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Why People Cannot Be Envy-lessLike the Universe? The Paradox and Debate on

Gravitism

B. Gal-Or with M. C. Fernandez

All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or and M.C. Fernandez

Fig. 1.1: The dark-cold expanding voids shown cause all radiated energy

to be dissipated deep inside them as explained by Fig. 1.2.

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The Prigogine vs. Gal-Or Paradox and Debate

While Prigogine won the Noble Prize in chemistry for his formalism [18], he

did not really tell us how irreversible changes in living and non-living systemsemerge from the reversible mathematical equations of physics. In turn, as we

had debated during the International Conference on classical and relativistic

Thermodynamics [18], Gravitism [12-17] is asserted to be superior for it draws

the same formalism [17, Lecture VI] from two reliable and independent

sources:

1. The THEORETICAL: Einsteins Field Equations [Gravity Physics]

accept no static cosmological solutions, namely, time itself, the arrow of time

and all irreversibilities in Nature, originate from Einsteins General

Relativity.

2. The EMPIRICAL: Measured dynamics of all energy-dissipation in

expanding Voids between superclusters [Figs. 1.1 and 1.2; References 1 to 11]

cause the 2nd Law of non-living and living Systems Dynamics, as explained by

Fig. 1.2 depicted below.

Fig. 1.2: TheCrisis about the Origin of time, arrows of time, entropygrowth and all Irreversibilities in Nature is asserted to be resolved by

comprehending about the interconnections between the measured

variables depicted above and defined below.

2

SPACE-1

Space-3wrapsstars &

galaxies


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Different scales, in terms of Light Years [ly], are depicted in Figs. 1.1 and

1.2.The 100 million lyscale is depicted in Fig. 1.1 is ten times larger than

that in Fig. 1.2. (Light year is the distance electromagnetic waves, including

photons as light, travel during 100 million years at 300,000 km/sec speed.) The

figures 100 million and 10 million ly also mean enormous delay times that

must be accounted for in comprehending the large observable structure of theuniverse shown here, which is only part of the total expanding universe.

The immediate and direct effect here-now of non-expanding cold Space-3 is

due to its connection to expanding Space-1 through non-expanding Space

2.

To stay overnight without a warm accommodation, when others have it, is the

first ancient and present depriving-envy feeling of all mankind.

Fig. 1.3: Our non-expanding neighborhood is home to thousands of

galaxies. It is wrapped around by dark SPACE-3. Located in the Local

Group of about 30 galaxies [center], we feel its coldness each night. But

there is much more to say about this information. (Image Source NASA/Wikipedia)

FIRST, each of the shining galaxies shown is thought to contain a super

massive black hole6 at its center, which thus acts as a matter-energy sink

in the immediate neighborhood around the black hole.

SECONDLY, black holes are not universal sinks. The large amount of

radiation energy poured out from all the shining galaxies shown is evenly

dispersed in all space directions and is always proceeding through Space-3

3

SPACE 3Wrapsaroundlocal

Group


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into Space-2. Only a very small amount of this radiation energy reaches the

galactic centers that harbor a black hole, or two. Most of it proceeds outside

the cosmic space framed by this picture, reaching Space-2 and from there

irreversibly dissipatingin expanding Space-1.

THIRDLY, and most important, without Space-1 expansion -- and possiblyan intermediate expansion rate of Space-2 -- the density of radiation energy

in Spaces 1, 2 and 3, would increase with time to reach the max

temperatures maintained by nuclear fusion in stellar cores, causing not only

our roasting on earth and disintegrations of the all structures but eventual

equilibrium throughout all space. So if we owe our life to the rules of

physics, we specifically owe it to Space-1 expansion.

FOURTHLY, space-1 expansion is the most universal time for any

observer, the Master Arrow of Time, the origin of entropy growth on

earth, the source of all observed irreversibilities in Nature and theground on which Gravitism stands.

But to comprehend how socio-Gravitism is linked to the entire world

outlook of Gravitism one must delay judgment beyond reading Lecture 2.

For the moment let us plunge into more details.

Our LOCAL GROUP contains some 30 galaxies of different size and

shape. Each galaxy contains billions of active stars.

Superclusters Virgo include over 2,500 galaxies and is about 50,000,000

light years away from us. It stretches about 20,000,000 light years in

diameter.

Only Fig. 1.1 -- on a 10 times bigger scale shows our nearby Coma

Superclusters, which contain about 800 major galaxies. Also the nearby

superclusters Hydra are out of the picture.

Further away are superclusters Hercules, which is about 50,000,000 light

years across -- the home of about 5,000,000 galaxies.

OurMilky-Way galaxy is less than a spot in the large-scale portrait of our

visible universe. [Fig. 1.1]. While our galaxy harbors billions of sun-like

stars, it is only 0.1 million light years across. The distance from us to our

sun is about 8 light minutes.

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http://home.honolulu.hawaii.edu/~pine/coma.htmhttp://home.honolulu.hawaii.edu/~pine/coma.htm


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Fig. 1.4: Portrait of the early universe. Early Small Dark Voids (blue)

begin world differentiation -- the 1st cause of our cold night today (Fig.

1.3). (Image Source NASA/Wikipedia)

The first-time emerging dark voids shown are the earliest differentiated

components ofexpanding SPACE-1 that wrap around the yellow-green-

red sources and irreversibly absorbs radiation poured into the voids from

the gravitationally-condensing, and, therefore, heated material emitters.

The universal differentiation is isotropic and homogeneous. To study the

expansion of a single Space-1 cell (adiabatic envelope 7) that wraps

around a typical emitter, is equivalent to the study of the expansion of

the entire universe. The dynamics and thermodynamic changes in such a

single cell then represent those of the entire universe. This is evidentfrom the isotropic and homogeneous distribution of voids and same max

temperatures of all material emitters -- qualities that have been

approximately preserved as the universe has further expanded into what is

shown in Fig. 1.1.

SPACE-I expansion is the earliest most universal clock. We define it the 1st

Cosmological Arrow of Time, or THE MASTER TIME ASYMMETRY of

all processes in the universe, including those of the living systems.

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Lecture1

Synopsis

Starting from this Lecture, we search for the earliest and most remote origins

of time, arrows of time, irreversibilities, entropy growth, life and social

dynamics.

Socio-dynamics deals with the origin of the most private and collective traits

of humanity and civilization. Example: Why people dynamics cannot be

ruled under the objective dynamics that control the entire physical universe?

Is there a verifiable, large-scale, physico-chemical cause-and-effect that has

given rise to some destructive forces of humanity? What should be thescience that deals with this fundamental phenomenon during all historical

times?

The methodology employed is to detect interconnecting facts that support the

optional world outlook provided by Gravitism, using minimal pre-

suppositions and imposed axioms. Though some fragments of these facts are

scattered throughout the literature on specific problems, there is yet no

dedicated professional framework to deal with the subject matter.

The subject matter has never before been presented as a unified field of study,

partially because it covers a relatively new field of integrated studies, and

partially because specialized fragments are scattered throughout the literature

on specific problems. As a result, different socio-proponents have approached

this subject from widely varying and sometimes misleading viewpoints,

employing disjointed concepts to what should be a unified methodology.

Consequently, these Lectures depart from traditional, isolated texts, in

emphasizing the interconnectedness of updated facts in different and

apparently unrelated disciplines. Thus, in trying to develop a newINTEGRATED METHODOLOGY, we refrain from repeating well-known

but isolated analyses, and, instead, stress the integrated consequences from

the point of view of large-scale physics and bio-chemistry that, combined, are

termed Gravitism.

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For the sake of unification and simplicity, the physico-chemical supporting

facts are first introduced in as simple a manner as possible, using illustrated

graphs, pictures and drawings that can lead to testable consequences.

Verified evidence cannot yet be admitted to a number of topics presented

here. Therefore, if scientists are counted as moderate skeptics, as no doubt

they should, they must adopt the practice of suspend judgment. By this we

do not mean radical empiricism, or the denial of any rational addition to

sociology. Thus, we refrain from leaving the study of Gravitism in the various

domains of socio-dynamics to the sole care of disciplinary sociologists.

Gravitism: From Large to Small-Scale Systems Dynamics

Differences begin on the largest and earliest scales of the visible universe, as

demonstrated in Figs. 1.1 and 1.4. We first focus on the shining emitters vis--

vis the dark-cold cosmological Voids that absorb all the outpouring radiation,

as marked in Figs. 1.1 and 1.2.

It is an undisputed evidence that the dark voids not only expand, but their

expansion is accelerated [1-5, 7, 9, 10, 20-52, 55]. This expansion, we assert

and discuss below, not only causes the 2nd Law ofthermodynamics of living

systems [12-16], but via the Einsteinian-Gravity-Based evolution of galaxies,stars, planets and biophysics, has generated all life and its diversity. [17 and

below].

SUPPORTING FACTS:

1) The core pillar of modern astronomy is the HUBBLE LAW. It is based on

verified observations since first discovered it in the 1920s [1-4, 7, 9, 11, 52, 53,

55]1,2. This law is marked in Fig. 1.2 as Uo=Hor, where r is the distance fromearth to CLUSTER I, which represents superclusters or a cluster of galaxies

shown in Fig. 1.1. Here Ho is the Hubble Constant and Uo the recession

velocity, namely, how fast the observed astronomical object is receding away

from us, or how fast R(t) is increasing with time, or how fast SPACE-1 is

increasing with time.

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2) SPACE -1 wraps all superclusters and clusters of galaxies.3 It contains all

expanding dark voids shown in Fig. 1, but not the emitters, the superclusters,

clusters, galaxies and active stars by the universal process called nuclear fusion

[17] SPACE-1 contains and in three dimensional spaces is interconnected with

non-expanding SPACES 2 and 3.

3) SPACE 2 wraps around but does not include the non-expanding

superclusters, while SPACE-3 wraps around but does not include the non-

expanding earth, solar system, our galaxy, the Local Group of galaxies and the

clusters that form the superclusters shown in Fig. 1.1

4) Nuclear Fusion 4 in the cores of active stars generates all the chemical

elements in the universe beyond hydrogen and helium. It generates the stellar

radiation that is spread into Space-3, and from it to Space-2, and eventually

irreversibly dissipated in expanding SPACE-1. [17].

At this point one may wonderhow such remote processes can affect us here-

now? There are two points that are asserted in response:

FIRST, to deny today the central role of astronomy and astrophysics in physics,

is to deny the very methodology of science, and to a priori reject a large portion

of its verified empirical evidence.

SECONDLY, we are linked here-now to what is going on far out there:

COROLLARY: If, by a thought experiment, SPACE-I stops expanding

now, the stellar radiation energy density marked in Fig. 1.2 would graduallyrise all over spaces 3, 2 and 1, eventually causing the entire universe to reach

equilibrium [uniform temperature/energy-density], whereby all processes in

the universe stop, including life on earth.

There is another link, envisioned first by Gammow and discovered in 1964:

The Cosmic Blackbody Microwave Background Radiation of the Early

Expanding Universe (discovered in 1964, Fig. 1.4), is the remnant left-over

radiation that has been expanded and cooled by SPACE-1-Expansion duringthe 13.72 billion sun-earth years since creation. [The so-called Big Bang].

This radiation engulfs earth, but it has been cooled down from about 4,000-

3,000 K.

This radiation constitutes direct proof that SPACE-1 [the Master Black Sink,

the cause of the 2nd law] has been expanding and its lowest level of energy

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density engulfs earth, our galaxy and any galaxy in the universe This

radiation is isotropic [the same in all directions] and homogeneous.

We next employ gravity-induced linguistics: Up, Down.

Up-Timing 1: Since Space-1 is expanding and its expansion beingaccelerated, the universe is cooling down forever. The corollary is that

eventually all energy density gradients depicted in Fig, 1.2 would flat and all

processes in the universe would stop in what is called the cold death of the

universe.

Up-Timing 2: Since SPACE-1-expansion causes the observed large-scale

energy-density gradients in the universe, stellar evolution would stop if

SPACE-1 expansion stops, albeit after a long cosmic relaxation time [17].

Downscaling 1: Einsteinian gravity [general relativistic physics] at

relatively small gravitational systems is approximated by Newtonian Physics.

According to both theories all entities above the size of moons are structured

according to theirspecific gravity, the heaviest components in the core, andthe lightest in the outer layers. We term this phenomenon gravitational

asymmetry or gravitational irreversibility or the most universal natural

selectivity [Lecture 2].

Downscaling 2: All cosmological voids are interconnected, namely they

expand via the Hubble rule. E.g., Void CapricornuswrapsaroundPvo-Indus

Supercluster and is linked with Void Sculptur through the one in between

them. [Fig. 1.1].

Downscaling 3: Supernovae 5 and Black holes 6 can only be formed if

SPACE-1-generated gradients exist. SPACE-1 expansion is therefore THE

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MASTER BLACK SINKof all energy processes in the universe, including

bio-chemical energy processes. It is thus the sole cause ofall irreversibilities

in nature, all time asymmetries 10 and the 2nd law of thermodynamics

[17].

Downscaling 4: SPACE-3 [Fig. 1.2] wraps non-expanding moons, planets,

stars and galaxies and is integrated within non-expandingSPACE-2, which is

integrated withinexpandingSPACE-1.

Downscaling 5: Adiabatic envelopes7 in homogeneous and isotropic universe

are always located between any pair of superclusters of galaxies.

Downscaling 6: SPACE-1 expansion affects any macroscopic structure

from superclusters and clusters of galaxies, galaxies, stars, astronomical

clouds, planets, moons, meteors, rocks, mountains, valleys, houses, sand

particles, biological cells, namely down the astronomical scales of 10,000,

1000, 100, 10, 1, 0.1, 0.01, 0.001, 0.0001, 0.000,01, 0.000,001, 0.000,0001,

0.000,000,01, 0.000,000,001, 0.000,000,0001, 0.000,000,000,01

0.000,000,000,001million light years.8

We Here-Now vs. the Expanding Universe There-Past

A. The universal maximum speed of light is not violated when sectors ofthe universe recede away from us [the Hubble expansion] at speeds higher

than the speed of light. Thus the expansion of the universe generates an

event horizon an observational limit of the universe; namely, the light

from such far away emitters [located at 16 billion light years or more away

from us], is redshifted until the sources totally disappear from our sights, for

ever. Therefore, we can only observe and study a portion of the universe

within our event horizon, and that portion is shrinking in time. For

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example: At a given time in the future, all that one can observe is Fig. 1.1

with a much larger scale factor, namely, most of what see now in Fig. 1.1

would then become unobservable.

B. Einsteins General Relativity (EGR) is expressed by Einsteins field

equations [17]. Without the so-called cosmological constant [20-51] it

accepted no static cosmological solutions. Thus, according to Einstein, it

predicted the expansion of the universe before Hubble detected it. From this

point of view the new astrophysical school of thermodynamics is not just

empirical and due to the agreement with said Einsteinian view its origin is

theoretical and is rooted in EGR. If one accepts this link, the new thermo is

gravity-based thermo.

C. If one retains the cosmological constant in EGR, which Einstein had

rejected due to the Hubble discovery in the mid 1920s, it explains the role ofthe speculated dark energy and matter that fill the universe and also

asserted to explain the cause of its accelerated expansion to a cold death

[20-51].

D. These matters bring this Lecture I to a close.

E. String theories, black holes, gravity-based linguistics, Limitations of

Theories, dark matter and dark energy are treated in the next online Lectures.

FOOTNOTES to Lecture I

1. Einstein General Relativity (EGR) may also be referred toas Einsteins Gravity Physics.

Fundamental physics should the same for all observers, accelerating linearly,

rotating, standing on a small astronomical body, like earth, or on a massive

star. This need provides the basis for using coordinate translators that we call

tensors.

EGR is expressed in terms of Einstein local metric tensor and its curvedspace-time mathematical derivatives [Volume I, Ref. 17].

Distances deduced theoretically can thus be determined locally between two

infinitesimally close points in curved space-time. It is, therefore, an

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unresolved issue to determine within the framework of each model, how to

evaluate large distances between two distant points.

The issue should not be confused with the fact that SPACE-1 [the Master

Black Sink] size increases with time. Yet, in debating the validity of each

proposed model, one must specify the space-time-curvature -- the curve-path-of-light that connects two such cosmic-apart points. Unfortunately, for

the theoretician who wishes to gain support for his own specific model, that

determination depends onHIS OWNselected cosmological model.

In the Commoving Distance Model, for instance, commoving distances

cannot be fixed. In practice, the distance of distant objects are best measured

by their luminosity -- which is reduced by the square power of the distance to

the radiation source [17] and by the redshifts of their incoming

electromagnetic radiation.

2. The Expanding Universe and Hubble law.

Hubbles astronomical observations prove that all clusters and super-

clusters of galaxies [Fig. 1.1] are moving away from each other with speeds

that are proportional to their distance from each other and , therefore, also

from earth.

Observations, including the 1964 discovery of the microwave black body

radiation, prove that the expansion ofSPACE-1 is the same in all directions(isotropic and homogeneous).

Isotropic distribution across the sky of distant gamma-ray bursts and of

supernovae also support this general conclusion.

Our Net Motion in Space is about 400 km/sec. But this motion is not easy

to comprehend. The direction of the earths net motion lies in the same plane

as its orbit around the sun and at angle of 61 degrees tilted upward

[northward] from the plane of the disk-like Milky Way. We travel around thesun at about 30 km/sec.

These speeds should not be confused with the recession speed of clusters and

super-clusters of galaxies away from each other. [R(t) Fig. 1.2]. This is the

Hubble expansion. Our galaxy is deviating from this uniform expansion

motion by about 600 km/sec.

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3. Superclusters of galaxies, galaxies and our Milky Way

The shapes of superclusters vary considerably; from that of Virgo, Coma and

Hercules to long filaments. [Figs. 1.1 and 1.3]. 9,11

Our Milky-Way Galaxy8

contains billions of gravity-compacted stars andother entities. Most stars are formed in the dilute regions of the rotating

inter-stellar SPACE-3.

Our galaxy is almost 100,000 light-years in diameter at its disk-like longest

spiral arms. It is in the form of an almost flat spiral disk with an average

thickness of about 1,000 light-years away from it center

All Superclusters are receding

away from us -- and from eachother -- at great speeds -- the

further away they are, the greater

is the observed speed. This fact is

termed the EXPANDING

UNIVERSE. The receding

superclusters follow the

observationally-based Hubble

Law [R(t) in Fig. 1.2].

Fig. 1.5: The Fog visible around this galaxy is composed of millions

of stars like our sun a reminder of the scales we discuss [12-18].

Spaces 3, 2 and 1 contain the cosmic black-body remnant radiation,

stellar photons, neutrinos, antineutrinos, gas, dust, etc. Intra-galactic gas

may emit X-rays and other types of radiation.

Andromeda (M31) is a member of our Local Group of galaxies. It is

characterized by a spiral structure similar to ours, and is located about

2,200,000 light-years away. Andromedaand our galaxy are the largest in our

Local Group, which is about 10,000,000 light-years in its largest spatial

diameter, namely, the size of our local group is about 100 times the size

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of our galaxy. Our local group includes M31 (Andromeda), M49, M58, M59,

M60, M61, M84, M86, M87 and M89.

Radiation pressure on any test-surface facing the lowest radiation-energy

density value in the universe [adiabatic envelopes in mid cold Voids of

SPACE-1, are less than that exerted by radiation impinging on that testsurface from the other side, namely, from the one facing the source of

radiation. (This is the familiar phenomenon behind SOLAR SAILS in

space research.)

The result is the universal driving force for energy transport from all hot

radiation sources to cold SPACE-1, whereby the energy-density gradients

inside adiabatic envelopes constitute the driving force of all irreversible

processes in K for all the energy outpouring into it from all shining sources.

SPACE-1 expansion is the prime mover of all irreversible processes in

nature. Nature, and of the 2nd law of thermodynamics.

Conclusion: With or without localized black holes, only expanding, cold,SPACE-1 [the Master Black Sink] provides us, with the universal,

UNSATURABLE SINK, the cause of the 2nd Law.

4. Nuclear Fusion (nuclear fusion process), by the force of gravity in thecore of active stars, transforms (fuses) hydrogen plasma into heavier

elements like carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, phosphor, iron, etc. Is

the most important process in the universe.

All active stars generate in their interiors all the basic chemical elementsbeyond hydrogen and helium; namely, all the heavier basic elements of

matter that we observe on earth and in our body and brain.

According to both Einsteinian and Newtonian physics, the bigger the mass

of a star, the higher are its core pressures and temperatures and faster are the

nuclear fusion processes in its interior [17].

How do we know that?

On both fusion and fission scientists know much. Fusion is also the driver of

hydrogen-bomb explosions, (not fission as in atomic reactors and in regular

atomic weapons).

When a certain amount of iron is formed in the interiors of active stars,

endothermic reaction replaces the exothermic one. (The exothermic reaction

generates energy in the stars, while the endothermic one consumes it.)

All active stars produce energy through such nuclear fusion.

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5. Supernovae, Maximum Temperatures, Redshifts &

Measuring Astronomical Distances.

All active (shining) stars generate the heavier chemical elements at the high

temperatures-pressures that gravity induces in their interiors. But the massivestars arrive to that End-of-life Stage earlier than smaller stars do. That

End-of-life Stage may, however, be the Beginning-of-life-Process in case

the supernova debris (ashes) gradually form orbiting planets around stars,

as is the case that we assert was the beginning of our solar system.

Supernovae are gravity-induced phenomena that astronomers observe in

galaxies when a massive star ends its life by internal collapse-implosion.

The collapse begins when the fusion process that produces energy, ends.

Supernovae are not only the originators of all chemistry beyond hydrogen

and helium [by nuclear fusion.], but serve in astronomy as reliable distance

yardsticks [candles] on which much of astronomy rests. The reason for

this selection is explained below.

A supernova explosion throws into Space 3 its interiors in the form of

glowing debris and gases that, initially, are much brighter than any other star

in its home galaxy. Hence, certain types of supernovae serve in astronomy as

the max-cosmic temperature standard forcalibrating distances to far-away

galaxies via the absolute luminosity (brightness) method discussed in CPPVolume I [17].

Supernovas extremely bright glow has been studied since 1054, starting

from the Crab Nebula. At its center there is a neutron starspewing energy

and elementary particles into Space 3, from which they proceed to Space 2

and, eventually, to Space 1.

That end is reached when a threshold amount of iron is formed in the

interior of a massive star. [CPP, Vol. I]. At that stage all net energy

generation inside the star stops and the process reverses into an endothermic

one during which energy is consumed.

THE COLLAPSE: At this stage the core pressure falls and the doomed star

cannot support the gravity-induced weight of its upper layers. This leads to

a gigantic collapse-implosion of the entire star structure.

A few general-relativistic deterministic options then emerge, depending

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on the mass and details of the doomed massive star:

(i) if the mass of the star is about 1.4 times that of the sun, the star slowly

decays into a white dwarf,

(ii) if its mass is larger, the formation of an extremely packed neutron star

or a black hole is the end result (in which no atomic nuclei structure

survives),(iii) a gigantic supernova explosion follows the collapse-implosion by

bouncing back from a central dense body [neutron star].

Type Ia supernovae harbor consistent brightness (absolute luminosity)

because their progenitor is accreting mass from a nearby star, always

imploding into the central neutron star at exactly the same mass -- the

Chandrasekhar Mass Limit. [CPP, Volume I].

The Canada-France-Hawaii TelescopeLegacy Survey Supernova Program

is designed to measure several hundred high-redshifted supernovae.

Massive stars: Due to their high, gravity-induced, inner-core pressures-

temperatures, massive stars are much faster than smaller stars, like the sun, to

exhaust their hydrogen-helium fuel by nuclear fusion.

The resulting higher pressures-temperatures in massive stars cause faster

releases of fusion energy in the interiors of these stars. From there the energy

reaches the outer layers of the star and eventually leaves the star and spreads

out in Spaces 3, 2 and, eventually, 1.6. Black holes are postulated astronomical local objects that are spreadthroughout galaxies and superclusters of galaxies that are wrapped around by

non-expanding SPACE-3, or may exist within Spaces 2 and 1.

Black holes come into being by gravity and the expansion of unsaturable

SPACE-1 [the Master Black Sink]. They act as additional unsaturable sinks

to that caused by the expansion of SPACE-1. Like stars and galaxies, black

holes cannot be formed without SPACE-1-expansion.

Astrophysicists expect to detect black holes ranging between roughly themass of a few suns to ten billion times greater. Such super-massive ones are

postulated to be in the center of some extremely bright galaxies, including

the Milky Wayand quasars.

Black holes are LOCAL, general relativistic cosmological sinks for all

matter-energy arriving and falling into them. They are postulated to be highly

concentrated, local gravity-sinks where the gravity field is so strong that

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nothing, not even light, can escape from them.

General relativistic cosmology predicts them as one-way sinks in space-time.

Some are assumed to be in the center of some galaxies. They may be

associated with what is observed and termed quasars.

Within a black hole all atomic and sub-atomic structures had already beencrushed to become only geometrically-curved space-time. This is due to the

extremely strong gravitational field within the black hole. The cause of that

total break down of all structures is only gravity.

Quasars and black holes.

Quasars are assumed to be super massive forms of black holes . Hundreds

have been detected by NASA's Spitzer space telescope, which measures

infrared light, and by Chandra, which measures X-ray emissions. Thesequasars are in young (far-away) galaxies that are surrounded by relatively

high-density gas that emits X-rays as it is being sucked into and accelerated

towards a one-way sink of a massive black hole.

Quasars and black holes form local sinks, in addition to the universal-

unsaturable sink generated by SPACE-1-expansion.

Most quasars recede from us at speeds of over150,000 km per second. They

are among the brightest objects in the universe, with the average quasar

being 100,000 times brighter than the Andromeda galaxy. Their giganticenergy output is probably powered by super massive black holes swallowing

nearby stars.

Their X-rays emissions are detectable even when they cannot be detected. It

is speculated that about 9 to 10 billion years ago, when the age of the

universe was between 2.5 to 1.5 billion years, many "super massive" black

holes had been formed inside large galaxies during their initial stages.

7. Adiabatic Envelopes and the Origin of Time-Asymmetries

and Irreversibilities in Nature.

An adiabatic wall, or surface, is a physical wall or an imaginary

surface through which no NET energy flow takes place. In Fig. 1.2 we

mark only three points on such imaginary surfaces, namely, where there is

No net energy flow across them. These surfaces wrap around

superclusters of galaxies in 3 dimensions. No net energy flow means that

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radiation [and matter particles] somewhat similar to the ones detected

within our solar wind do not cross such adiabatic surfaces.

The maximum temperature attainable in each galaxy is about the same.

It is roughly the same as that generated initially by supernovae and is

attributed to:

(i) the maximum temperature in stellar cores during fusion in all active

stars,

(ii) The maximum temperature during supernovae explosions.

(iii) The maximum detectable temperatures attainable by at the external

surfaces of quasars or galactic centers that harbor gigantic black holes.

8. The Solar System is composed of our sun, the orbiting planets,

moons, asteroids, comets, rocks, gases and dust, all bounded together by theCOMBINED attractive gravitational field of the sun, our galaxy, our local

group of galaxies, our super-clusters of galaxies [Fig. 1.3] and the

gravitational field of all the masses in the rest of the universe.

The sun, like all active stars, is a self-gravitating massive sphere of sub-

atomic particles in a state of hot plasma that is pressed-heated by the

attractive force of gravity.

It accounts for about 99% of the solar systemtotal mass.

Its diameter is about 1.392 million km and is slightly larger than of an

average star in our Milky Waygalaxy.

About 74% of the suns mass is hydrogen, with about 25% helium.

Gravity-captured debris from previous generations of earlier gas or

stars/supernovae, had started to condense and fall into or orbit the sun,

gradually structuring the currently observed solar planets.

During more than half of its present age, the universe did not harbor our solar

system.

The Solar System extends far beyond the farthest planets, asteroids, comets,

rocks and dust in our community. It is located inside non-expanding Space

3 that wraps our entire galaxy and is spatially interconnected with Spaces 2

and 1.

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Wayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Wayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium


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The Solar Systems outer boundary is where the solar wind clashes with

other active-stars-winds emerging from nearby stars. It may form there a

gigantic shock wave called heliosphere. The non-flat, clashing surface, is

twisted and different in temperatures and composition as affected by winds

emerging from close, or far-away stars.

No Net Suns Energy Remains in Earth: This is the verified result of

complicated thermal cycles in our atmosphere and on earths surface. [Our

atmosphere comprises the following gravity-induced layers: Homosphere

from sea level to 80km (Troposphere up to about 13km; Ozone layerabout

13-43km;Stratosphere 13-50km;Mesosphere 50-80km); Thermosphere 80-

175 km (diluteNitrogen80-15km, Oxygen 105-128km,Helium128-150km,

Hydrogen 150-175km)].

Much work has been done concerning methods to reduce man-induced

carbon emissions, e.g., by deleting from or injecting into it what caneconomically decrease its absorption and/or increase its reflectivity. These

may change the atmospheric net heat balance.

On ATTRIBUTING CURRENT CLIMATE CHANGE to acts of

humanity:

1. The monotonic increase in (automatically) measured global

temperatures does not show the 11-YEARS SOLAR CYCLEduring which

the sun luminosity changes. These changes are the results of complicated

sun-interior convection currents, granulation, magnetic field lines betweenchanging sunspot pairs, huge solar flares, etc.

2. Such short-time cycles may correspond to the unexplained Little

Ice Age that chilled Northern Europe during the late 17th century,

suggesting a causal link between solar total luminosity activity and climate

change on earth.

3. There have been 17 or 19 ice ages: From about 3,000,000 years ago

until the last one, which gradually ended from about 12,000 to 8000 years

ago. These ages have strongly affected ecological systems on earth, and eachlasted about 50,000 to 100,000 years and each had lowered the surface of the

oceans, resulting in climate-induced changes in life and all ecological

systems.

The incoming sun energy [Cf, Solar Wind] is partially reflected [and

scattered] from the upper layers of our atmosphere [about 30%] back to non-

expanding Space-3, and, eventually, to expanding SPACE-1.

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Most incoming short-wave energy [about 64%] is reflected back to Spaces

3, 2 and eventually absorbed in the deepest-coldest VOIDS/SPACE-1 [THE

MASTER BLACK SINK] as long-wave radiation that results from the suns

energy undergoing complex processes in the earths atmosphere and on the

earth surface. Thus, all incoming suns energy (plus about 6% of heat from

the earths interior], is proceeding further into the depths of Spaces 3, 2 and1.

Unlike planets, all active stars generate and spread out radiation energy-

matter that is generated in their very hot interiors by fusion. The sun, for

instance, emits this energy-matter as solar wind, which spreads in all

directions and is eventually dissipated in SPACE-1.

On its way to SPACE-1, the solar wind engulfs earth and the other solar

planets. No equivalent amount of this incoming radiation energy remains

with this and the other planets, as many wrongly assume. Part of it is

reflected immediately by our upper atmosphere to outer, cold-dark spaces 3,2 and, eventually, to Space-1.

The rest of the solar wind enters our atmosphere, and following

complicated thermal-ecological-hydrological cycles it dissipates irreversibly

in outer cold-dark Space 1.

The outgoing energy includes additional, small amount of energy from the

earths interior.

On its way to SPACE-1 the solar wind first undergoes through a hugeshock wave that is generated at the solar system outer boundary. It is there

where it clashes with opposing solar winds from nearby stars.

Together with similar solar winds generated by billions of stars in our

galaxy, this radiation reaches SPACE 1 -- the unsaturable, limitless,

universal sinkof all radiation energies pouring into it from all stellar and

galactic sources [12-18].

That one-way, irreversible energy dissipation in SPACE-1 -- the Master

Black Sink -- is driven by the radiation energy gradients formed betweenSpaces 3 to 2, and between Space 2 and 1.

About 2 billion years post genesis, most gravity-induced, proto-massive-

entities have already been condensed by gravity so as to ignite nuclear fusion

inside their cores and radiate the produced energy from their outer surfaces.

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Figs. 1 and 3 provide proof of an isotropic and homogeneous universe in

terms of large-scale distribution of cold voids, hot matter-structures-

emitters and their maximum temperature. There are no net energy flows

across adiabatic envelopesin SPACE-1.

Matter (gas, plasma) has been aggregated by the force of gravity to form self-

gravitating entities -- the early massive stars -- possibly include some

quasars.

9. Galactic Centers. The center of our galaxy is calledSagittarius A. It is a

very compact source ofradio waves that originate fromgas and dustheatedto millions of degrees K as they are postulated to fall into the galactic

center, which is further postulated to contain a super-massive black hole.

Galactic centers of other galaxies are postulated to contain such a super

massive black hole. They may contain huge amounts of matter [mass], each

in the range ofhundreds of thousands to tens of billions of the mass of theentire solar system.10. Symmetry-Asymmetry & Super symmetries. Various branches of

super symmetries are postulated in string theories. For instance, some

theorists introduce to theoretical physics a kind of primitive symmetry: If the

universe is eternal into the future it must be eternal into the past, or prior

to creation [the big-bang], there must have been a symmetric

contraction into an all-containing black hole.. As the density hadincreased during that pre-creation contraction, gigantic black holes are

claimed to be formed, and, at the instant of maximum contraction, they had

switched to expansion, and only one of them has turned into our expanding

universe.

Upcoming tests at CERN or by the Planck Satellite or by the ground-based

LIGO and VIRGO observatories, may reveal slight variations in

gravitational radiation that are claimed to be associated with such postulated

effects, say, on the polarization of the cosmic black body radiation.

11. Merging-Colliding Galaxies

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The fog shown in these colliding galaxies is composed of millions of stars.

Our galaxy is predicted by some models to collide with the Andromeda

galaxy in about 5 billion years.

The rate of galactic collisions was much higher in the past, mainly because

the galaxies were closer to each other.

Andromedas system consists of Cassiopeia Dwarf, Pegasus dSph, M32,

M110, NGC 147, NGC195, AND I-V, etc. The Triangulum Galaxy, the 3rd

largest galaxy in our local group, also includes the Pisces Dwarfas a

satellite.

Our satellite galaxies consist of theLarge and Small Magellanic Clouds,Ursa Minor Dwarf, Darco Dwarf, Sculptor Dwarf, Canis Major Dwarf,

Fornax Dwarf, Carina Dwarf, Sextans Dwarf, Tucana Dwarf, Leo I, Leo II,

Leo A, Sag DEG, etc.

Lecture2Socio-Gravitism

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Many aspects of animals social organization and evolution can be

predicted on the basis of gravity-induced environmental variables.

Since biogeochemical evolution causes key natural resources to be

distributed non-uniformly in the spatial and temporal coordinates of the

biosphere, resource monopolizationdevelops in all levels of socio-

biological systems.


Gravity Selection as a key Component of Natural Selection

The first local "aggregates" of matter in the solar system have alreadycontained atoms and simple molecules, and it was gravity that stratified these

compounds in horizontal layers according to theirspecific gravity.

The atmosphere and geological strata are ordered-selected by the specificgravity of their chemical components. It was gravity that put the early

components of living systems at one and the same strata.

Gravity Selection is therefore a key component ofNatural selection.

Gravity is also the universal builder of structures, including all chemistry in

the cores of gravitationally pressed-heated stars [See fusion in Lecture I],

geological strata, earth morphology the entire evolution of life, village/city

structures, transportation systems, linguistic hierarchy, recorded symbols,

letters, grammar vs. time, structure of sentences, pages, books, shelves,

houses.

1. Gravity-Induced Orientation, Order, Linguistics

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Assertion 1

The origin of temporal behavior in

animals can be traced back in time andout to external physical influences.

Even innate patterns" are frequently

associated with simple orientation

movement in the field of gravitation,

i.e., as "up-ward-downward"

balancing of the biological body vis--

vis the gravity pointer. Gravity

periodicities around the sun emerge as

prime sources of order via time and

the arrow of time.

Assertion 2

Plants know to grow vertically

upward when they start growing in

total darkness as seeds inserted deep

into the ground; -- even when they

grow on a steep mountain slope.

As most high-growing trees they align

their growth under the control of thegravity vector.


Using gravity pointers up, down,

left, right, we generate signs and

record numbers and letters for a

later use and for other to read.

Animals are no exception. Eachis 'conscious' of the commonly-

shared "up-down" surroundings,

and about "weight" and

acceleration. Plants also harbor

innate sensors that guide them in

which direction to grow even on

a mountain slope.

Additional examples range from gyroscope inertial changes and gravity-induced changes involving the fluid in the vertebrate inner ear to a

crystallizing suspension of organic spheres in water.

3. Gravity-Induced Plant Growth and Animal Behavior

The sensing devices whichplants and animals use for"gravity perception" ("gravityreceptors", "g-perception", "bio-

accelerometers", "gravity-induced

biological clocks", etc.) are not

yet well understood, even though

a voluminous literature has been

published on this subject. But

what we already know justifiesthe central role we claim gravity

plays in living systems and

society.

If a growing higher plant is displaced with respect to the "upright" position,some tens of minutes later it will adapt its growth in such a way as to restore

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its original orientation in coincidence with the gravity vector. (If it is

displaced only briefly and then restored to itsoriginal orientation well before

the growth response can set in, it still responds to that displacement.)

Gravity-induced orientation-adaptation of an organism may occur when an

organism orients itself by a gravity-induced gradient of density differences orhydrostatic pressure.

Small organisms (including all bacteria) may have no means for sensing

gravity, but they are affected by it.

Animals low on the evolutionary scale characteristically exhibit innate patterns that depend little on learning, and have a lesser adaptability to

changes in the environment.

Consequently, their dependence on heredity-geophysical-gravitational

origins is high in proportion to animals that are high on the evolutionary

scale. While the latter show some signs of innate patterns, they harbor a

greater capacity to produce a much more flexible mechanism to respond to a

variety of other external changes thatstimulate them. The evolutionary origin

of the so-called "innate ideas" may, therefore, be external rather than

internal.

Each of the billions of cells in our body contains specific organelles andnuclei, which are heavier than the rest of the cell.

These are key instruments in our lives, in our orientation, balancing, walking,

reading, etc.

Plants and animals always obey the gravity-induced commanding-guiding

force, for a reason. They try to maximize sun input and minimize shadows

from other trees.

We form no exception. Even with closed eyes. we always feel and obey

the ever-present gravity force. We and all animals detect it to orient

ourselves anyplace on earth, and balance our motion.

4. Gravity-Induced Property, Domains, Wars

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Gravity-induced changes developterritoriality in a given spatial region orin a given assembly of individuals, especially when key resources are not

sufficiently abundant and stable through long periods of historical times.

Inequality in human society begins with land demarcation and property,

private and tribal, stated owned or company run. Envy then drives

competition, company ads, TV and academic rating, political candidates,

religious rivalry and key human traits, sometimes stronger than as death.

One species, or one sex, may control a larger quantity of resources, say,

scarce water ponds, than the other, until a small percentage of thepopulation monopolizes key resources.

We observe this phenomenon in both the animal and human domains of

socio-biology.

In humans these gravity-induced territoriality is often developed into

nationality, strategy and wars.

Other possible links between human evolution and gravity-inducedchanges in the environment are illuminated by empirical results that emerge

from studies in geology, mt-DNA-based anthropology and archaeology.

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Assertion 3

When a limited terrestrial space is divided into lots in a community, it

carries economic and social standing, or "lebensraums" involving "well-

defined territories" and "Gravity-inducedNatural Selection"; from

animals' mating systems to animals' monopolies on water resources; fromnatural food administration to the control of key strategic ridges; from

controlling fossil fuel resources to disputes over territories.

In fact, as discussed below, much of the currently known socio-biological

evolution, and much of human history may be reassessed along these lines.


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Assertion 4

Even the computer page is ordered by up,bottom,laft, right margins, footnotes, first

and last pages. And it takes time to read

them and to comprehend them; the time

that always advances from past to future;

the time that we term Linguistic-Musical

Arrow of Time.

Similarly, gravity-induced ordering of

shelves, files, documents and books in a

library introduces order into our life.

Such gravity-induced order dominates not

only composition-order-asymmetry of

everyday life, but our brain-mind

perception and arrow of time [17].


5. Gravity-Induced Law, Seconds, Minutes, Days, Year

Whole cultures, civilizationsand religions have been

constructed on gravity-inducedhuman orientability, concepts,

spirituality, art, music, home

structure, village structure,

wells, canals, boats, trade,

agriculture, and even law

enforcement by hanging [17].

History testifies that such

gravity-induced cultural phenomena may proceed

beyond grammar and social

order far into the spiritual and

hierarchical domains: High

priest, low deck, high

commissioner, and highness, heaven, lofty, go to the bottom of the subject,

etc.

Letter orientation, fromcuneiform writing to later written languages,

includes past-present-future linguistic laws [modern grammar].

Gravity pointers, when combined with Mitochondrial-DNA [mtDNA], arekey tools in archaeology, anthropology and geology: Human trash is ordered

by gravity and useful in such studies.

Such a gravity-induced science is translated into gravity-rooted history,

chronology, natural Selection-Orientation, biological clocks, etc.

6. Gravity-Induced Perception and Aggregated Brain Entities'

We train our brain-mind to appreciate only gravity-induced, configuration-order-orientation and reject chaos and disorder. In short, we reject what does

not well align with gravity-induced posture, standing and sitting modes.

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Our brain-mind searches for what is 'right' via gravitationally induced

symmetries and asymmetry standards.

Each picture we observe, each letter-symbol, word and sentence that we read,

or hear, forms in our brain-mind a specific aggregated, configuration-boundary, gravity-oriented asymmetry in three-dimensional reality, or its

equivalents in examining a two-dimensional page-space, or a computer

display page-space.

The three-dimensional configuration is than completed in our mind.

Each letter-symbol, each word and each sentence generates an aggregated,configuration-boundary-asymmetry in our brain-mind, where it had been

irreversibly recorded and compared with what has been forced on our brain-

mind by previous forces of our education; -- the STANDARDS at home,school, social group, tribe, nation, religion or a specific branch of

civilization.

Time reversal of musical notes destroys our pleasure. One cannot enjoy it if

it is played in reverse. The structure and modulation of voice and the

sentences a human mind seeks to identify with are similarly affected.

Even a minordeviation from one's pre-trained language, intonation, accent,symmetry and asymmetry -- in face, body and walking way -- destroys our

gravity-induced, inner motivations for what is 'right', young, healthy, andwhat is not.

In observing a person our mind generates a gravitationally induced structuralasymmetry that is compared with the stored standard

Any picture is gravitationally oriented in our brain-mind: up/down or

horizontal/left/right. Thus, inversion of a picture, or reversing the directionof symbols, words and a meaningful text, destroys the meaning.

It takes us some time 'to read' a text, and more to 'comprehend' its meaning

vis--vis our pre-conceptions and standards.

We maintain that this process generates an irreversible 'Structural Space-

Time Arrow' in our brain-mind, in terms of 'Space-Aggregated-Asymmetric-

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Picture', which points from gravity-induced form-orientation-configuration,

or, 'head' and 'lower figure', to 'beginning' and 'end'.

7. Biological Clocks and Gravitation

The origin of temporal behavior in animals can be traced back in time andout to external physical influences.

Gravity and geophysical periodicities emerge as prime sources of order and

information in all non-living and living systems.

Animals low on the evolutionary scale depend little on learning, and have a

lesser adaptability to changes in the environment. Consequently, their

dependence on heredity-geophysical-gravitational origins is high inproportion to animals high on the evolutionary scale.

8. Vertigo, Loss of Coordination-Balancing & Gravity

Vertigo is a loss of coordination, balancing and orientation vis--vis spaceand the gravity-induced horizon. We shall employ this well-known

phenomenon to explain how gravity-detectors in our ear operate to help ourthinking.

Biological structures in the inner ear include semicircular canals and afluid that moves, by gravity force, with respect to the gravity vector and

activates a system that transmits linear and rotational motions vis--vis the

gravity vector to the vestibular nerve, which carries these signals through the

brainstem to our brain cerebellum, which, in turn, uses them to control our

balancing, orientation, coordination and movement.

The vestibular system in our ears comprises two semi-circular canals,

which are used to indicate our rotational movements, and otoliths, which

indicate linear translations.

The vestibular system sends signals primarily to the neural structures thatcontrol our eye movements, and to the Cerebellum-muscles system that

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keeps us upright and helps maintain clear vision-orientation vs. the gravity

vector.

9. Biological Cells, Reproduction, Immunity System & Gravity

Gravity causes changes in cell division, metabolism and the immunitysystem. Reproduction is also impaired and the immune cells cannot

differentiate into mature cells in low or zero gravity conditions attainable in

space crafts.

The size of a biological cell depends on the local gravityvector its size

increases in larger local gravitational field-force values.

Bone cells must attach themselves to something and will die if they cannot.

Without the gravity force-field they float around and perish.

Protoplasmic motion, cytoplasmic viscosity and specific gravity of cellcomponents -- relative to the ground-plasma are also vital components.

Moreover, when animals evolve on land, outside the oceans, they develop

stronger skeletons to cope with larger gravity forces vis--vis the reduced

one due to buoyancy in the waters.

Earlier lifeforms in the oceans were smaller and had a jellyfish-likeconfiguration.

Without strong skeletons land animals could not come into being.

10. Animals and Gravity-Induced Effects

Each of the billions of cells in our body contains specific organelles andnuclei, which are heavier than the rest of the cell. These are key

instruments in our lives, orientation, balancing, walking, reading, etc.

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Plants and animals always obey the gravity-induced commanding-guiding force, for a reason.

They try to maximize sun input and minimize shadows from other trees.

We form no exception.

Even with closed eyes, we always feel and obey the ever-present gravity

force, and detect it to orient ourselves anyplace on earth, and balance our

motion.

Gravimorphism, gravitropism and tropism are directional movementsof a plant with respect to a directional stimulus. One such tropism is

gravimorphism -- the growth or movement of a plant with respect to gravity.Plant roots grow in the direction of gravity while shoots and stems grow

against it.

Blood circulation and its pressure are also affected by gravity.

Space travel may involve living in zero or low gravity values (hypo gravity).

During post-stall supermaneuverability attainable by future [jet-steered orthrust-vectored] fighter aircraft, the gravity-acceleration forces on both

aircraft and pilot are critical.

RECAP:Gravity generates structures and controls all geological layers and global

phenomena ranging from mountain crests, gravity-induced tectonic folds,

valleys, beaches, oceans and lagoons, to springs, wells, swamps, glaciers and

rivers, and the bio-systems connected with them.

Without gravity-induced orientation-order and grammar we are lost in anygiven written language. Gravity-induced grammar prevents us from vertical

reversals. Similarly, horizontal reversals prevent us, say, from reversals ofWto M.

There are more complicated gravity-induced grammar rules. They range

from preventing reversal of past into future, and vice versa, to use gravity-

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induced structures as reference: A mountain crest, valley, beach line, river

bed, sky, earth, ocean, etc.

Gravity-sensing cells function as detectors of the direction of gravity. The

fluid-particles systems inside cells initiate inner convective currents that

cease under zero gravity. Thus, the absence of gravity affects the contacts ofcells via their membrane potential and their cytoskeletons.

11. Gravity-Induced Village and City Structures

Gravity generates structures andcontrols all geological layers and

global phenomena ranging from

mountain crests, tectonic folds and

uplifts, valleys, village and citystructures, transportation systems,

oceans and lagoons, to springs, wells,

swamps, glaciers and rivers, as well

as the ecological-systems connected

with them.

12. Gravity and Global Warming

Gravity affects global warming and all ecological systems.[See Solar System in Lecture I].

13. Gravity and Health

The evolution and everyday functioning of our bones, legs, hips, joints,

cartilages, ligaments, femurs, tibia, pelvis and muscles, has been "in

response" to the force and direction of gravity.

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Moreover, gravity plays a key factor in heart failure associated with swollen

legs, in flooded lungs, walking, sleeping needs etc.

Nevertheless, the cardinal role gravity plays in the treatment of gravity-

induced disorders in biological systems, human perception, health and

longevity, has been largely overlooked by health providers and researchers,partly because the key role of gravity as the universal generator of all bio-

structures, socio-biology and physiological forms has not yet been well

investigated.

References

1. Hubble, Edwin, "A Relation between Distance and Radial Velocity

among Extra-Galactic Nebulae" (1929) Proceedings of the National

Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, Volume 15, Issue

3, pp. 168-173

2. S. H. Suyu, P. J. Marshall, M. W. Auger, S. Hilbert, R. D. Blandford, L.

V. E. Koopmans, C. D. Fassnacht and T. Treu. Dissecting theGravitational Lens B1608+656. II. Precision Measurements of the

Hubble Constant, Spatial Curvature, and the Dark Energy Equation of

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3. Weinberg, S., Cosmology. Oxford University Press.

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Kelson, S. Sakai, J. R. Mould, R. C. Kennicutt, Jr., H. C. Ford, J. A.

Graham, J. P. Huchra, S. M. G. Hughes, G. D. Illingworth, L. M. Macri,

P. B. Stetson (2001). "Final Results from the Hubble Space Telescope

Key Project to Measure the Hubble Constant". TheAstrophysical

Journal553 (1): 4772. doi:10.1086/320638.

8. Keel, W.C., The Road to Galaxy Formation (2 ed.). Springer. p. 7.

ISBN3540725342. 2007

9. Harrison, E. "The redshift-distance and velocity-distance laws".

Astrophysical Journal, Part 1 403: 2831. doi:10.1086/172179. 1993.

10. Padmanabhan, T., Structure formation in the universe. Cambridge

University Press. ISBN0521424860. 1993.

11. Sartori, L., Understanding Relativity. University of California Press.

Appendix 5B. ISBN0520200292. 1996.

12. B. Gal-Or, A Critical Review of the Foundations of Relativistic and

Classical Thermodynamics, Pittsburgh, Pa. April 7-8, (1969), Mono

Book, (1970);

13. Ibid. On The Origin of Irreversibility, Science, 176, 11 (1972); 178, 119

(1972);

14. Ibid. Nature 230, 1971); 234, 217 (1971);15. Ibid.Entropy, Fallacy, and the Origin of Irreversibility: An Essay on the

New Astrophysical Revolutionary School of Thermodynamics. Annal.

N.Y. Acad. Acad. Sci.,196 (A6) 305 (1972) (Gold Medal);

16. Ibid. Cosmological Origin of Irreversibility, Time and Time-

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