to the sky;All bright and glittering in the smokeless air.Never did sun more beautifully steepIn his first splendour, valley, rock, or hill;Neer saw I, never felt, a calm so deep!The river glideth at his own sweet will:Dear God! the very houses seem asleep;And all that mighty heart is lying still!

HERE WE are in class again with the intention ofexamining a poem. This one, which appears above,was written by William Wordsworth. He was knownand is remembered for his great admiration of and interest innature. This is made very obvious in SSoonnnneett CCoommppoosseedd uuppoonnWWeessttmmiinnsstteerr BBrriiddggee. Why do I say this? Come now, let usconsider what we refer to as nature.

We see the physical world, animals, plants, landscape,

features and products of the earth as nature. The speakersfocus includes the earth, fields and the river; and he isentranced by what he sees in the absence of man and theusual daily man-made activities. The picture painted in wordsis of a calm, peaceful and beautiful scene that is, in the earlymorning, untouched by industrialisation. To the speaker,anyone who does not feel something or is not positivelyaffected by this sight, has a dull soul; that is, one who lacksthe capacity to appreciate beauty. For him, with humanity outof the picture, no doubt at rest, and with the factory chimneysnot belching smoke, the air is clear and all is bright andglittering.

Have you read the play or watched the film TThhee MMeerrcchhaannttooff VVeenniiccee by William Shakespeare? In it, you may rememberthe line All that glitters is not gold. The speaker in thispoem idealises the situation. What he sees is not golden butjust a period of the day when the rays of the sun suffuse allthat it touches with its radiance. Of course, do not think thatthe speaker is not aware that what makes this tremendousimpact on him is only transient, for he knows the truth.

Can you find a word in this Petrarchan sonnet which tellsus so? In fact, he is moved because it is an unexpected sight.After all, he is not out in rural England but in the city ofLondon, where there is normally a great deal going on

throughout the day and even during much of the night. In line6, mention is made of specific things that usually contributeto the daily bustle. These are ships, towers, domes, theatresand temples which are all silent in the early morning beforeaction begins again. Our speaker believes that nothing hasever been more beautiful to him than that at which he is nowlooking.

I said earlier that this is a Petrarchan sonnet. You alreadyknow that a sonnet is a 14-line poem and that the majorforms are the one above, the Shakepearan and theSpenserian. The latter is not as popular as the former two.Please check the rhyme scheme of the one with which we arecurrently dealing and it will help you to differentiate it fromthe others. You should also pay some attention to the rhythm,which is generally iambic pentameter in style.

We will continue with this poem next week. Try, during theweek, to tell yourself the following:

I will be sensitive to peoples feelings and refrain frommaking cutting or insulting remarks.

God bless!

Beryl Clarke is an independent contributor. Send questions and

Sonnet Composed upon Westminster Bridge

CONTINUED FROM PAGE 19(3x + 2) (x - 3) = 03x + 2 = 0, that is, 3x - 2x = - 2/3When x - 3 = 0,x = 3Answer: x = - 2/3 or 3

2. Solve the equation:1 - 9x2 = 0Factorising using difference of two squares:1 - 9x2 = (1 - 3x)(1 + 3x)(1 - 3x)(1 + 3x) = 01 - 3x = 0 or 1 = 3x x = 1/31 + 3x = 0 3x = -1x = - 1/3.Answer: x = 1/3 or - 1/3.

AAlltteerrnnaatteellyy1 - 9x2 = 09x2 = 1x2 = 1/9

x = 1/3.

3. Solve the equation: 3(x +2)2 = 7(x + 2)3(x +2)2 = 7(x + 2) Clearing the brackets:3(x2 + 4x + 4) = 7x + 14.3x2 + 12x + 12 = 7x + 14.3x2 + 12x -7x + 12 - 14 = 0.3x2 + 5x - 2 = 0. Factorising:(3x - 1)(x + 2) = 03x - 1 = 0, that is, 3x = 1 x = 1/3.OR x + 2 = 0, that is, x = -2.Answers are x = 1/3 or -2.

None: You may also solve the above using thefactorisation method. In this case:

3(x +2)2 = 7(x + 2) is expressed as 3(x +2)2 - 7(x + 2) = 0The common factor is ( x + 2)Factorising ( x + 2 ) ( 3( x + 2) - 7) = 0

( x + 2 ) ( 3x + 6 - 7 ) = 0( x + 2 ) ( 3x - 1 ) = 0

I am sure you are able to complete the solution that is:3x - 1 = 0, x = 1/3

Or x + 2 = 0 x = - 2

Now that you are comfortable with solving simultaneouslinear equations and some quadratic equations, you canattempt the following for homework.

The sum of two numbers is 144. Double the first numberminus thrice the second number is equal to 63. Express theabove in the form of linear equations and determine the twonumbers.

x2 - 8x - 9 = 06x2 - x - 15 = 02x2 - x - 3 = 0x2 + 4x = 12Solve the simultaneous equations: 3x - 1/2y = 4

9x + 2y = -2

I urge you to find other examples in your textbooks andpast papers and do them. After all, practice becomesperfect.

Clement Radcliffe is an independent contributor. Send questions andcomments to kkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoommyl

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yl:social studies

MMAAUURREEEENN CCAAMMPPBBEELLLLContributor

ASOCIAL group may be defined as two or moreindividuals who interact with one another; they sharesimilar characteristics and collectively have a sense ofunity.

Human beings do not enjoy living in isolation. We beginour life as a participating member of the group, i.e., family. Weare born, live, grow and die in a group. We form groups tofulfil our different needs and to attain common goals. Groupsplay an important role in shaping personality, in thedevelopment of social organisation and in socialisation.

The members of a social group interact according to someestablished patterns. Definite relations exist amongindividuals which constitute a social group. In the truestsense, a group refers to a collection of individuals who arebrought into social relationship with one another and organisethemselves for the fulfillment of common aims.

A social group has an organisational aspect i.e., rules,regulations, rivals, structure, and a psychological aspect thatis an awareness or consciousness of the members. Membersof a social group are linked together in a system of socialrelationships with one another and they interact with eachother according to norms of the group. A social group is alsodynamic in nature.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL GROUP(1) GGiivveenn nnuummbbeerr ooff iinnddiivviidduuaall:: Two or more individuals

are necessary to form a group. This number may vary.(2) RReecciipprrooccaall rreellaattiioonnss:: There exist reciprocal relations

among the members of a social group. The members mustinteract or inter-related with each other.

(3) CCoommmmoonn ggooaallss:: It is another important characteristic ofa social group. The aims, objectives and ideals of themembers are common.

(4) SSeennssee ooff uunniittyy aanndd ssoolliiddaarriittyy:: Members of a socialgroup are always tied by a sense of unity and bond ofsolidarity, common goals and mutual relations. This willcreate a sense of loyalty and sympathy among the membersof a social group.

(5) AA ssttrroonngg sseennssee ooff iinn--ggrroouupp vveerrssuuss oouutt--ggrroouupp ffeeeelliinngg::This we-feeling fosters co-operation among members.Because of this we-feeling, the members identify themselveswith the group and consider others as outsiders.

(6) GGrroouupp nnoorrmmss:: Every social group has its ownregulations and norms which the members are supposed tofollow. With the help of these rules and norms, the groupexercises control over its members. These norms may bewritten or unwritten. Any violation of group norms is followedby a sanction.

(7) SSiimmiillaarr bbeehhaavviioouurr:: This similar behaviour helps in theachievement of common goals.

(8) AAwwaarreenneessss:: Members of a social group are aware aboutthe membership which distinguishes them from others.

(9) GGrroouupp ccoonnttrrooll:: Social group exercises some sort ofcontrol over its members and over their activities.

(10) Social groups may be permanent or temporary innature. There are permanent groups likes family andtemporary groups like crowd, mob, etc.

(12) Social groups are dynamic in nature. It is not static. Itresponds to different changes. The nature of change may beslow or rapid but it is bound to occur.

Social groups may be categorised according to severalcategories such as:

a. Sizeb. Structurec. Membershipd. Purposee. formalisation

CATEGORISING GROUPS ACCORDING TO SIZEGroups can also be categorised according to the number of

people present within the group.

PRIMARY GROUPA group held together by intimate, face-to-face

relationships, formed by family and environmentalassociations and regarded as basic to social life and culture.In a primary group, members have an emotional bond to oneanother such that the individual's place in that group cannever be filled by another person.

Members of a primary group meet the following criteria: Meet frequently on a face-to-face basis. Have a sense of identity or belonging that lasts a long

time. Have emotional intimacy.

People who are joined in primary relationships spend agreat deal of time together, engage in a wide range of

activities, and feel that they know one another well. In everysociety, the family is the most important primary group.

SECONDARY GROUPA secondary group is more formal and less personal. It is

defined as a group of people with whom one's contacts aredetached and impersonal.

Members of a secondary group therefore meet thefollowing criteria:

Do not meet frequently, or they meet only for shortperiods of time.

Share a sense of identity or belonging only until thegroup ends.

Are task-oriented. Feel little emotional intimacy.

Secondary groups, in contrast to primary groups, are largegroups involving formal and institutional relationships.Secondary relationships involve weak emotional ties and littlepersonal knowledge of one another. Examples of secondarygroups: police force, trade unions, a school and a church.

CATEGORISING GROUPS ACCORDING TOMEMBERSHIP

IN-GROUPAn in-group is a group to which we belong and to which we

feel loyalty. This group possesses some form of identity whichtends to exclude others. This may include badges, how wedress or methods of communication. We may also judgepeople to be members of an in-group based on factors suchas their religion, race, nationality, job category, and level ofeducation. It is therefore a social group towards which amember feels respect and an individual identifies inhimself/herself positive direction.

OUT-GROUPAn out-group is a group to which we do not belong and to

which we feel no loyalty. It is a social group towards which aperson feels a sense of competition or opposition.

INTEREST GROUPSAn informal group of persons seeking to achieve a common

goal related to their membership in an organisation.

CONTINUED ON PAGE 22

Do you belong to a social group?


yl:principles of business

YYVVOONNNNEE HHAARRVVEEYYContributor

WELL, HELLO there. Its me again. How are you all? Lastweek we looked at offer and defined acceptance. Thisweek the focus is on some important detail regardingthe acceptance and other elements of a valid contract.

You will remember that acceptance was defined as aresponse of a favourable nature without qualifications. Theacceptance is in response to the offer. The offeree mustwillingly receive or agree with the offer, as stated or implied bythe offeror. If one changes the offer, this is not a genuineacceptance but is a counter-offer. For example, A offers to sellB his motor car for $550,000. B replies that the amount is toomuch and he would only be willing to pay $500,000. The replyis a counter-offer, not an acceptance.

Acceptance must be made in the way desired by the offeror.If he desires it by bearer, then it must be sent by a bearer. If,however, the offeror does not state the mode of acceptance, theofferee should use the fastest means possible. If the post ortelegram is used, it is seen as effective from the date of postingor of sending the telegram. If acceptance is by telephone ortelex, it is only seen as acceptance if it is heard correctly, i.e.,transmission must be clear.

Silence cannot be seen as acceptance. For example, P wroteto D on February 2, offering to buy a horse for $5,000 andadding: If I hear no more about it, I consider the horse mine atthat price. D did not reply. The horse was sold to a third partyon February 25. In this situation, there was no contractbetween P and D since silence is not consent.

Now let us move on to another element of the valid contract.

2. CONSIDERATIONThis refers to anything of value that passes in exchange

between the parties to a contract. It is regarded as the price forwhich the parties secure the legal obligations of others. It maybe money paid, goods or services, an act or promise to do or

not to do something. Consideration must be on both sides,meaning there must be the givers consideration and thereceivers consideration. Consideration may be:

(a) Executed, i.e., the price is already paid.(b) Executory, i.e., the price promised by one party to the other, but not yet paid.

The rules of consideration are:1. It must be real. This means that it must be well defined, have certain value and be transferable.2. It must be possible. Consideration that is not possible is no consideration at all.3. It must move from the contract. This means that it should arise as a result of the present contract.4. It does not have to be adequate or considered to be enough.5. It should not be passed. This means that it should not be from a passed contract.6. It must be legal. This means that the courts will not allow a promise to sue where the consideration is immoral or contrary to the rule of the law.

Now let us move on to a third element.

3. INTENTION TO CREATE LEGAL RELATIONSFor a contract to be legal, the parties must intend that their

agreement is to be legally binding. If they do not have thisintention, they may have a simple agreement and not acontract.

4. CAPACITYThis refers to the eligibility of the person to enter the

contract. As a general rule, all human beings have full

capacity. However, there are some exceptions to the generalrule. These are in the case of:

Minors - children under the age of consent. Those under the influence of alcohol or drugs. Insane persons. Aliens during times of war. Prisoners.

5. LEGALITY OF PURPOSEThe contract must not be for an illegal purpose or be

contrary to the law, for example, a contract to commit a crimeor civil wrong. A contract involving a field of ganja would notbe valid in Jamaica at this time since ganja has not beenlegalised in Jamaica.

Now consider last weeks lesson and the lesson for thisweek. Use both to answer the following questions:

(a) Define the term contract. (2 marks)(b) What differentiates a contract from an agreement? (2 marks)(c)(i) What is meant by invitation to treat or trade? (2 marks)(ii) Give two instances of invitation to treat or trade. (2 marks)(d) Explain the terms offer and acceptance of offer. (2 marks)(e) Give an example of a counter-offer. (2 marks)(f) Discuss two important points regarding acceptance. (4 marks)(g) State two rules governing acceptance. (2 marks)(h) Explain the term capacity as used in the law of contracts. ( 2 marks)

TToottaall mmaarrkkss:: 2200

Next week, my intention is to complete the elements of a validcontract and then go on to termination and breach of contract.The types of contract will also be considered. See you then.

Yvonne Harvey teaches at Glenmuir High School. Send questions andcomments to kkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm

Contracts

CONTINUED FROM PAGE 21

REFERENCE GROUPSThe group to which we compare ourselves for

purposes of self-evaluation is called a reference group.We tend to look for others with whom to compareourselves. In our society, people compare themselvesto others in similar age groups and with similareducational levels to determine how successful they arematerially.

PEER GROUPA peer group is a group with members of

approximately the same age, social status, andinterests. Generally, people are relatively equal in termsof power when they interact with peers.

A group gives us a sense of: status and importance. belonging and a sense of identity. physical companionship. emotional security. avenues for leadership and decision-making.

ACTIVITIES:1. State six characteristics of groups.2. State five types of groups giving an example for each group.3. Why is it necessary to categorised groups?4. Which group do you consider most essential in society; give reasons for your choice.5. Suggest three reasons why you would consider social groups as necessary. Explain your answer.

Maureen Campbell teaches at St Hughs High School. Sendquestions and comments to kkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoommyl

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