1/36 Jon A. Schmidt, PE, SECB Associate Structural Engineer Burns & McDonnell Kansas City, MO

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Jon A. Schmidt, PE, SECB

Associate Structural Engineer

Burns & McDonnell

Kansas City, MO

The Decline ofEngineering Judgment

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Introduction

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SummaryTrends in Western Culture

Philosophy, History, SocietyThe Nature of Engineering Practice

Knowledge, Rationality, JudgmentConsequences for the Profession

Social, Technical, Ethical

Introduction

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Principle of Sufficient Reason (Leibniz/Goldman)Intellect, reality, knowledge, truth, certaintyObjectivity, universal, absolute, necessaryAbstract, theory, contemplation, understandingPrediction, unique, closed, timeless

Principle of Insufficient Reason (Goldman)Will, experience, belief, opinion, probabilitySubjectivity, particular, relative, contingentConcrete, practice, action, useAnticipation, plural, open-ended, historical

Western Philosophy

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Sufficient vs. Insufficient Reason (Goldman)Science vs. engineeringPlato vs. SophistsPure reason vs. pragmatic actionIdeal solution vs. making tradeoffsKnowing vs. willing

Western Philosophy

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Western PhilosophyKinds of knowledge (Aristotle)

EpistemeTechnePhronesis

Forms of human activity (Aristotle)Theoria = contemplation/thinkingPoiesis = production/makingPraxis = (inter)action/doing

= theoretical knowledge= technical rationality= practical judgment

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Western PhilosophyTheoretical Knowledge

Propositional

Eternal Truth

Conceptual Beliefs

Facts

Understanding

Intelligent

Evidence

Data

Mental

Memory

Student

Instructing

Technical Rationality

Procedural

External Success

Instrumental Abilities

Proficiencies

Skill

Competent

Method

Rules

Physical

Habits

Apprentice

Training

Practical Judgment

Personal

Internal Integrity

Ethical Dispositions

Virtues

Wisdom

Prudent

Intuition

Experiences

Social

Conscience

Disciple

Mentoring

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Western HistoryTheoretical Knowledge


Practical Judgment

Propositional Procedural Personal

Eternal Truth External Success Internal Integrity

Conceptual Beliefs



Facts Proficiencies Virtues

Understanding Skill Wisdom

Intelligent Competent Prudent

Evidence Method Intuition

Data Rules Experiences

Mental Physical Social

Memory Habits Conscience

Student Apprentice Disciple

Instructing Training Mentoring

Theoretical Knowledge


Practical Judgment



Conceptual Beliefs












Theoretical Knowledge


Practical Judgment



Conceptual Beliefs












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The Great Reversal (Tabachnick)Plato’s “kingly techne” vs. Aristotle’s

“phronetic rule”Augustine: “prudence of flesh” vs. “prudence

of spirit”Aquinas: top-down conscience vs. bottom-up

phronesisMachiavelli: politics as techne for strong

rulersHobbes: natural laws vs. fallible human

guessesEnlightenment: purge any and all irrational

elementsKant: universal principles vs. experience

Western History

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Back to the Rough Ground (Dunne)Knowledge-how is aligned with knowledge-that

Theory loses contemplative aspirationScientific information contains technical

imperativesTechnical rationality is treated as value-neutral

Efficiency and economy are embedded valuesPrivileged status due to seeming coincidence with

structure of rationality itselfHegemony of techne

“It is no longer seen as a form of rationality, with its own limited sphere of validity, but as coincident with rationality as such.”

Western Society

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Consolations of Techne (Moore)Problem: “the delusory fantasy … that,

through technology, we will finally be able to overcome the challenges which we face.”“Easy access to information can corrupt us. When

I can always look it up, I have no reason to learn it.”

“The analysis or critique of work principally becomes the analysis of whether proper procedure was followed.”

Solution: “pursue the difficult prudence of phronesis while resisting the all-inclusive allure of techne.”“One cannot repair one’s marriage in the same way

that one repairs one’s computer.”

Western Society

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Practical Wisdom (Schwartz and Sharpe)Psychology and cognitive scienceRules and incentives vs. discretion and

judgmentDoctors: health care costs vs. qualityLawyers: client advocacy vs. justiceTeachers: standardized test scores vs.

educationEngineers?

Western Society

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Categories (Vincenti)Fundamental design conceptsCriteria and specificationsTheoretical toolsQuantitative dataPractical considerationsDesign instrumentalities

Engineering Knowledge

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Application (Bailey and Gainsburg)Fundamental design conceptsCriteria and specifications

Structural systems criteriaAppropriate structural elements

Theoretical toolsQuantitative dataPractical considerations

Rules of thumb and estimatesConstruction feasibility and ease

Design instrumentalitiesOrganization of workEngineering politics


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Findings (Bailey and Gainsburg)Schematic design, design development, and

contract documents phases are dominated by design instrumentalities, appropriate structural elements, and fundamental design concepts

Engineering politics increases over time and is most common during construction

Most EK is technical and some is procedural; relatively little is social, visual, or financial

More than 70% of structural EK across all phases is practice-generated, rather than historically established


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Knowledge-That vs. Knowledge-HowTheoretical vs. practicalAimed at truth vs. successManifested in words vs. actionsPossessed by someone who is informed vs.

skilledLacking in someone who is ignorant vs.

incompetentIn each case, which is more applicable to

engineering?


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PerceptionRational solution of technical problems

RealityEngineering problems often ill-structured or

“wicked”No definitive answers from following rigid

rulesEngineers must define problems before solving

themRationality vs. intentionality

Engineering Rationality

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Engineering Method (Koen)Strategy for creating best change in poorly

understood situation within available resourcesUse of heuristics – anything that provides

plausible aid or direction in solution of problem but is in final analysis unjustified, incapable of justification, and potentially fallible


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Design Procedures (Addis)Inputs: knowledge(-that), experience

(knowledge-how)Constraints: client requirements, costs, time,

codes and standards, construction methodsOutputs: description (drawings and

specifications), justification (calculations)Nature: not deterministic; different DPs can

lead to similar structures, similar DPs can lead to significantly different structures


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ModelsSupposed to capture important aspects of

realityAbstraction – neglecting certain aspects in

order to gain better understanding of remaining aspects

Idealization – replacing complicated aspects with simplified versions

Approximate representations serving as epistemic tools

Analysis is straightforward, but construction is an art

Informed by designer’s unique way of “seeing” structure

Two different models can produce different results, yet both be “correct”


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Types of Inference (Peirce)Abduction – creative hypothesisDeduction – deterministic analysisInduction – experiential synthesisCycle repeats, which develops …


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Definition (Davis)Disposition (including ability) to act as

competent members of the discipline actMore than just knowledge-that or even

knowledge-howEmbodiment of high likelihood of making

certain decisions in appropriate way at appropriate time

Neither arbitrary nor algorithmicDiscipline-specific form of phronesis?

Engineering Judgment

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Dreyfus Model of Skill AcquisitionNovice – complies with strict rules based on

context-free features of task environmentAdvanced Beginner – recognizes situational

aspects and follows maxims to adjust actions accordingly

Competent Performer – selects plan, goal, or perspective for establishing which elements are relevant

Proficient Performer – sees what needs to be done and then chooses how to go about doing it

Expert – intuitively perceives both what needs to be done and how to do it


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Dreyfus Model – ObservationsAdvancement is only possible by means of

experienceHigher levels are characterized by less rational

deliberation and greater emotional involvementExperts revert to novice and advanced

beginner behavior when confronted with unfamiliar circumstances


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Dreyfus Model for EngineersFormal education imparts rules for the novice

(M=wl2/8)Engineer intern becomes advanced beginner

by picking up on maxims (“least weight does not equal least cost”)

Competence is achieved when engineer can focus instinctively on what really matters and converge quickly on viable solutions (abduction)


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ConcernWill Rogers: “Good judgment only comes

through experience, and a lot of that is bad judgment.”

The public wants certainty and control as provided by technical rationality

Low tolerance for mistakes/failures inhibits development of judgment


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Captivity (Goldman)Intellectual – widespread misconception that

engineering is merely applied scienceSocial – problems themselves and terms of

acceptable solutions are decided by non-engineers

Values and priorities of employer/client take precedence

Most engineers are content with this, but …Commoditization/Computerization/

GlobalizationPublic does not understand/appreciate what we

doWe are not properly compensated for our

servicesDifficult to differentiate if all engineering is the

same

Social Consequences

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Alternative (SEI Case for Change)Become leaders and innovators

Recognized as stewards of the built environmentIntegrating factor, rather than supporting castEngaged in policy, aesthetics, and finance as well

as technicalRenowned for curiosity and commitment to

learningAttractive field for the best and brightestRequires changes in education processwww.asce.org/uploadedFiles/visionforthefuture.pdf

Social Consequences

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Prescriptive Codes and Standards (Dunne)Knowledge implicit in skillful performance is

“abstracted for encapsulation in explicit, generalisable formulae, procedures, or rules.”

“The ideal to which technical rationality aspires, one might say, is a practitioner-proof mode of practice.”

Criteria become ever more detailed and prescriptive

Well-meaning but ultimately misguided attempt to legislate design outcomes by providing increasingly elaborate set of instructions

Technical Consequences

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AlternativePerformance-based approaches

Legally binding provisions set basic objectives and fundamental principles

Commentary stipulates methods that are “deemed to comply”

Engineers make decisions on project-by-project basis

Peer review typically required to assist code officials


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DeontologyBasis: rules, duties, obligationsExample: code of ethicsFlaw: not every situation fits

ConsequentialismBasis: actual or expected resultsExample: liabilityFlaw: not every outcome is foreseeable

Ethical Consequences

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AlternativeVirtue ethics

Virtuous Engineers assert their responsibilityfor engaging in a combined human performancethat involves the exercise of practical judgmentto enhance the material well-being of all peopleby achieving safety, sustainability and efficiencywhile exhibiting objectivity, care and honestyin assessing, managing and communicating risk

“Your Practice Is Your Ethics!”www.VirtuousEngineers.org

Ethical Consequences

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Engineering = IngenuityNot repetition

Engineering = ArtNot science

Engineering = JudgmentNot technique

Conclusion

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Jon A. Schmidt, PE, SECB

[email protected]

twitter.com/JonAlanSchmidt

www.LinkedIn.com/in/JonAlanSchmidt

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1/36 Jon A. Schmidt, PE, SECB Associate Structural Engineer Burns & McDonnell Kansas City, MO