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Rem ot e Sensing o fRem ot e Sensing o f

Soi l , Min er a ls , an dSoi l , Min er a ls , an deom or p o og yeom or p o og y

REFERENCE: Remote SensingREFERENCE: Remote Sensingof the Environmentof the Environment

John R. Jensen (2007)John R. Jensen (2007)

Second EditionSecond Edition

Pearson Prentice HallPearson Prentice Hall

26% of the Earths surface is

Som e Fact s abou t ou r P lane tSom e Fact s abou t ou r P lane t

.

74% of the Earths surface iscovered by water.

mos a uman y ves on eterrestrial, solid Earth comprised ofbedrock and the weathered bedrockcalled soil.

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It can play a limited role in the identification, inventory, andmapping ofsurficial soilsnot covered with dense vegetation.

W hy Rem ot e Sens ing ?W hy Rem ot e Sens ing ?

It can provide information about the chemical compositionofrocks and minerals that are on the Earths surface, and notcompletely covered by dense vegetation.

Emphasis is placed on understanding unique absorpt ion bandsassociated with specific types of rocks and minerals usingimaging spectroscopy tec niques.

It can also be used to extract geologic informationincluding,lithology, structure, drainage patterns, and geomorphology(landforms).

Soil is unconsolidated material at the surface of theEarth that serves as a natural medium for growing

Soi l Char ac ter is t icsSoi l Char ac ter is t ics

.extract water and nutrients. Soil is the weatheredmaterial between the atmosphere at the Earthssurface and the bedrock below the surface to amaximum depth of approximately 200 cm (USDA,1998).

Soil is a mixture of inorganic mineral particles andorganic matter of varying size and composition. Theparticles make up about 50 percent of the soilsvolume. Pores containing air and/water occupy theremaining volume.

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So i l Tex t u r e Tr iang leSo i l Tex t u r e Tr iang le

100

90

20

10

(%)

70

60

50

40

30 70

60

50

40

30Cla

y

Silt(%

)

read

read

Clay

sandy clay

silty

clay

silty clay

loamclay loam

sandy

clay

20

10

100

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

90

80

Sand(%)read

SiltSand

loamysand

sandy

loam

Loam

oam

silt loam

Tota lTo t al Up w el l i n gU pw e ll i ng Ra d ia n ceRa di an ce (( LL tt)) Reco rd edReco r ded b yby aa

Remo teRe m o t e Se n si n gSe n si n g Sy st e mSy st em o vero v er Ex p o se dEx p o se d So i lSo i l i sisaa Fu nct ionFu nct ion o fo f El ect r o m ag net i cEl ect r o m a g n et i c En e r g yEn er gy f romf romSeveralSevera l Sou rcesSources

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Spect r a l Ref lec tan ce Char acter is t icsSpect r a l Ref lec tan ce Char acter is t icso fo f Soi lsSoi lsAre a Fun ct ion o f Sever a lAre a Fun ct ion o f Sever a lI m po r t an t Cha racte r i s t i cs:I m po r t an t Cha racte r i s t i cs:

soil texture (percentage of sand,silt, and clay),

soil moisture content (e.g. dry,moist, saturated),

, iron-oxide content, and surface roughness.

I n si t u I n si t u Spec t ro rad iome te rSpec t ro rad iome te rRef lec tan ce Cur ves fo r DryRef lec tan ce Cur ves fo r DrySi l t and Sand So i lsSi l t and Sand So i ls

60

ercentReflectance

80

40

Silt

Sand

50

70

90

20

0.5 0.7 1.1 1.3

0

Wavelength (m)

0.9 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.5

10

30

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Radiant energy may be reflected from the

surface of the dry soil, or it penetrates into

specular

reflectance

incident energy Ref lectance f rom DryRef lectance f rom Dryversus Wet So i l sve rsus Wet So i l s

the soil particles, where it may be

absorbed or scattered. Total reflectance

from the dry soil is a function of specular

reflectance and the internal volume

reflectance.

interstitial

air space

specular

reflectance

a.

dry

soil

volume reflectance

specular reflectance

incident energy

As soil moisture increases, each soil

soil waterb.

wet

soil

part c e may e encapsu ate w t a t n

membrane of capillary water. The

interstitial spaces may also fill with water.The greater the amount of water in the

soil, the greater the absorption of incident

energy and the lower the soil reflectance.

Ref lec tance f r omRef lec tance f r omMois t SandMois t Sand

and Clay Soi lsand Clay Soi ls

60

eflectance

40

50

Sand 0 4% moisture content

5 12%

Higher moisture content

in (a) sandy soil, and (b)

clayey soil results in

decreased reflectance

throughout the visible

20

PercentR

0.5 0.7 1.1 1.3

0

0.9 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.5

22 32%

10

60

40

50 2 6%

Clay

a.

ctance

- ,especially in the water-

absorption bands at 1.4,

1.9, and 2.7 m.

20

0.5 0.7 1.1 1.3

0

Wavelength (m)

0.9 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.5

35 40%10

30

b.

PercentRefl

e

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Organ icOrgan icMat t e r i nMat t e r i n

a Sand ya Sand ySoilSoi l

Generally, thegreater theamount oforganic contentin a soil, the

absorption of

incident energyand the lowerthe spectralreflectance

I r o nI r o n OxideOx idein a Sand yin a Sand yLoam So i lLoam So i l

Iron oxide in a

sandy loam soil

causes an increase

in reflectance in the

red portion of the

spectrum (0.6 - 0.7

m) and a decreasein in near-infrared

(0.85 - 0.90 m)

reflectance

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Rem ot e Sens in g o fRem ot e Sens in g o fRock and Miner a lsRock and Miner a ls

Rocksare assemblages of minerals that have

Rem ot e Sens ing o f So i ls ,Rem ot e Sens ing o f So i ls ,M ine ra ls, and Geom orp ho logyMinera ls, and Geom orp ho logy

interlocking grains or are bound together byvarious types of cement (usually silica orcalcium carbonate). When there is minimalvegetation and soil present and the rockmaterial is visible directly by the remote

sens ng sys em, may e poss e odifferentiate between several rock types andobtain information about their characteristicsusing remote sensing techniques. Most rocksurfaces consist of several types of minerals.

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Clark (1999) suggests that it is possible to model the reflectance

Rem ot e Sens ing o fRem ot e Sens ing o f

Rocks and Min era lsRocks and Min era ls

rom an expose roc cons st ng o severa m nera s or a s ng e

mineral based on Hapkes (1993) equation:

r = [[(w/4) x ( / + o)] x [(1+Bg)Pg+H H o-1]

Where r is the reflectance at wavelength ,

w is the average single scattering albedo from the rock or mineral of interest,

is the cosine of the angle of emitted light,

uo is the cosine of the angle of incident light onto the rock or mineral of interest,

g is the phase angle,Bg is a back-scattering function,

Pg is the average single particle phase function, and

His a function for isotropic scatterers.

There are a number of processes that determine how a mineral will absorb or

scatter the incident energy. Also, the processes absorb and scatter light

Rem ot e Sens ing o f Rocks and Minera lsRem ot e Sens ing o f Rocks and Minera lsUsingUsing Spect r o rad iom ete rsSpec t ro rad iomete rs

differently depending on the wavelength ( ) of light being investigated. The

variety of absorption processes (e.g., electronic and vibrational) and their

wavelength dependence allow us to derive information about the chemistry of a

mineral from its reflected or emitted energy. The ideal sensor to use is the

imaging spectrometerbecause it can record much of the absorption

information, much like using an in situ spectroradiometer.

All materials have a complex index of refraction. If we illuminate a plane

, ,

reflected from the surface according to the Fresnel equation:

R = [(n - 1)2 +K2]/ [(n + 1)2 +K2]

where n is the index of refraction, and Kis the extinction coefficient.

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Spectra of ThreeMinerals Derived fromNASAs AirborneVisible InfraredImaging Spectrometer(AVIRIS) and asMeasured Using ALaboratory

(after Van der Meer,

1994)

A lun i t eA lun i t e Labo rato r y Spect ra , Sim u la tedLaborat ory Spect r a , Sim ula t ed LandsatLandsat

Thema t i cThem at i c MapperMapper Spect r a , and Spect ra f r om a 63Spec t ra , and Spec t ra f rom a 63 --Channe l GERI S I ns t ru m ent ov erChanne l GERI S I ns t ru m ent over Cupr i t eCupr i te , Nevada, Nevada

Laboratory

S ectraty)

90

Alunite

tReflectance(offsetforclarity

Landsat Thematic Mapper

ectance(offsetforclari

40

50

60

70

80

1 2 3 45

7

23 2930 31

Perc

e

GERIS

hyperspectral

Wavelength, m

PercentRefl

0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4

20

10

0

28 32

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Index of refractionand extinction

coefficient of quartzdexofRefrac

tionor

xtinctionCoef

ficient

4

6 Quartz Optical Constants

n, index of refraction

K, extinction coefficient

n

K

exofRefractionor

tinctionCoeffi

cient

for the wavelengthinterval

6-16 mm

ctance

Quartz (powdered)

Wavelength,m

I

8 10 12 14 16

2

0

n

n

n

K K

ectance

InEx

Spectral reflectance

Wavelength,m

RelativeRefle

8 10 12 14 160

RelativeRefl

powdered quartz

obtained using aspectroradiometer(after Clark, 1999)

Mineral Maps ofCuprite, NV,Derived from LowAltitude 3.9 kmAGL) and HighAltitude (20 km

AGL) AVIRIS Dataobtained on

June 18, 1998

Hyperspectral data were

analyzed using the USGS

Tetracorder program.

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em o t e en s n g oem ot e en s n g oGeolog y an dGeolog y an d

Geo log ists o f t en use rem ote sens ing inco n j u n c t i on w i t h i n s i tu obse rva t i on t oi d en t i f y t h e l i t ho logy of a rock t ype, i .e. ,i t s o r i in . Th e d i f fer en t r ock t es ar efo rm ed by one o f th ree p rocesses ;

igneous rocks are formed from moulten material;

sedimentary rocks are formed from the depositionof articles of re-existin rocks and lant and

animal remains; or

metamorphic rocks are formed by applying heatand pressure to previously existing rock.

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The type of rock determines how much differential stress (or

compression) it can withstand. When a rock is subjected to

Rock St ru c tu r e : Fo ld ing and Fau l t i ngRock St ru c tu r e : Fo ld ing and Fau l t i ng

,

1) elastic deformation in which case it may return to its original

shape and size after the stress is removed,

2)plastic deformation of rock calledfolding, which is

irreversible i.e., the com ressional stress is be ond the elastic

limit, and/or

3)fracturing where the plastic limit is exceeded and the rock

breaks into pieces (the pieces can be extremely large!). This may

result infaulting.

Folding takes place when horizontally bedded materials are

compressed. The compression results in wavelike undulations

Rock St ru c tu r e : Fo ld ingRock St ru c tu r e : Fo ld ing

.

monoclines (a single fold on horizontally bedded material; like a

rounded ramp),

anticlines (archlike convex upfold domes - oldest rocks in the

center ,

synclines (troughlike concave downfold - youngest rocks in the

center),

overturned(where the folds are on top of one another):

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Eff ect o fEf f ect o f

Fo ld ingFo ld ing((Compress ioCompress io ))

an n gan n g(Pu l l i ng(Pu l l i ng

A p ar t ) o nA p ar t ) o nHor izon ta l l yHor i zon ta l l y

Bedded St ra t aBedded St ra t a

Typ es o fTyp es o fFold s Fou ndFold s Fou nd

ononHor izon ta l l yHor i zon ta l l y

BeddedBeddedTer ra inTer ra in

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Rem ot e Sens in g o fRem ot e Sens in g o fDr a in age Pa t t e rn sDr a in age Pa t t e rn s

Drainage patterns developed through time on a landscape provide clues about

bedrock litholo e. . i neous sedimentar metamor hic to o ra h

Rem ot e Sens ing o f Dra inage Pa t t e rnsRem ot e Sens ing o f Dra inage Pa t t e rns

(slope, aspect), the texture of the soil and/or bedrock materials, the permeability

of the soil (how well water percolates through it), and the type of landform

present (e.g,. alluvial, eolian, glacial. While in situ observations are essential,

physical scientists often use the synoptic birds-eye-view provided by remote

sensing to appreciate regional drainage patterns, including:

Dendritic Pinnate Trellis Rectangular

Parallel Annular Dichotomic Braided

Deranged Anastomotic Sinkhole (doline)

Radial (Centrifugal) and Centripetal

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Di f f eren t D ra inage Pa t t e rnsD i f f eren t D ra inage Pa t t e rns

D i f f eren t D ra inage Pa t t e rnsD i f f eren t D ra inage Pa t t e rns

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Di f f eren t D ra inage Pa t t e rnsD i f f eren t D ra inage Pa t t e rns

Typ es o f Fau l t sTyp es o f Fau l t s

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LandsatLa n dsa t Th em at i cThem at i c MapperMap per I m a g e o f t h eI m a ge o f t h eI n t e rsec t ion o f th e San Andreas andI n t e rsec t ion o f th e San Andreas and

Gar lockGa r lo ck Fa u lt sFau l ts

San Andreas

Garlock

Fault

Landsat band 4 image Shaded relief map derived from

a digital elevation model

Rem ot e Sens in g o fRem ot e Sens in g o fI g n eo u s Lan d f o r m sI g n eo u s Lan d f o r m s

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Panchromatic

Stereopair ofthe Devils

,

Intrusive

Volcanic

Neck

Obtained on

September 15,

1953 (south is

at the top).

Panchrom at i c Ste reopa i r o f the Menan Bu t te Tu f f CinderPanchrom at i c Ste reopa i r o f the Menan Bu t te Tu f f Cinder

Cone Vo lcano in I daho Obta ined on June 24 , 1960 .Cone Vo lcano in I daho Obta ined on June 24 , 1960 .

Pyroclastic material volcano

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Kilauea

caldera

Kilauea

Puu Oo

crater

Puu Oo crater

ca era

Composite Space Shuttle

SIR-C/X-SAR image

(bands C, X, L) of Kilauea

Hawaii volcano on

April 12, 1994

SIR-C image overlaid on a digital elevation model.

Overland flow of lava on the shield volcano is evident.

Kilauea Puu Oo

crater

Aerial photography of the

overland flow of lava on the

Kilauea Hawaii volcano

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ThreeThree--d im ens iona l Perspect i ve V iew o f I s lad im ens iona l Perspect i ve V iew o f I s la I sabelaI sa bel a o fo fthe Ga lapagos I s lands Obta ined by th e Space Shu t t l ethe Ga lapagos I s lands Obta ined by th e Space Shu t t l e

SI RSI R-- C/ XC/ X --SAR ( d raped over a d ig i ta l e leva t ion m ode l )SAR ( d raped over a d ig i ta l e leva t ion m ode l )

aa lava flow

pahoehoe lava

Extruded lava dome (shield) volcano

Mount St. Helens

erupting May 18, 1980

(U.S.G.S.)

USGS High AltitudePhotography Stereopair

of Composite Cone

Mount St. Helens in

Washington

August 6, 1981

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Geol og ic Cr ossGeol og ic Cr oss-- sec t i on o f t h esec t i on o f t heGran d Canyon in A r i zonaGran d Canyon in A r i zona

Panch roma t i cPanchrom at i c St e reopa i rSt e r eo pai r o f t h eo f t h eGrand Canyon in A r i zonaGrand Canyon in A r i zona

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Panchr om at ic Ster eopa i r o f a Fo lded LandscapePanchr om at ic Ster eopa i r o f a Fo lded LandscapeNear Maver i ck Spr ing , WYNear Maver i ck Spr ing , WY

This dissected asymmetric dome is an erosional remnant of a lunging

anticline. Note the fine-textured topography, the strike of the ridges and

valleys, the radial and trellis drainage controlled by the anticlinal

structure, and the prominent hogback ridges.

Panchromat i cPanchrom at i c Ste reopa i rSte reopai r o f a Sync l ina lo f a Sync l ina lVa l ley in th e Appa lach ians near Tyr one, PAVal ley in th e Appa lach ians near Tyr one, PA

The ridge lines of Brush Mountain on the west and Canoe Mountain on theThe ridge lines of Brush Mountain on the west and Canoe Mountain on the

east are composed of more resistant sandstone while the less resistant, solubleeast are composed of more resistant sandstone while the less resistant, soluble

limestone sedimentary rock has been eroded. The interlimestone sedimentary rock has been eroded. The inter--bedding of thebedding of the

sandstone and limestone results in hogback ridges at the periphery of thesandstone and limestone results in hogback ridges at the periphery of the

syncline with a trellis drainage pattern.syncline with a trellis drainage pattern.

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LandsatLandsatThema t i cThema t i c

MapperM ap p er Ba nd 4Band 4I m a ge of t h eI m a ge of t h e

San RafaelSan RafaelSw e l l i nSw e l l i n

Sou th ern UtahSou th ern Utah

The swell is a large flat-

topped monoclinal upwarp

bounded by hogback ridges

on the southern and eastern

flanks. The more resistant

hogback ridges arecomposed of sandstone,

while the less resistant shale

beds have been eroded.

Rem ot e Sens in g o fRem ot e Sens in g o fFluv ia l Land fo r m sFluv ial Land fo r m s

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LandsatLandsat

Thema t i cThema t i cMapperMapper

point

natural

levee

t h et h e

Miss iss ipp iMiss iss ipp iRiver Band sRiver Band s4,3 ,2 ( RGB)4,3 ,2 ( RGB)

bar forest

oxbow

lake

man-made

levee

Janua ry 13 ,Janua ry 13 ,

1 9 8 31 9 8 3

meander

scars

DeltasDeltas

Niger River Delta, AfricaNiger River Delta, AfricaMississippi River Delta, U.S.Mississippi River Delta, U.S.

Irrawaddy RiverIrrawaddy River

Delta,Delta, BurmahBurmah

Nile River Delta, EgyptNile River Delta, Egypt

birds footbirds foot

deltadeltalobatelobate

deltadelta

lobatelobate

deltadelta

crenulatecrenulate

deltadelta

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LandsatLa n d sa t Th e m a t i cThem at i c MapperM ap p er Ba nd 4B and 4 im agery o fim agery o fA l luv ia l Fans, Ped im ent s , and P layasAl luv ia l Fans, Ped im ent s , and P layas

Little San

Barnadino

Mountains

alluvial

fan

alluvial

fanpediment

playa White

Mountains

Chocolate

Mountain

Alluvial fan between the Little San

Bernadino and Chocolate Mountains

northeast of the Salton Sea in California

Alluvial fan, several pediments, and a playa

associated with an area in the White Mountain

Range northwest of death Valley, California

Salton

Sea

California

Acqueduct

Rem ot e Sens in g o fRem ot e Sens in g o fShor e l i ne Land fo r m sShor e l i ne Land fo r m s

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LandsatLan d sa t Th em a t icThem at ic MapperMapperCo lo r Com pos i tes o f Mor roCo lo r Com pos i tes o f Mor ro

Bay,Ca l i fo rn iaBay,Ca l i fo rn ia

beach

ridge

inlet

Morro

Morro

Rock

dune

Bands 4,3,2

(RGB)

Bands 7,4,3

(RGB)

or sp t

NAPP Color-infraredOrthophotograph of

Sullivans Island, SC

tidal

Isle of

Palms

Mount

Pleasant dredge

spoil

Spartina

alternifloraIntercoastal

Waterway

sand

barsbeach

ridges

inlet

Sullivans

Island

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NASA ATLAS Mul t ispect r a l Scanner DataNASA ATLAS Mul t ispect r a l Scanner Data( 3 x 3 m ; Bands 6 ,4 ,2 = RGB) o f t he( 3 x 3 m ; Bands 6 ,4 ,2 = RGB) o f t he

Tida l Fla ts Beh in d I s le o f Pa lm s, SCTida l Fla ts Beh in d I s le o f Pa lm s, SC

exposed

mudflat

inundated

mudflat

tidal

channel

Spartina

alterniflora

exposed

mudflat

ReefsReefsan dan d

A to l l sA to l l s