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1.1 General Introduction
Plants are very important for the living world and one of the most invaluable
natural resources for mankind. The importance of plants to the living world
hardly needs any elaboration. Human beings from the time immemorial
directly and indirectly in many ways related with plants. During the history of
civilization man has been continuously exploiting the nature for the best
possible life. In the past, the needs of man were limited, the nature provided
him with what he needed, and the two lived in complete harmony. With the
development of civilization the needs of the man increased and he without
knowing the consequences, began to over exploit the nature. Even today,
when the scientific worth of environmental factors and natural resources and
their interrelationships are better understood, the process of destruction and
damage to the environment in continuing under the pressure of population
explosion. The increased per capita needs of man has inevitably led to the
denudation of forest to meet the demands for food crops, fodder crops, cash
crops like jute and cotton and plantation crops like rubber, coffee,' tea
mulberry etc. along with roads made for hydroelectric works, townships,
railways, road ways, canals, mines etc. causing many ecological damages
and depriving many of their traditional live hood.
The forest (trees) have played a vital role in our culture, religion, history and
philosophy and it is well known that while this was so in the historical past, we
seem to have forgotten our involvement with trees on account of our greed for
immediate and short term financial gains. As a result India is a fast
deteriorating in to a man made desert. On a global scale, forest currently
occupy roughly one third of the world's land surface. As against this global
scene, forest in India occupy nearly 64.01 million ha of land (FSI, 1989) and
contribute about one fifth of the land area of the country. With only about 2%
of the total forest area of world, India supports about 15% of the total human
and 14% of the total cattle population of the world. Much of the loss in plant
diversity has been consequence of over dependence of people on forest
produce. About 50 million triblas live in vicinity and are dependent on forest
for their requirement of fuel and fodder (Roy Burman, 1986). It has been
estimated that 52.8% of the forests in India have inadequate or no
regeneration. At present this value found must be increased. The situation
therefore, calls for urgent measures to take up in situ preservation in big way.
To over come the catastrophical effects of the indiscriminate felling of trees,
afforestation of degraded forest and creation of new forest belt is of utmost
importance to increase the tree cover. Since most of the tree species usually
reproduce by seeds, seed can play a substantial role in the afforestation
programmes. By raising the plants through its seed and its subsequent
transplantation to suitable planting sites according to a definite action plan, we
could very well check the unfavorable consequences of the massive
deforestation. Hence, seed is a basic unit for establishment of new
generations and it enable plants to propagate themselves. Plants produced
seeds to ensure the perpetuation of their types and for the spread of the new
species to the newer areas. Seed producing capacity of plants made them
particularly (angiosperms) dominant over the spore bearing plants (K Esau,
1976).
Seeds are probably more valuable than any other plant part for men as well
as for plant itself also. Form the time immemorial; in every SOCiety the three
fundamental and basic needs of the people are: food, shelter and clothing;
among these food is the most important and basic need for the existence of
human being. The chief source of human food is cereals, legumes, nuts,
vegetables and fruits. Committed over a one million years to a nomadic life,
man settled down about 10,000 years ago when he learn to satisfy his hunger
by growing food, specially seed foods. Seeds, the great staple food, feed
more people than does any other type of food in the most part of the universe
and are valued for their chemical composition and nutrition. The endosperm
with their rich food reserves for the embryo and seedling offer man and other
animal a highly nutrious food that can be easily stored.
More food seeds viz. rice, wheat, maize etc are constituted by the plant family
Gramineae than any other plant family as well as oats, barely, sorghum,
2
millet, rye, tef and other edible seeds. All great civilization has been founded
on grain crops, primarily because their seeds offered high food value.
Approximately 90% of all seeds cultivated are cereal grains.
The leguminosae, which is the second most important seed food family,
provides us with peanuts, soybeans, lentils, peas, check-peas, horse beans
and other edible beans. These seeds are rich (25-40%) either in proteins or in
carbohydrates, which are essential in a balanced human diet. Besides food
source leguminous species are very important for its ability of nitrogen
fixation. Most leguminous species fIXed atmospheric nitrogen in more/less
amount and improve soil fertility. Not only these two plant families, but also
many other plant species offer nutrious seed food and also used for medicinal
purposes.
The term seed must be understood in broad, popular sense. It is applied not
only to true seed, but also to equivalent structure, which look like and function
as seeds. Kozlowski and Gunn (1972) defined a true seed as a fertilized ovule
which posses an embryonic plant, stored food with protective coat/coats.
Thus, a seed generally consists of main three parts: Embryo,
Endosperm/cotyledons and seed coat/testa. As described by Hartmann and
Kester (1986), the term seed as commonly used also includes the ovule of
one seeded, dry dehiscent fruits, such as caryopes, achenes and nuts.
According to Malik and Shrivastrava (1979), seed is the seat of partial
development of new embryo and embryo is a connecting link between two
generations of a plant, provides a continuity of genetic material and constitute
a slender threshold of life for plant. Biochemically seeds are consisting of
starch, carbohydrates, proteins, oil content etc.
As per the seed definition, it mainly consists of three parts: Embryo,
endosperm/cotyledons and seed coat/testa. These three parts of a seed offer
an interesting field of seed study. An embryo is a future plan for establishment
of new generations attracted towards a very complex and the most important
phenomenon - seed germination that is one of the important index of seed
quality. Endosperm/cotyledons with its nutritive reserve food provide wide and
3
----------------- ---- ---
important field of the study about biochemical make-up of seeds. This study
must be resulted in to some nutritive information about balanced diet in
relation to population explosion. Many seeds contain edible/non-edible oil
content in more/less percentage. In case of non-edible oil it will be useful to
various industries in the production of oil based products viz. soap, cosmetics,
toiletries, lubricant, paints, varnishes etc. In the last few decades, oil seed sp.
of forest origin has attracted the attention of researchers. Seed coat/testa -
protective layer of seeds with its different color, thickness, surfaces, etc.
provide field for the study of external seed morphology. It also includes
various seed shapes, size, weight, and hilum shape etc. these seed
characters are very useful and important tool for the correct identification of
plant.
Embryo, which is a connecting link between two generations of a plant,
supplied nutrition by endosperm/cotyledons during the early stages of embryo
development. For germination to precede food reserves in the seed must be
broken down so that they can be utilized in the embryo. Thus, embryo is
directly related to the endosperm and type of the reserved food of endosperm,
suggest study about mobilizing efficiency of seed during germination. Seed
morphology also affects the germination and provide field for study about the
interrelationship of seed morphology and germination.
Seed with its three parts: Embryo, endosperm & seed coat and their
interdependence attracted to pay attention to its different interesting and
important phenomenon. And thus, in our study we have selected some of
these seed phenomenon, especially forest tree seed.
4
1.2 Aims and Objectives
Aims
Main aim of the present study was morphological, biochemical analysis and
germination of seed, which is to be first of it's kind in the area. The entire
study is divided into following phases:
• To study external seed morphology.
• Biochemical analysis of the seed.
• To study seed germination.
• To study mobilizing efficiency of the seed.
• To study effect of growth regulators on seed germination.
Objectives
• The morphological characters of seed viz. seed size (length, width,
thickness), weight, shape, color, surface, hilum shape etc. have
been studied.
• Seed analysis carried out for protein, starch, reducing and non
reducing sugars and oil content.
• Effect of growth regulators on seed germination and on mobilizing
efficiency have been studied for the selected tree species and
different seedling characters have been observed.
5
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1\L,,\P of'
\'lCTORIA PARK
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1.3 Study Area
Victoria Park (reserved forest) was selected for the seed collection. It is
situated at 3 km south of Bhavnagar city, which is located at latitude 21 ° 42'
to 21° 48' North and longitude 72° 04' to 72° 14' East on the western coast of
the Gulf of Cam bay in the peninsula of Saurashtra in Gujarat state. The
Prince Takhtasinhji of Bhavanagar named it as 'Victoria Park' in honour of
Queen Victoria. The entire area is triangular in shape and covers about
202.74 hectares. The most of the area is plain butthe western side is hilly and
rugged in nature. There are two lakes - 'Krishna Kunj Talao' and
'Gaurishankar Lake', which support considerable number of aquatic plants
during the rainy season. There are two nurseries, maintained to provide
young seedlings for plantation under the 'Van-Mahotsava' programme to
villagers, and various agencies.
1.3.1 Soil
Soil is generally defined as part of the earth's crust in which plants are anch.
Daubenmire (1959), defined soil as the weathered superficial layer of the
earth's crust with which are mingled living organisms and products of their
decay. Plants are greatly depending upon soil for their nutrients, water supply,
and anchorage upon the soil. Thus, the information about soil color, type, and
nature is needed to know.
The soil in this area are the residual derived from basalt outcrop. Generally
three types of soils are found in this area viz. half-decomposed rock, just
beneath the upper surface, locally called as 'morrum'; coarse soils are mix
with clayey soils in low-lying areas. Most of the plain area shows
brown/blackish brown soil with sandy texture. Due to presence of humus, the
upper layer of these soils is usually blackish brown in color. The low-lying
area shows medium black soil, which is clayey in nature having characteristic
cracks in summer and sticky in rainy season. The under lying rock found in
this area is Basalt-Deccan Trap.
6
1.3.2 Climate
Climate is the most important ecological factor, paints the general picture of
the vegetation. The climate of this area is semi-arid type with marked
seasons: winter, summer and monsoon. The maximum temperature during
summer is 40° C and minimum temperature during winter is 10° C . The
average annual rainfall 700 mm. The area is under the influence of winds
generally from South-West to North-East direction. During summer and
monsoon the wind velocity observed higher while lower observed during the
post monsoon period. Relative humidity remained higher during monsoon and
lower during winter.
1.3.3 Vegetation
High temperature, low humidity and low rainfall make the environment very
dry, which paints the xerophytic type of the vegetation in the area. The area
covered by the canopy of 422 different plant species, of which 241 herbs, 69
trees, 67 shrubs and 45 twiners/climbers (Patel, 1982). According to him
Leguminosae and Poaceae are the largest family of this area while
Euphorbiaceae and Astraceae take up the next position. The vegetation of the
area classified in to two categories: permanent vegetation and temporary
vegetation. Permanent vegetation occurring throughout the year and during
summer and winter these plants establish themselves with xerophytic
adaptation. The dominant species are: Acacia Senegal. A. nilotica, A.
leucophloea, Capparis decidua, C. sepiaria, Prosopis juliflora etc. While
temporary vegetation occurring mainly during the rainy season and
constructed by the annuals like Cassia tora, C. pumila, Indigofera cordifolia,
Cleome viscose, Tridax procumbens etc. The dominant species of the area
are: Acacia Senegal, Prosopis ju/iflora, Grewia tenax, Securinega
leucophyrus, Dichrostachys cineraria, Balanites aegyptica, Moytenus
emarginata, Capparis sepiaria and Capparis decidua.
7
f I t d· d List 0 . plant species s u Ie
No. Species Family Local Name Fruiting Type of fruit
1 Acacia nilolica (L) Mimosaceae Deshi-baval Aug. - Dec. Pods
2 Acacia senegal (L) Mimosaceae Gorad- baval Oct. -Apr. Pods 3 Adansonia dlgftata (L) Bombacaceae Rukhdo June - Dec. Capsule 4 Aegle marmalose (L) Rutaceae Bili Feb. -July Berries 5 Ailanthus excelsa (Roxb.) Simaroubaceae Arduso Feb. - May Samara
6 Albizia lebbeck (L) Mimosaceae Sins Oct. -
Pods March
7 Azadirachta indica (A. Meliaceae Umdo Jan. - May Drupes Juss.)
8 Bauhinia purpurea (L) Caesalpiniaceae Kanchner Sep. - Feb. Pods 9 Butea monosperma (Lam.) Papilionaceae Khakharo Dec. - May Pods 10 Cassia fistula (L) Caesalpiniaceae Garmalo Apr. -Aug. Pods 11 Cassia javanica (L) Caesalpiniaceae Apr. - July Pods
12 Cassia siamea (Lam.) Caesalpiniaceae Throughout
Pods year
13 Cordia dichotoma (Forst.) Ehretltiaceae Vad gunda March -Drupes
June 14 Cordia gharaf (Forsk) Ehretitiaceae Nani gundi Apr. - Jan. Drupes 15 Dalbergia sissoo (Roxb.) Papilionaceaa Sisam Jan. - May Pods 16 Delonix regia (Boj.) Caesalpiniaceae Gulmahor Apr. -Aug. Pods 17 Derris indica (Lam.) Papilionaceae Karanj Feb. -July Pods 18 Embfica officinafis (Gaertn.) Euphorbiaceae Ambia June - Sap. Drupes 19 Gfiricida sepium (Jacq.) Papilionaceae Feb. - May Pods 20 Gmefina arborea (Roxb.) Verbenaceae Sivan Apr. - May Drupes 21 Holoptelia intigrifolia Ulmaceae Kanjo Jan. - May
(Roxb.) 22 Leucaena leucocephala Mimosaceae Laso bavel May - Feb. Pods
(Lam.)
23 Menilkara zapata (L) Sapotaceae Chikoo Throughout year
Berries
24 Moringa oledera (Lam.) Monngaceae Sargavo Throughout Capsule year
25 Parkinsonia aculeata (L) Caesalpiniaceae Rambaval Jan. - May Pods 26 Peftophorum pterocarpum Caesalpiniaceae Tamrafali Throughout Pods
(DC) year 27 Pfthecolobium dulce Mimoceae Goras amli Dec. -June Pods
(Roxb.) 28 Polythia longifolia (Sonn.) Annonaceae Asopalav Apr. - Aug. Berries 29 Prosopis juliffora (Sw.) Mimosaceae Gando baval Aug. - May Pods
30 Sapindus laurifolius (Vahl.) Sapindaceae Aritha Nov.-
Drupes March
31 Syzygium cumini (L) Myrtaceae Jambu March -Berries
July 32 Tamarindus indica (L.) Caesalpiniaceae Amli Apr. - Nov. Pods
33 Thespesia pappuflnea (L) Malvaceae Paras piplo Throughout
Capsule year
8
1.4 Review of Literature
1.4.1 Seed morphology
Seeds are important as a prime genetic resource and also an important stage
of plants life cycle. Externally seeds vary so much in their size (length, width
and thickness), weight, shape, surface, color and hilum shape. Nikolaewa
(1958) indicated that the characteristics of seed depict the sum of total effect
of various stresses and strains, which the species has been subjected to
during evolution in its specific habitat of origin. Seed characters have been
studied thoroughly by many workers: Scurti (1948); Vartak (1961); Chaung
and Heckward (1972); Whiffin and Tomb (1972); Berggren (1974); Denford
and Karas (1974); Simpson (1976); Maiti (1976); Hill (1976); Mulligan and
Baily (1976); Seavy et al.( 1978); Gunn (1979); Mangly (1979).
Seed morphology or study of seed characters as an individual parameter is a
neglected field of taxonomy, but references to the use of seed characters are
found in various autecologiical investigation as well as in taxonomic literature
and they are occasionally used for the purpose of plants identification. Martin
and Barkely (1961) suggested important seed characters and employ them in
plant taxonomy. Duke (1961) has indicated that feature of seeds such as
shape; sculpturing and color provide critical identification of the systematic
position of the speCies Drymaria (Caryophyllaceae). According to Obereyer
(1962) the number and shape of the seed were the only reliable distinction
between two genera Chlorophytum and Anthericum of the Liliaceae. Further
the species of Ocimum (Labiateae), genera Sisymbrella and Nastrutium
(Cruciferae) weredistinguished by the presence or absence of mucilage on
the testa of seeds. Hairy outgrowths on the testa, their length and color
provided useful characters in the distinction of genera and/or species of
Malvaceae, Convolvulaceae, Asclepiadaceae and Acanthaceae. The
affinities of Ne/umbo and Nymphaea on the basis of seed morphology was
interpreted by Duke (1969). Leguminosae seeds attracted a lot of attention
because of their diverse form, shape, size and thus several attempts were
made to classify species by their seeds or seed characters in botanical
9
keys (Gopal and Thaplliyal, 1971 a, b). The general characteristic of Pinaceae
is that the seed coat was closely linked to the formation of wings. Pinus
wallichina (Troup, 1921); Pinus gerardiaana (Dogra, 1964) and Pinus
roxburghii (Mashewari and Konar, 1971 ) were characterised on the basis of
different type of wings present. Doran et al. (1983) described the Acacia
species on the basis of characters like type of funicle, the size, shape and
relative position of hilum, micropyle and lens, the form, color and dimension of
the seed and some aspects of internal morphology. Seed characters of 16
different tree species common to tropical dry deciduous mix forests of Central
Indian region were studied by Athya (1985) and revealed that t~e bigger
seed size and more weight viz. Bauhinia variegata, Diospyros melanoxylon,
Pongamia pinnata and Terminal/ia Sp. resulted in large amount of reserve
food material to the growing embryo in comparison to smaller and lesser
weight seed. Gavit and Parabia (1989) have prepared seed atlas of 66
Papilionaceous taxa collected mainly from the three districts of South Gujarat.
They have analysed various attributes like: size, shape, color, seed-weight,
fruit-seed weight ratio, texture, hilum, funicle and aril. Salazan and Cochran
(1989) have studied 16 provenances of Acacia mangium and variation in
morphological characters have been noted. Gavit (1990) studied the
systematic seed morphology of South Gujarat plants and constructed
diagnostic keys for the identification of unknown seed samples. While
morphological variations in relation to habitat were recorded for 12
provenance of Acacia nilotica by Ginwal and Gera (1997). Gera et al. (2000)
have also studied comparative morphological characters of seed in Acacia
nilotica collected from six different states and noted variations among seed
length, width and thickness.
Seed collection is the most critical and crucial aspect of nursery management.
Assessment for variation and subsequent selection from optimum size can be
useful study to improve germination. With this aspect many workers studied
the seed characters (particularly seed size and weight) as affecting to seed
behavior(germination capacity, germination velocity and vigour) in different
plant species. Righter, 1945 (Pinus); Langdon, 1958 (Pine Sp.); Kandya, 1975
(Pinus oocarpa); Goor and Barney, 1976 (Eucalyptus); Kumar,1989 (Tectona
10
grandis); Chauhan and Raina, 1980 (Pinus roxburghit); Pathak et aI.,
1981 (Leucaena leucocephala); Pathak et aI., 1980 (Acacia tortitlis); Halor,
1983 (Casurina equsitifolia ); Turnbull, 1983 and Aquaire and Nakane, 1983
(Eucaz/yptus); Gupta et aI., 1983 and Natarajan and Vinay Rai, 1984
(Leucaena leucocephala); Thapliyal, 1986 (Pinus); Nagveni and
Ananthapadmanabha,1986 (Santlum album). Singh et al. (1988) Sagchi and
Sharma, 1989 (Santalum album). Chauhan, 1989 (Grewia optiva); Singh et
aI., 1990 (Picea smithiana); Tripathi & Khan, 1990 (Quercus); Srimathi et aI.,
1991 (Acacia maelifera); Ponnammal et al. (1992,) Jaswal,1992 (Grewia
optiva); Dileep et aI., 1993 (Ceiba pentendra); Bhagat et aI., 1993(Chest-nut);
Whuangplong et aI., 1994, (Pterocarpus macrocapus); Sudhakara et aI., 1995
(Ceiba pentendra); according to Quraishi et al (1996), bigger seeds
germinate faster and attained enhance growth. Choubey et al. (1997) reported
that in Buchanania lanzzan seed polymorphism was found associated with
variation in seed weight, germination of seeds along with seedling growth and
their dry weight increased progressively. Negi and Todaria (1997) studied the
effect of seed size and weight on germination pattern and seedling
development of some multipurpose tree species of Garhwal Himalaya, and
reported that only large and heavy seeds of Terminalia belerica and Acer
oblongum resulted in to highest germination percentage. Singh (1998),
studied the effect of weight on germination survival and initial growth of
Quercus dilatata under nursery condition. They observed that higher seed
weight classes gave significantly better germination and survival percentage,
seedling growth as well as seedling dry weight. Sonfil (1998) studied the
effect of seed size in Quercus rugosa and Quercus /aurina and reported
earlier and better germination of heavy seeds.
Nizam and Hussain (1999) studied the effect of seed weight on germination
and initial seed ling growth in A. saman (Jaeq) F. Muel and mentioned that the
germination percent of the seeds increased as the seed weight increased.
Seedling also showed the same trend of higher height increment of large
seed. Tyagi et al (1999) reported that the seeds with more length, width and
thickness have more germination, similarly 100 seed weight and seed volume
are highly correlated with the germination in Grewia optiva. They suggested
II
seed length and 100 seed weight might be used as the predictors of
germination. Albizia procera seedlings from large seeds had a higher biomass
and leaf area and were more tolerant of long - term extreme water stress
were observed by Khurana and Singh (2000). Khurana and Singh(2001)
have studied ecology of tree seed and seedlings for tropical forest and
revealed seed size as a biotic variable. Khan and Uma Shankar (2001) have
studied the effect of seed weight on germination and seedling growth of
Quercus semiserrata Roxb. and noted that heavy seeds germinate early,
survive better and yield greater dry mass. Srivastava et al.(2001) studied seed
size variation and its influence on early growth in Terminalia arjuna. Poor
correlation observed between seed length and width. While significant
correlation was observed between seed size and weight. Maximum
germination percentage, faster initial growth and higher biomass of seedlings
were observed in larger sized seeds.
1.4.2 Seed Germination
Seed germination is one of the most important indexes of seed quality. It is
preceded by imbibitions and followed by emergence. Rapid, complete and
uniform growth of nursery stock is essential for better survival and
establishment of seedlings in the field to achieve good plant population from
seeds. In the recent past, many growth regulatory substances have been tried
to boost the growth regulators on seed germination has been reported in
many tree species.
Barton (1940); Seth and Mathauda (1959); Chatterjee (1960); Grushvitskii
and Limor (1961); Sircar (1963); Evanarri et al. (1964); Sachs (1965);
Chadwick and Burg (1967); Sankhala and Sankhala (1968); Ovcharov (1969);
Nanda et al (1970); Albert(1970); Bhosale and Joshi (1970) during their study
observed that in Terminalia arjuna, the 1M was more effective when applied
with ascorbic acid. GA3 stimulated the hypocotyls and shoot growth to the
highest degree, as noted by Chakravarty (1972).
The stimulatory effect of 1M on seed germination noted by French &
Sherman (1976). Treatment of teak seedlings with G~ was found to have
12
enhanced the plant height with reduced area of leaves, increased chlorosis
and impaired turgidity (Mehrotra & Dadwal, 1978). Baines (1980), during his
study reported that seed pre-soaking treatment with low concentration of IAA
and IBA resulted in slight stimulatory response. Shamshery and Kumar
(1982) studied the effect of some growth regulators on Abelmoschus
esculantus. Bewely & Black (1982) and Ellis et al. (1983) applied GA3 to
overcome dormancy and better seed germination.
A=rding to Semwal et al. (1984) and Wieser and Pilet (1984), the growth
regulators control several processes in the plant such as germination as well
as the shoot-root elongation, cotyledonary expansion and flowering. Mishra &
Mishra (1984), while working with Tectona grandis found that different
concentration of G~ proved more effective in case of radical growth. The
application of higher concentration resulted into decrease in the growth in a
descending order and culminating suppression at 50 ppm. Singh et al (1984)
studied influence of phytohormones on growth and dry matter production in
Madhuca latifolia and reported GA as growth stimUlator of seedlings.
Date and Jail (1985), reported higher survival percent and fresh and dry mass
production in teak seedlings due to application of GA3. Prasad and
Mohammad (1987), reported that the application of G~ on Grevillia robusta
registered highest percent increase in plant height and collar girth, as
compared to control. The increase in height of GA3 treated plants may be
ascribed due to stem elongation for which gibberellins are well known.
Enhanced seed germination by G~ treatment was reported in Cassia fistula
by Babely and Kandya (1988). During their study Verma and Tonadon (1988)
reported that plant growth and development were greatly influenced by
phytohormones. GA, AA were found highly affective in increaSing the growth
of seedling parts in Pinus kesiya and Schima khasiana. Bahuguna et al.
(1988) studied the effect of various concentration of G~ to enhance
germination of Champa (Michelia champaea, Linn.) seed. They found that
GA3 even in minute quantity was capable of promoting germination. Highest
germination percentage was obtained by treating seeds with 500 ppm GA3
Sharma and Govil (1988), studied the influence of growth substances (IAA,
13
GA3, MH, Cou and CCG) on elongation and history of hypocotyls in Citrullus
lanatus var. fistulosus and found significant changes in hypocotyls length,
vessel-element size and other histological characters of hypocotyls.
Malasi et al (1989) studied the influence of growth substances on seed
germination of Berberis asiatica. Yang and Read (1989) studied the effect of
GA3, 1M, and NM on bud break and shoot elongation in forest woody stems
and found that GA promote shoot elongation in the forest tree species.
Minu and Murthy (1990) studied effect of growth regulators on the foliar
application of growth regulators may cause promotion or inhibition depending
upon its concentration, endogenous level of the growth regulation and
genotype concerned. Kumar et al. (1991) observed the study of plant growth
regulators on two selected species and found that 300ppm concentration of
IBA is the most superior treatment for highest germination percent. Pal et al.
(1991) studied the effect of GA and fertilizers on growth of nursery stock of
Dalbergia sissoo and found promontory effect of GA3 on stem elongation.
Adedire and Oladede (1991) reported significant effect of different
concentration of IBA on the growth parameters of Leucaena leucocephala
seedlings.
Role of G~ in enhancing seed germination percentage was earlier reported
by Paadrutt et al. (1992) in R. prinophyllum. Chauhan and Paliwal (1992)
made observation about the effect of GA3 on seed germination and seedling
growth in Bauhinia variegata L. including the germination percentage, peak
value, cotyledonary expansion and comparative growth pattern of the
seedling. According to them the increased hypocotyls and shoot growth may
be due to the enhanced enzymatic activity by different concentration of GA3
Govil et al. (1995) studied germination in Indian Rhododendron and obtained
enhanced germination with the treatment of GA3 and IBA while 1M and Kn
were found to be inhibitory in their effects. Jadhav et al. (1995) studied the
effect of growth regulators on performance of Tectona grandis, Acacia
catechu and Terminalia tomentasa. According to them application of GA3
14
(20ppm) produced significantly more height in Tectona grandis. In TerminJia
tomentasa, GA3 (40 ppm) produced maximum height while in Acacia catechu
the maximum height was observed with ISA (10ppm). Sita Janki and
Sumalini (1996) in Amla(EmbJica officinalis Gaertn.) reported enhanced
germination due to G~ treatment. Shukla et al. (1997) reported enhanced
seed germination by GA3 treatment in Amla (EmbJica officinaJis Gaertn.).
The effect of growth regulators on seed germination of H. antidysentrica
(WaiL) and W. tinctoria (R. Sr.) was studied by Chaturvedi and Sajpai(1998)
and revealed that the lower concentration (2ppm) of 1M and ISA was the
most effective treatment for obtaining highest germination in both the species.
Rajpput et al. (1998) studied the pre-soaking effect of different growth
substances (1M, ISA, GA3, Ascorbic acid and Calcium Chloride) and
recommended 10 ppm GA3 and 10 ppm Ascorbic acid were best for better
performance of Adina cordifolia, M. parvifoJia and H. excdsum respectively.
Chauhan et al. (1998) studied the effect of various levels of 1M on the seed
germination of Sauaaurea costus (Fale.),
Tiwari et al.(1999) studied the effect of growth regulators on percentage
germination and plant percentage of some leguminous forest tree sp. (Albizia
odoratissima, Dalbergia latifolia, Plerocarpus marsupium, Hardwickia binata
and Qugeiniadalbergioides) and mentioned that the lower concentration of
growth substance(IM, ISA, GA3) were promotive and also increased the
germination percentage and plant percentage in comparison to control. Duta
et al. (1999) studied the effect of phytohormone GA3 on the germination,
growth and biomass production of Persea bombyeina. They found enhancing
effect of G~ in relation to germination and reduced the germination period
where as the biomass yield was higher at lower concentration. Kiran et al.
(2001) studied the effect of GA3 on seed germination Givotia rottierifonnis
Griff., reported increased germination percentage with the G~ treatment.
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1.4.3 Biochemical Analysis
Rusell (1947) estimated whole seed protein content from the seeds of Acacia
tortilis and recorded protein value was 38%. Rediske (1961) estimated seven
biochemical constituents: crude fat, iodine absorption fat, reducing - non
reducing sugar, starch, soluble nitrogen and protein in Pseudotsuga
menziesii. Similar study in Abies procera was performed by Rediske and
Nicholson (1965). Early and Jones (1962) have analysed seed samples of
113 plant families and estimated concentration of whole seed protein in
Acacia pavonia was (40%) and Prosopis juliflora was (33.9%) while the
concentration of cotyledon protein (39.4%) in Acacia melanoxylon was. They
also suggested that members of subgenus Heterophyllum were rich in oil
(about 11 %) than other non-oil leguminous seeds (about 3%). Pant and Kapur
(1963) analysed the mineral content from the seeds of wild leguminous
species.
The studies on seed bio-chemicals were reported in tree species by Bonner
(1973), who observed that in most seeds, complex carbohydrates, fats, oil
and protein usually accumulates with maturation and lipid form the major food
reserve in many tree species. Pant et al (1974) have studied the amino acid
composition in the seeds of wild Indian legumes. Kramer and Kozolowski
(1979) reported the nutritional status of seeds of different woody species with
carbohydrates as usually predominating nutrient. Hashizume (1979) studied
the change in chemical constituents during development of acorns in Quercus
acutissima Carr. and Q. serrata Thumb. and reported that the mature acorns
contained 46% of dry weight as crude starch. Niranjan and Katiyar (1979)
worked out the chemical composition of the wild leguminous seeds. Preiss
and Levi (1980) studied the biosynthesis and degradation of starch among
seeds of different species and revealed that food reserves in seeds are
generally believed to be carbohydrates, fats and proteins and proportion of
these vary greatly among different species.
Beri et al (1982) have made chemical examination of seeds of Prosopis
cineraria for their oil content. Rai (1983) recorded crude oil percentage in
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Butea monosperma, 20-25%, Pongamia pinnata 20-40% while Terminalia
belerica 30 - 45%. Similarly Theagazalan and Prabhu (1983) extracted fatty
oil of Bursera pariculata seeds. Jain et al. (1988) extracted six fatty oils from
the seeds of Pongamia pinnata and Azadirachta indica. Mandla et al (1985)
estimated seed protein concentration (40.8%) in Acacia auricuaeformis.
Balogun and Fetuga (1986) studied chemical composition of some under
exploited leguminous crop seeds and estimated the whole seed protein
concentration of Acacia ni/otica, Acacia senegal, Prosopis chilensis and
Prosopis africana were 25, 38, 25 and 25% respectively. Misra and Mitra
(1987) reported the nutritional status of seeds of the different woody species
and reported carbohydrates as usually predominating nutrient. Jain et al.
(1988) studied the physico-chemical properties of oil obtained from Olea
dioica seeds. According to their findings the kernels of Olea dioica contain
about 24.54 % of oil. Jain et al (1988) analysed chemical structure of oil
seeds of forest trees. They found the highest oil content from the seeds of
Pinus roxburghii about 41.32 %. Sehgal et al. (1989) have extracted oil
content from the seeds of Pinus roxburghii from four different areas selected
randomly. They have also studied the chemical characterization of obtained
oil content. Shankarnarayana et al (1990) worked out the fatty acid and
mineral composition in the seeds of Sandal tree. They studied the seeds of
young and mature tree seeds and found that the young seeds consist of 55 %
of oil, 8.2 % nitrogen, 51.25 % protein. While mature tree seeds found to
contain 62% of oil, 8.6 % of nitrogen and 53.75 % of protein. Dinesh Kumar
(1990) observed that non reducing sugars accounted for the major portion of
sugar to reducing sugars, in Celtis australis.
Rudrappa and Revadi (1991) extracted the oil from the seeds of Albizia
lebbeck and A. odoratissima and studied its fatty acid composition their
findings suggested that dry kemels of A. /ebbeck and A. odoratissima seed
contain about 2 .. 5 and 3.65 % oil respectively. Chowdhury and Banerji (1992)
reported the fatty acid composition of Mesua ferrea L. seed oils. They
reported about 65.0 % of oil content from the seed. Purohit and Mishra (1992)
analysed seeds of five tree species for their oil content were: maximum in
Terminalia be/erica, 40.46% while minimum in T. indicus, 7.46%. in Butea
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monosperma, 19.36%; in Pithecolobium dulce, 15.66%; in Pongamia pinnata,
37.22%. Rengude et al (1994) recorded the possibility of making protein
isolates from the seeds of Subabool verities for human consumption, found
that the protein content varies from 30 - 32 %. Goel et al. (1992) analysed the
oil content from the seeds of Schima wal/ichii. According to them the seeds
were found to contain 18.77 % of a fixed oil. They also studied the fatty acid
composition of the oil which suggest that the oil contain Palmatic acid, stearic
acid, and linoleic acid were 13.73,4.32 and 63.55 percent respectively.
Gupta et al (1995) made the biochemical analysis for seeds of some forest
trees (viz. Largerstromia parviflora, Leucaena leucocephala, Acacia nilotica,
Peltophorum iuerme, Eucallyplus spp.) for its protein, oil, carbohydrates, ash,
fibre, NPN and reducing & non-reducing sugars. According to their findings,
seed of Largerstromia parviflora, Leucaena leucocephala, Acacia nilotica,
Peltophorum iuerme being rich in protein and other important dietary
nutrients. The study of Soni (1995) for the starch content from seeds of
Cassimirooa edulis, Shorea robusta, Careya arbores, Aesculus assamica,
Quercus leucotrichophora revealed that the seeds contain starch 26.30,
15.60,50.30,12.10,54.70 % respectively. He suggested that forest could
also be tapped for the commercial production of starch. Starch depending on
the physico-chemical properties may be used in foodstuffs for improvement of
their functional properties. Kadam ~t al. (1996) studied the nutritional status of
seeds of some tree species. Tomar et al (1996) carried out biochemical
evaluation of some forest seeds (viz. Cassia tora, Delonix regia, Crotolaria
laburaifolia, Acacia leucopjloea and Albizia procera) with a view to know their
nutritional qualities. All seeds were found rich in protein; the highest protein
content was obtained in A. procera while highest amount of carbohydrates
was obtained in Delonix regia. All the seeds were poor in fat content.
Shrivastava and Jha (1997) studied Adansonia digitata as an important
medicinal plant of M. P. and suggested that its seeds have a very tough husk
and a soft oily kemal which contain about 12 % of fatty oil. The seeds are also
an important source of Vit 'C'. Agboola and Kadiri (1998) made studies on
some chemical composition of the fresh seeds of Prosopis africana and
determined the total nitrogen, crude protein and some cations.
18
Kadam (2000) investigated carbohydrate levels in the seeds of 27 tree
species of South Gujarat forest. a=rding to his findings, Oe/onix regia,
Oiospyros melanoxylon, Melia azedirach, Acacia chundra, A. ferruginea, A.
nilotica, A. polycantha, Samanea saman, pterrocarpus marsupium and
Megna laxiflora were observed as rich sources of total carbohydrates
(39.64%) of seeds among the tree species examined. Such high nutrient
content could be used to meet with even increasing demand of food for
humanity. Kadam (2001) analysed seeds of 24 medicinally important tree
species for their protein and free amino acid content and found a wide
variation in the seed composition of different species. Higher protein
concentration estimated (99-209 mg/g) in Albizia lebbek. followed by P. dulce.
Garuga pinnata, Albizia procera, Phylanthus emblica, Bauhinia purpurea, B.
tomentosa, Ceiba pentendra, Adenenthera pavonia, Erythrina suberosa.
While B. purpurea, Myristica fragans, Putranjiva roxburghii, Albizia procera,
Erythrina suberosa, B. tomentasa, Phylanthus emblica, Adenthera pavonia
and Albizia /ebbek were found rich in free amino acid level (11 - 29 mg/g).
Bukhari (2002) studied the seed weight and protein concentration of whole
seed, cotyledons ands seed coat of 57 accessions of Acacia and Prosopis.
The estimated concentration of cotyledon protein were 53 ± 6, 59 ±6, 38 ± 1
and 46 ± 2 and 52 ± 4% from the seeds of Acacia, Aculeiferum,
Hetterophyllum and the genera Prosopis and Faidherbia respectively while
whole seed protein concentration were 40, 52, 32, and 41 and 37 from the
seeds of Acacia, Aculeiferum, Hetterophyllum and the genera Prosopis and "-
Faidherbia respectively. Chauhan and Arunkumar(2002) analysed
biochemical constituents in relation to diameter classes and harvesting
intervals of Acer oblongum seeds. They analysed total sugars, reducing and
non-reducing sugars, starch, total phenols, soluble proteins and total amino
acids.
19