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EnvinEnlPyhlgy Eign

2n Ei in

DAK KOPEC

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Environmental

Psychology

for Design

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DAK Kopec, Ph.D., MCHES, IDECRadford University

Fairchild BooksNew York

Environmental

Psychology

for DesignSecond Edition

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Executive Director & General Manager: Michael Schluter

Executive Editor: Olga T. Kontzias

Assistant Acquisitions Editor: Amanda Breccia

Development Editor: Rob Phelps

Associate Art Director: Sarah Silberg

Production Director: Ginger Hillman

Associate Production Editor: Linda Feldman

Project Manager: Jef Hofman

Copyeditor: Susan Hobbs

Ancillaries Editor: Amy Butler

Associate Director of Sales: Melanie Sankel

Cover Design: Andrea Lau

Cover Art: Russell Kord/Alamy

Text Design: Ed HamelPage Layout: Mary Neal Meador

Photo Research: Alexandra Rossomando

Illustrations: Precision Graphics

Second Edition Copyright 2012 Fairchild Books, a Division o Cond Nast Publications.

First Edition Copyright 2006 Fairchild Publications, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part o this book covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or used in any orm or by

any meansgraphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, or inormation storage and

retrieval systemswithout written permission o the publisher.

Library o Congress Catalog Card Number: 2011930772

ISBN: 978-1-60901-141-3

GST R 133004424

Printed in Canada

TP14

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v

Preface xiii

Acnowledgments xiv

Chapter One An Introdction toEnironmental Psychology 1

Chapter Two Fondational Theories ofEnironmental Psychology 17

Chapter Three Psychobiology ofBehaior 35

Chapter Four Sensation and Perception 51

Chapter Five The Hman Condition 69

Chapter Six Information Management 91

Chapter Seven Infants, Toddlers,and Childhood 111

Chapter EightThe Elderly Poplation 133

Chapter Nine Persons with Disabilities 155

Chapter Ten The EnironmentCalled Home 175

Chapter Eleven The Commnityand Neighborhood 195

Chapter Twelve Learning and Edcation 213

Chapter Thirteen Office Enironments 235

Chapter Fourteen Health CareEnironments 257

Chapter Fifteen Resortsand Recreation 277

Chapter Sixteen Retail andSerice Enironments 297

Glossary 321

References 331

Index 361

Table ofContents

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vi

Chapter One An Introduction toEnvironmental Psychology 1

Human Behavior and the Environment:

Which Came First? 1

Table 1.1: Human Interaction

with the Environment 2

Box 1.1: Cause and Effect 4

Governing Perspectives in Psychology 5

Table 1.2: Psychological Perspectives 6

Conflicting Views within Psychology 7History of Environmental Factors Within

Psychology 8

Defining the Profession 10

Environmental Psychology Today 11

Academic Programs and Post

Educational Opportunities 12

Practical Applications for Designers 14

Expert Spotlight 1.1: Enhancing

Quality of Life Through Design 15

Studio Activity 1.1:

Postapocalyptic World 16

Studio Activity 1.2:Observation and Assessment 16

Chapter Two Foundational Theoriesof Environmental Psychology 17

Environmental Psychology Today 18

Box 2.1: Needs Assessment

(Pre-Design Research) 20

Theories of the HumanEnvironment

Relationship 20

Social Learning Theories 20

Integration (Integral) Theories 21

Control Theories 22

Behavior-Setting Theories 22

Stimulation Theories 23

Theories of Environmental Perception 26

Brunswiks Probabilistic Lens Model 26

Gibsons Affordances 27

Berlynes Collative Properties 27

PleasureArousalDominance

Hypothesis 28

Kaplan and Kaplan Preference

Framework 28

Lynchs Elements of Legibility 29

Overlapping Theories, Models,

and Perspectives 30

Table 2.1: Theories, Models,

and Perspectives in

Environmental Psychology 30


Expert Spotlight 2.1: The Role of

Theory in Architectural Design 32

Studio Activity 2.1: Social Learning

Theory 33

ExtendedContents

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Extended Contents vii

Studio Activity 2.2: Attention

Restoration Theory 33

Chapter Three Psychobiologyof Behaior 35

Behavioral Neuroscience: The Biology

of Sensation 36

Brain Physiology and Behavior 36

Looming 37

Architecture of the Brain 37

Left Side, Right Side: Whats

the Difference? 38

Plasticity: Making the Connections

for Wayfinding 38

Biological Sensation 39

Box 3.1: Autism 40

Cognitive Conceptions of the Environment 40

Neurochemicals and Hormones 41

Stress and Behavior 43

Stress and Stressors 43

Cognitive Disorders 44

Learning Disabilities 44

Alzheimers and Parkinsons Disease 45

Mental Deficiencies 45

Table 3.1: Classification and

Description of Mental Deficiencies 46

Autism 46


Expert Spotlight 3.1: Phenomenology

and Meaning in Design 48

Studio Activity 3.1: Looming 50

Studio Activity 3.2: Circadian

Rhythm and Melatonin 50

Chapter Four Sensationand Perception 51

Perception 51

Perception and Design 53

Process of Perception 53

Perceptual Responses 54

Stimulus Response 55

Subliminal Perception 57

Illusions 58

Anthropomorphizing 59

Table 4.1: Theories to Explain

Anthropomorphism 60

Gestalt Theories of Perception 62

Law of Proximity 62

Law of Closure 63

Law of Symmetry 63

Law of Continuity 63

Law of Similarity 63

Cognitive Interpretations 63


Expert Spotlight 4.1: Architecture

for Autism 66

Studio Activity 4.1: Subliminal Design 67

Studio Activity 4.2:

Anthropomorphizing 68

Chapter Five The Hman Condition 69Box 5.1: Sensation, Perception,

Memory, and Cognition 70

Evolution and Gender 70

Gender Roles 70

Gender and Perception 71

Gender and Space 71

Personality 72

Personality and Design 72Table 5.1: Components of Personality

and Associated Design Preference 76

Designing for Screeners Versus Nonscreeners 76

Personal Space 76

Table 5.2: Halls Interpersonal

Distance Zones 78

Personal Space and Communication 79

Angulation 79

Territoriality 79

Types of Territories 80

Territorial Infringement 81

Box 5.2: Problem Solving in theReal World 81

Privacy 82

Crowding and Density 83

Memory 85

Memory Loss 86


Expert Spotlight 5.1: Gender, Design,

and Stress 88

Studio Activity 5.1: Client Profile 89

Studio Activity 5.2: Territorial Markers 90

Chapter Six InformationManagement 91

Sensory Design 92

Aesthetics 93

Formal Aesthetics 93

Box 6.1: Formal Aesthetics Survey 94

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viii Extended Contents

Symbolic Aesthetics 95

Symbols and Iconography 95

Symbolic Representation 96

Culture and Tradition 97

Locus of Control 98

Religion 98

Color 100

Color and Sight 100

Neurobiology of Color 101

Psychosocial Effects of Color 102

Table 6.1: Psychological Effects

of Color 103

Color and Environmental Cognition 104

Wayfinding 104

Cognitive Maps 105

Navigation Techniques 106

You-Are-Here Maps 107

Signage 107


Expert Spotlight 6.1: Color, Security,

and Wayfinding 108

Studio Activity 6.1: Form and

Aesthetics 109

Studio Activity 6.2: Cultural

Preferences 109

Chapter Seven Infants, Toddlers,and Childhood 111

The Fetus: Our First Environment 113

Teratogens 114

Table 7.1: Development Stages

of Youth 115

Infancy and Sensory Neural Development 115

Sight 116

Hearing 119

Touch 120

Taste and Smell 121

Toddlerhood and Preschool Years 123

Playrooms and Play Areas 124

Art for Toddlers 124

Developing Sophistication

Through Design 124

Childhood 124

Preadolescence and Adolescence 126

Design for Developing Self-Images 126

Effects of Stress on Youth 126

Injury and Illness 127

Preventive Health Design 128

Space, Place, and Privacy 128

Crowding 129

Privacy 129


Expert Spotlight 7.1: Physical

Environment and Child Development 13 1

Studio Activity 7.1: Interactive Wall 132

Studio Activity 7.2: Teen Centers 132

Chapter Eight The Elderly Population 133The Geriatric Population 134

Developmental Characteristics 134

Autonomy-Supportive Environments 136

Physical Conditions and Disorders 139

Neural Disorders 141

Parkinsons Disease 142

Dementia of the Alzheimers Type 142

Box 8.1: Sound Reduction 143

Table 8.1: Common DAT Behaviors

and Design Suggestions 145

Facilities for the Elderly 146Long-term Care Facilities 147

Continuing Care Retirement

Communities 148

Movement and Mobility 148

Wandering 148

Falls 149

Healing Gardens and Other Living Spaces 150

Soothing Environments 151

Safety and Comfort 151


Expert Spotlight 8.1: When a Nursing

Home Becomes Our Residence 152

Studio Activity 8.1: Social Learning:

Wandering for Alzheimers Disease 153

Chapter Nine Persons with Disabilities 155Defining Disabilities 156

Issues with Disabilities 157

Visual Impairments 158

Table 9.1: Universal Design Solutions

to Common Environmental

Challenges of Disability 159

Braille and the ADA 160

Aging Eyesight 160Box 9.1: ADA Guidelines for Interior

and Exterior Signs 161

Designers Role 162

Hearing Impairments 163

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Extended Contents ix

Table 9.2: Noise Sources and Design

Solutions 165

Hearing and Aging 166

Designers Role 167

Deaf Blind 167

Touch and Feeling 167

Disease and Illness 168

Issues of Mobility 168

Cognitive Processing 170


Expert Spotlight 9.1: Importance of

Designing for People With

Various Disabilities 171

Studio Activity 9.1: The World

of Touch 173

Studio Activity 9.2: Noise Pollution 173

Chapter Ten The EnironmentCalled Home 175

Concepts of Place 176

Meaning of Place 176

Place Attachment 178

Functionality 180

The Meaning of Home 181

Concepts of Home 183

Permanent Versus Temporary 183

Homogenous Versus Differentiated 183

Communal Versus Noncommunal 184

Identity Versus Commonality 185

Openness Versus Enclosure 186

Influential Factors in Residential Satisfaction 187

Personal Disposition 188

Table 10.1: Design Preferences

According to Personality 188

Age and Stage of Life 188

Gender and Social Roles 189

Physical Influences 190

Evolution of Home 190

Green Spaces 191


Expert Spotlight 10.1: Residential

Satisfaction 193

Studio Activity 10.1: Meaning 194

Studio Activity 10.2: Communal Homes 194

Chapter Eleven The Commnityand Neighborhood 195

Role of Children 196

Outdoor Environments 197

Natural Settings 198

Box 11.1: Parks and Developmental Skills 198

Playgrounds 199

Outdoor Amenities 200

Formal Recreation 201

Playgrounds and Schoolyards 202

The Benefits of Play 203

Box 11.2: Unique Playground

Equipment 204

Teen Centers 205

Schools and the Community 206


Expert Spotlight 11.1: Environmental

Psychologys Contribution

to Urbanism 209

Studio Activity 11.1: Childcare 211

Studio Activity 11.2: A Place

for Teenagers 211

Chapter Twelve Learning andEdcation 213

Brain Development and Learning 214

Modes of Learning 214

Table 12.1: Design Strategies Based

on Modes of Learning 215

Table 12.2: Basic Design Considerations

for Developmental Stages 215

Child Care Centers and Preschools 215

The Facility 217

Classrooms 219

Schools 220

Facility Design 22 1

Circulation 221

Flexibility of Use 222

Student Ownership 222

Wayfinding 222

Classroom Design 223

Classroom Configuration 224

User Groups 225

Furnishings 226

Ambient Conditions 226

Lighting 227

Color 227

Table 12.3: Cultural Meaning Behind

the Color Red 228

Acoustics and Noise 228

Temperature, Humidity, and Ventilation 229

Other Educational Environments 229

Libraries 229

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x Extended Contents

Residential Dormitories 230

Safety and Security 231


Expert Spotlight 12.1: Interior Design

of Schools 232

Studio Activity 12.1: Inner School for

Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Graders 233

Studio Activity 12.2: Mall City 233

Chapter Thirteen Office Environments 235Organizational Structures 236

Hierarchical Structure 237

Office Culture 237

Racism and Sexism 239

The Office Environment 240

The Cubicle 240

Office Layout 242

Personalization 242

Table 13.1: Emotional Responses to

Workplace Oppression 244

The Home Office 244

Workplace Health and Safety 246

Occupational Safety and Health Act 246

Ergonomics 247

Table 13.2: Office Space Profiling 248

Sick Building Syndrome 248

Stress and Satisfaction 249

Satisfaction 251

Environmental Analysis 251

Lighting 251

Windows 251

Illumination 252

Ventilation 253

Noise 253

Space Planning 253


Expert Spotlight 13.1:

Global Workplace 255

Studio Activity 13.1: Office Layout 256

Chapter Fourteen Health Care

Environments 257

Perceptions of the Health Care Institution 259

Scale 259

Layout Issues 259

Security 260

Issues in Health Care Environments 260

Stress and Anxiety 261

Views of Nature 261

Patient Control 263

Patient Populations 264

Children 264

Adolescent Patients 266

The Elderly 267

Overview of Health Care Facilities 267

Types of Health Care Environments 269

Box 14.1: Rubber Flooring 270

Box 14.2: Grab Bars 271

Design Features of the Health Care Setting 271

Therapeutic Environment 271

Noise 272

Lighting 273

Surface Materials 273


Expert Spotlight 14.1: Health Care

Environment 274

Studio Activity 14.1: Views of Nature 276

Studio Activity 14.2: Childrens

Hospital Room 276

Chapter Fifteen Resorts

and Recreation 277

Considerations for the Visually Impaired 278

Hospitality Environments 279

Hospitality Patrons 279

Design Issues in Hospitality Settings 281

Home Away from Home 281

Types of Hospitality Environments 282

Motels 282

Hotels 283

Wayfinding 283

Table 15.1: Five-Star Hotel Rating

System (Hotel Star Rating Guide) 284

Features and Amenities 285

Special Accommodations 286

Box 15.1: Sophisticated Lobby 286

Box 15.2: Rustic Lobby 287

Themes 288

Bed-and-Breakfasts 288

Resorts 288

Cruise Ships 290

Back to Nature 290

Ecotourism 291

Agri-tourism 292

Shared Real Estate 292


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Extended Contents xi

Expert Spotlight 15.1: The Symbiotic

Nature of Hotel, Restaurant, and

Gift/Convenience Store Design 294

Studio Activity 15.1: Luxury Resort 295

Studio Activity 15.2: Going

Green Resort 295

Chapter Sixteen Retail andSerice Enironments 297

Association 298

Box 16.1: Color, Whats in a Name? 299

Branding 299

Image and Setting 300

Atmospherics 300

Shoppers and Consumers 302

Personal Experience 303

Crowding and Density 304

Gender 304

Service Delivery 306

Image 306

Flexibililty 306

Location, Location, Location 306

Visual Stimuli 307

Audio Stimuli 307

Design Concerns 308

Window Displays 308

Access and Parking 308

Banks and Convenience Stores 308

Convenience Stores 308

Banking 309

Third Places 311

Restaurants and Cafs 312

Retail Spaces 314

Shopping Malls 314

Safety and Security 316


Expert Spotlight 16.1: Third Places, 317

Studio Activity 16.1: A Welcoming

Environment for Children 319

Studio Activity 16.2: The Success

of Cafs 319

Glossary 321

References 331

Index 361

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If it werent for all of the dynamicstudents and exceptional mentorswho have come into my life, a booklike this could not be possible. Forthis reason, I would like to dedicatethis book to all of you who continueto teach and inspire me.

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Environments built or human habitation must be careullydesigned to ulfll the needs o the intended occupants. Acollaborative approach between designers and environmen-tal psychologists can create an artistic statement as well assatisy the needs and preerences o the intended users. Tisallows designers, environmental psychologists, and occu-

pants to reach a consensus o opinion. While this might seemobvious to some, there was once a time when humans sawthemselves as separate rom the natural world. We lookedor solutions to our problems in education, social services,rules and laws, and chemical intervention. oday, more andmore people realize that environmental modifcation can bea viable and more sustainable solution to several o our physi-cal and social woes. Tis realization comes at a time whenthe worlds population spends the vast majority o a lietimeinside various built environments. We live, learn, work, shop,and recreate within the built environment; and when we areoutside, we spend a considerable amount o time surroundedby man-made structures. Although several felds addressenvironmental modifcation, environmental psychology is

well positioned to study the psychosocial responses to thehuman condition in relation to the built environment.

Designers (architects, industrial designers, interiordesigners, landscape architects) are among the leading pro-essionals who plan, design, and develop our built environ-ment. Tese proessionals have shown increasing awarenesso the role o the built environment in relation to the humancondition. Tis is evidenced by the programmatic accredita-tion boards o the Council or Interior Design Accreditation(CIDA) and the National Architectural Accrediting Board

(NAAB) and proessional societies such as the U.S. GreenBuilding Council (USGBC) that include environment andbehavior criteria as a perormance measure. Unortunately,the attention to detail and use o qualifed environment andbehavior proessionals during the design process remaininconsistent and viewed as not necessary by many within thegeneral populace. Tis is a trend that is changing and is likelyto continue to change as societies become more enlightened.

BRINGING ENvIRONMENTAL PSyCHOLOGy

INTO THE DESIGN FIELDS

Te core ocus o the frst and second editions oEnviron-mental Psychology for Design is on the practice and principleso environmental psychology as they pertain to the designfelds. Te writing is specifcally geared to the student odesign and the practicing designer. Its intent is to bridge thegap between theory and practice so that designers are betterequipped to critically analyze and to think comprehensively

when designing the built environment. Trough brie dis-cussions o scientifc research, philosophical perspectives,and illustrations o design in practice, this book incorpo-rates undamental environmental psychology concepts intothe practice o the design felds.

ORGANIzATION OF THE SECOND EDITION

Te second edition oEnvironmental Psychology for Designis a continuation o content, research, and principles o the

Joel Polsky Prizewinning frst edition. Te second edition

Prefaceto the Second Edition

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xvi Environmental Psychology for Design

AcknowledgmentsA special thanks to ASID, the University o Minnesota, and

Caren Martin or the production and maintenance o theextremely valuable website /www.inormedesign.umn.edu.Tis website provides excellent and easy-to-use inormationthat can benet all designers.

I would like to thank Edith Sinclair and Julia Cota whohelped me to identiy and develop discussion questions, activi-ties, and web sites that have the greatest meaning or students. I

want to extend a special thanks to those at Fairchild Books whomade both editions possibleespecially to Executive EditorOlga Kontzias, who is a phenomenal person and a tremendousasset to her authors; to Development Editor Robert Phelps,

who stayed with me and guided the manuscript through the

editorial stages; to Sarah Silberg, who managed and polishedthe art; and to Noah Schwartzberg, who helped make theinstructors guide diverse, un, and o value to new instructors.I truly enjoy working with the Fairchild team because you allmake it easy and un, and you all have a great sense o humor!

I would also like to thank the ollowing colleagues,selected by Fairchild Books, or their thoughtul reviews

o both the rst and second editionsor the rst edition:

Jan Best, Design Institute o San Diego; Robert Bechtel,University o Arizona; Dan Beert, Bellevue CommunityCollege; Duncan Case, University o Nebraska; Naz Kaya,University o Georgia; Katrina Lewis, Kansas State Univer-sity; Setha Low, City University o New York; Joan McLain-Kark, Virginia ech; Jack Nasar, Ohio State University; andSuzanne Scott, University o Wisconsin; and or the secondedition: Robert R. Bell, Jr., Miami University; Lindsay A.Clark, Kansas State University, Department o InteriorArchitecture and Product Design; Connie Dyar, IllinoisState University; Sheila Flener, Western Kentucky Univer-sity; David Michael Lieb, New England Art Institute;

Debra Suttereld, Iowa State University; and Ann Takur,Caliornia State UniversityNorthridge.

Finally I want to acknowledge and thank all o mycolleagues who contributed to this book by oering theirexpert comments. I love my proession, and you all maketeaching and writing an enjoyable experience!

has taken all o the excellent aspects o the rst edition andmade them more comprehensive and user-riendly. Tesecond edition is divided into 16 chapters. Chapter 1 intro-duces the undamentals o environmental psycholog y whileChapters 2 through 6 build upon this introduction by illus-trating how psychology, biology, and social science impactour built environment and how our environment, in turn,aects us. Chapters 7 through 9 address our environmen-tal needs rom inancy through childhood and adolescenceand into our elder years, taking into account both universaldesign and multicultural perspectives. Chapters 10 through16 apply both the undamentals o environmental psychol-ogy rom the early chapters and the human actors exploredin the middle chapters to a broad spectrum o residential,commercial, and community and neighborhood design.

Pedagogical FeatresEach chapter begins with a quote that sets the tone o thechapter or the reader. Tese quotes are ollowed by an out-line o the chapters contents and learning objectives and aconcise introduction o the principles and concepts discussedthroughout the chapter. Key terms are bolded throughout thetext, listed at the end o the chapter, and dened again in aGlossary at the end o the book, where a robust list o reerences

can also be ound. Each chapter ends with a Conclusion thatsummarizes key chapter points ollowed by Studio Activities,Discussion Questions, and Learning Activities.

Te second edition also oers more new eatures, such asWeb Links that direct readers to related web sites; Sustain-ability Connections that oer thought-provoking examplesor designers to consider how their work aects global ecol-ogy or the balance o nature; Cultural Connections that

provide design considerations pertaining to inuences basedon social identity, gender, age, economics, customs, religiousbelies, and traditions; and Expert Spotlights, in which lead-ing design academicians, many o whom also have thriving

practices, share their insights into the content o each chapter.

WRITTEN FOR CREATIvE AND vISuAL THINkERS

Design students are visual and creative. Oen they have dif-culty understanding discussions o multiple research studies.Tis book discusses in a meaningul and practical way envi-ronmental concepts, issues, and resolutions. It includes theundamental principles that are grounded in research con-ducted within the design and social science elds that guideenvironmental psychology, and it examines various actorsthat inuence human behaviors within the built environment.

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T human-nvironmnt rlationship is symioti in that th nviron-mnt inuns our haviors and w in turn inun th nvironmnt.

Whthr du to ar, nssity, or naturally ourring hallngs suh asdroughts, oods, and xtrm tmpraturs, w hav adaptd to a varityo nvironmntal onditions that thn lad to hangs within th nvi-ronmnt. Early humans xamind wathr pattrns, intrprtd animalhaviors, and idntid rtil soils, among various othr orts in ordrto inras thir undrstanding o th natural world. Many o ths orts

wr among th rst o our nvironmntal studis. T rsults o thsarly studis promptd human rsponss, suh as stokpiling ood and

watr, sking shltr and high ground, and planting and harvsting rops.

Human BeHavior and tHe environment:WHicH came First?

Bginning at aout 10,000 bce, humans movd rom th natural worldo trs, ushs, and savannahs to a world onstrutd y llow humans(Sarr & Rnrw, 1995). On w humans surrndrd a nomadi li-styl, w gan th prati o nvironmntal modiation, in whih waltrd our surroundings to ttr suit our nds. Exampls inlud thinll o wtlands, irrigation to mak dry land yild rops, and th rationo laks y damming rivrs. Howvr, human intrvntion dos not our

without onsqun. In th 1930s ovr-arming o th prairi lands inth Unitd Stats omind with a lak o rain ratd th Dust Bowl, in

whih th topsoil litrally lw away (Figur 1.1).Mor rntly w hav sn myriad disass aris rom trating ani-

mals as a ommodity. For xampl, w nvr had th swin u virus until

An Introduction

to Environmental

Psychology

1 Man is the only animal for whom his ownexistence is a problem which he has to solve.Erich Fromm0

1

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2 Environmental Psychology for Design

China startd to arm duk and swin togthr. A virus om-mon to duks was transmittd to swin, whr it mutatd toa point that it now ats humans. Eah yar a nw u virusis introdud into th population. In th arly twnty-rstntury Grat Britain was plagud with a disas originat-ing rom attl, alld mad cow. Eah o ths onditionsrsultd rom human intrvntion and manipulation o lisnatural ordr.

As a produt o natur, humans ar inxtrialy wovninto th ari o our nvironmnts, and w at thos nvi-ronmnts just as thy at us. Dirnt ulturs approahthir rol within th world and thir rlation to othr liorms rom dirnt prsptivs. Eah prsptiv, how-vr, will ring aout a onsqun.

Ovr th millnnia most human soitis hav, in ssn,volvd rom small groups o nomadi huntr-gathrr lans

[Figure 1.1] Overarming combined with severe drought condi-

tions led much o the nutrient-rich topsoil to blow away, resulting in

the Dust Bowl o the 1930s in U.S. prairie lands. Everett Collection

Inc. / Alamy

[Figure 1.2] Western society relies upon the built environment

to satisy needs or shelter. However, there are some people through-

out the world who still live nomadic liestyles, and the concept o

home is more about a territorial expanse than a structure. Barry

Lewis / Alamy

[Table 1.1] Human Interaction with the Environment

Culture Orientation Explanation

African Harmony

The goal is for everyone to get something. When out of balance, such as

in conditions of extreme poverty, people will try to bring about harmony,

which is how poaching is justified.

Asian Resolution

Rule-oriented culture with a strong sense of black/white, yes/no, and right/

wrong orientation. The need to eat, for example, leads to the resolution

that everything is consumable and therefore valued only for consumption.

Eastern & Western

EuropeanBlame

Nothing just happens; therefore, someone or something is always to

blame; and blame demands punishment or alteration to prevent an

action from reoccurring.

Traditional

Native AmericanBalance

The world is composed of many different forces that must be continually

balanced. There is not hierarchy within life or events, just the constant

struggle for equilibrium.

Latin Mixed

This culture is a blend of European and traditional native American,

which means that the culture strives for balance but is encumbered by

the European disposition for blame. This conflict is dealt with by a strong

belief in a supreme beings interference as a means of bringing balance.

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1: An Introduction to Environmental Psychology 3

into villags and, nally, into itis. Tr is vidn in somparts o th world today o th way humans usd to liv. TMongolians and som Eskimos (Figur 1.2), or xampl, on-tinu to liv a traditional nomadi listyl. Nomadi listylsar inhrntly th most sustainal way o li aus thtris popl do not xhaust an ara o its natural rsours,thry allowing thos rsours to rplnish thmslvs.

In th past 100 yars alon, muh o humanitys rlation-ship to th various nvironmnts w oupy has undrgonmor radial hangs than vr or.

W spnd most o our tim insid, w mak produtsthat lingr within th nvironmnt, and many o our smallitis rival th largst anint itis. For xampl, th popu-lation o th modrn ity o Bakrsld, Caliornia, isroughly quivalnt to that o th grat anint ity oRom (250,000). Tus, with th ontinud advanmntso humanity, w ar onstantly going whr our anstorshav nvr n in trms o population growth and what isrquird to support that growth. And, many xprts agrthat th gloal human population has xdd th Earthsapaity to sustain li (s al 1.1).

Human thnologial advans hav ovrom manyo naturs laws inluding Darwins ida o natural sl-tion. T various orms o thnology that hav n aoon to humanity hav also inund our volution.

World-rnownd physiist Stphn Hawking, or xampl,was aitd with Amyotrophi Latral Slrosis (ALS),ommonly known as Lou Ghrigs Disas, at ag 22. Hadh ontratd this disas ak in 1900, h would havmost likly did in his twntis. oday, howvr, StphnHawking ontinus to liv a produtiv li and is al to doso with th assistan o modrn thnologis.

Whil ths thnologis hav nald th world tont rom popl suh as Stphn Hawking, w nowhav th apaility to kp popl aliv longr, diagnos,and trat ongnital illnss in th tal stag. W an also

provid inrtil oupls with options to prorat. Modrnthnologis hav allowd or high-yild ood prodution,th romination o hmials or th prodution o phar-mautials, and mthods or arly dttion o disass.Ts advanmnts hav translatd to inrasd popula-tions and inrasd prsonal xptations. Although thshangs may sm nign, th unintndd onsqunsinlud inrasd rowding and drasd prsonal spa

within many o our puli and privat nvironmnts suhas shools, hospitals, and nighorhoods (Figurs 1.3a).

Our symioti rlationship with th nvironmnt aussrsarhrs to struggl with th timlss qustion o whiham rst: th havior or th nvironmnt. Box 1.1, Causand Et, illustrats th aus-and-t rlationshiptwn humans and thir surroundings.

[Figure 1.3a] Western societies now spend approximately 90 percent

o their time inside o the built environment. 81a / Alamy

[Figure 1.3b] Tere are ew places where a person can escape the

signs and symptoms o human attempts to dominate the planet.

View Stock / Alamy

[Figure 1.3c] Increased population has engendered the largest cities

in human history. Greg Balour Evans / Alamy

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Imagine yourself chewing gum as you walk down the

street. You want to spit it out, but you see no trashcans.

The absence of a trashcan in the environment causes

you to wonder what to do with your gum: swallow

it or spit it onto the ground. Ultimately you spit the

gum onto the grounda behavioral actionand you

have now influenced the environment by littering.

One could argue that it is within our nature to spit outthe gum. However, it was social conditioning against

littering that caused you to think about your action.

Ultimately, however, it was the absence of the trashcan

that caused conflict within you.

In another scenario, you spit the gum onto the ground

but you unknowingly step on the gum when you have

to turn around.

You then track that gum into a friends house making

a mess on their floor. Your friend reacts with hostility,

so you take offense and storm out of the house. In

this situation a chain of unfortunate events began

to unfold all because of something missing from

the environment. This absence, coupled with your

emotional disposition and your friends emotional

response, led to a chain reaction.

Source: Reyes, N. (2005). Interior designer, practicing in San Diego, CA

Box 1.1 Cause and effeCtW must, howvr, rmmr to avoid attriuting an

efect (rsult) ntirly to a singl aus aus soial andiologial ators also ontriut to an t. In th hw-ing gum snario in Caus and Et, it was th asno a trashan that startd th squn o vnts; ut it isalso th disposition o th intrating popl that ausdth situation to pripitat. All w an say or rtain is thatth asn o th trashan ld to gum ing spit onto thground and susquntly trakd into a hom. T intrplaytwn th two popl as a rsult o this vnt will dpndon ah individual prson. As this simplid xampl illus-trats, it is important to avoid ngaging in deterministicbehaviors (i.., ating on th notion that prding vntsand onditions dtrmin vry suding vnt). Evans(2004) orrooratd this position whn h linkd nviron-mntal onditions to soial manistations that inunsoial onditions.

T ld o nvironmntal psyhology is on thatmras multipl ators and rjts th singl-varialapproah. Although som lds suh as Wstrn mdi-in and soial srvis rly on a singl or puristapproah,nvironmntal psyhology is multimodal: It utilizs othsoial and physial sin prsptivs, and viws human-nvironmnt haviors as driving rom a omination osoial, ultural, and iologial ators. Tus, th prmishind th rsarh and prati o nvironmntal psyhol-ogy is a holisti thought pross that onsidrs iologial,soial, and nvironmntal ausal agnts (Figur 1.4).

Within Wstrn soitis, physiians on us mdia-tions and surgry whil ounslors or thrapists us mthodso introsption and havior modiation to solv issus.Som o th biological actors that inun our haviorsmight a rsult o asorption and srtion o nuro-hmials or hormons within our rain or othr rgions oour ody. Tsocial actors that might inun lis andsusqunt ations might driv rom our uniqu ultural,rligious, soial, and/or prsonal xprins. In manyinstans w mimi th haviors that w hav osrvdrom our amilis or pr groups.Environmntal psyholo-gists not only onsidr ths iologial and soiologialinuns, ut thy also us mthods o nvironmntalmodiation and dsign to nhan prrrd ations andrdu undsiral haviors.

Environmntal psyhology an solv prolms rlatd toth prinipls o larning, motivation, prption, attitudormation, and soial intration, to nam a w. Environmn-tal psyhologists ar poisd to xplain why humans ngag in

partiular haviors in rlation to thir nvironmnts. Forth purposs o this ook, th disiplins that an nt thmost rom this work inlud arhittur, intrior dsign, and

[Figure 1.4] oday, hospital emergency rooms, school classrooms,

and a host o other public places experience high levels o crowding,

which leads to inadequate care, substandard services, and negative per-

sonal experiences. Sally and Richard Greenhill / Alamy

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landsap dsign. Dsignrs nd to onsidr how uild-ings at th popl using thm y undrstanding oth howdsign inuns popl and how w an modiy th dsignto ailitat th untion or whih th stting is intndd(Bll, Grn, Fishr, & Baum, 2001).

GoverninG PersPectives in PsycHoloGy

Psyhology has many govrning prsptivs rom whihdirnt prossionals susri. Although thr ar toomany prsptivs to disuss hr, thr ar a w that a

prson must undrstand in ordr to undrstand whrnvironmntal psyhology gains muh o its inormation.

Bginning with neurobiology, th ody o sin thatprsupposs our ations, haviors, and prrns rsultrom gntis and our iologial omposition. Tr arothr psyhologists who ontnd that our ations ar asdon situations whr w hav larnd, through ithr positivor ngativ outoms, whih haviors w want to rpatand whih ons w want to avoid. T socioculturalaspt

within psyhology is asd on larning and havioralprsptivs. T dirn is in soial intrations withinth amily or soity. Gndr rols, valuing th ldrly, andmoral valus ar all xampls o soioultural inuns onhavior. By aout ag ight w gin to think or ourslvsand orm our own thoughts and opinions. Cognitiv psy-hologists study th way in whih w pross inormationand how that inormation ts our motions, havior,and physiology. T ranh o psyhology that is most ono intrst to dsignrs is th humanisticprsptiv. Tis

prsptiv mphasizs sujtiv maning and a onrnor positiv growth rathr than pathology (aus and t).Its omind rjtion o dtrministi thoughts along withsujtiv postulations allows or th gratst rdom ointrprtation or th dsignr (s al 1.2).

Within dsign, w an dirntiat twn th psy-hologial prsptivs y thinking ocognition as th pro-ss o guring somthing out, humanisticas ons dsir tomath his/hr privd sl with th way in whih h/shis privd in th world, and neurobiology as ons ompul-sion to do or a rtain way aus it is in his/hr natur.T prsptivs o larning/havioral and soioulturalar vry similar, ut whr thy dir is in infuence. Poplmight larn that thy gt ttr grads whn thy study

with musi playing in th akground. T soioulturalprsptivs ar lssons larnd through soity. An xam-pl might that a nw mothr rings hr rying inant toa rstaurant and th host maks hr wait a long tim or atal. Tn, whn th nw mothr sits down with hr ryinghild, othr patrons giv hr disapproving looks. T young

mothr vntually larns that it is soially inappropriat toring a rying inant into a rstaurant. Unlik th rst asin whih larning ourrd through trial and rror, larningtaking pla in this lattr as is asd on soital norms andth aggrgat group rations to th nw mothr.

Baus no on prsptiv is mor orrt than anothr,th ld o nvironmntal psyhology tnds to inorporatmultipl prsptivs into a holisti analysis.

Contmporary psyhologists tnd to viw ah o thdirnt prsptivs as omplimntary. An nvironmntal

psyhologist, aus o th multivarial paradigm (tho-rtial ramwork) haratristi o this ld, would viw thissituation in stags and inorporat ah o th v prsp-tivs whil analyzing th aggrgat o haviors in rsponsto th nvironmnt. T nvironmntal psyhologist wouldthn analyz th dsign o th uilding with an undrstand-ing o how th popl will rspond in an mrgny in ordrto idntiy dsigns that would promot spi li-savinghaviors and ailitat popl vauating th uilding saly.

O th dirnt psyhologial prsptivs, neurobiologyis th most onsistnt aus it is asd on physial sin.Tis mans that an ation an prormd multipl timsand ontinu to yild similar rsults. In th dsign lds,

physial sin stmming rom nuroiologial prsp-tivs has trmndous impliations. Nurohmial srtion,asorption, and intration that ar attriutd to nviron-mntal dsign and onditions provid th imptus or rtainhaviors. For xampl, th neurotransmitter(nural hmi-al) srotonin is assoiatd with mood. T odys naturalrspons to ovrstimulation is to asor srotonin as a manso oping; howvr, this asorption an aus too littl sro-tonin to prsnt in th rain, whih an lad to dprssion.

An nvironmntal modiation or an ovr-stimulatdprson may inlud rduing nvironmntal stimuli ydrasing lighting lvls in th hom and limiting visualomplxity y rduing th numr o itms suh as knik-knaks, artwork, and rading matrial.

In ontrast, th soial sins ar asd on th soialworld and systmsultur, rligious lis, and tradi-tionsand tnd to study th soial prsptivs that ladto rtain outoms. T soial sins ar not as prisas th physial sins aus human intrations arnot uniorm and soial trnds ar uid; howvr, thy do

provid a high proaility o auray. Human lisand notions hang with th passag o tim; or xampl,during th Vitorian ra, popl havd and drssd moronsrvativly than thy did during th roaring twntis.

Suh soial trnds mak it difult or soial sintists tomak asolut statmnts; thy an prdit with som r-tainty how most o th population will rspond ut annot

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stat that vry prson will asolutly rspond in a givn way.Dsign is highly ontingnt on soial volution and on si-nti rsarh into prptions, prrns, intrprtations,and worldviws that must onstantly xamind to providdsigns that will mrad y th gnral popula.

A hom with oth ormal and inormal living rooms wasonsidrd highly dsiral in th 1960s and 1970s ut ismuh lss so today. Tis typis how dsign trnds volvovr tim and mphasizs th importan o soial sinas a ollaorativ omponnt o dsign.

[Table 1.2] Psychological Perspectives

Perspective Design Considerations Illustration

Neurobiology

Our actions are hardwired as a result of neurological or biological

activity, and therefore our behaviors result from both our genetic

makeup and our physiological reactions to our environments.

For example, because external stressors, such as noise, can

stimulate the secretion of adrenaline, which causes a faster

heart rate and increased blood pressure, many people need

to control the occurrence and levels of these stressors withintheir environments.

AGStockUSA / Alamy

Learning/

Behavioral

Our future behaviors are dictated by what we learn from past

experiences of pleasure or pain. For example, by touching a

hot stove burner and discovering that burner = hot = pain, we

learn to avoid contact with stove burners.

Najlah Feanny / Corbis

Sociocultural

Social conditions, such as status, gender norms, and expectations,

operate in conjunction with cultural traits, such as ethnicity,

heritage, and tradition, to produce certain behaviors. Fathersoften teach their sons social morality so that their sons can

grow up to be productive citizens.

Encore / Alamy

Cognitive

The process by which an organism gains knowledge or becomes

aware of events or objects in its environment and uses that

knowledge for comprehension and problem solving develops as a

result of the relationship organisms have with their environment.

This includes the processes people use to think, decide, and

learn. For example, any children who want something can usually

figure out which parent to approach and how to ask.

Hill Street Studios / Blend Images / Corbis

Humanistic

Based on the notions of free will (the idea that we control

our own destinies) and the desire for self-actualization (the

idea that we aspire for more than basic survival). Its main

premise is that a persons primary motivation in life is to fulfill

his or her potential. For example a person might seek personal

improvement through self-help books.

Pauline St. Denis / Corbis

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If we define sustainability as the ability to endure and

prosper, all of these perspectives within psychology

are valid and helpful to the human condition, although

they cannot stand alone as the one and only true

explanation of all things human. They should all be

considered.

sustainability connection 1.1

conFlictinG vieWs WitHin PsycHoloGy

Just as thr ar multipl prsptivs rom whih psy-hologists xamin phnomna, thr ar also onit-ing viwpoints that ar onstantly ing xamind andhallngd. Som o ths inlud th undrlying ausso givn phnomna, whih ar on polarizing in natur.Ts undrlying viwpoints inlud:

Natur vrsus nurtur Prson vrsus situation Staility vrsus hang Divrsity vrsus univrsality Mind vrsus ody

T oniting viws twn a singl individual vrsus asituation assign aus to ithr th individual prson or to agivn situation. Imagin a prson losing his/hr tmpr whilat th airport or grory stor. T vry ida o a prson los-ing his/hr tmpr within suh an nvironmnt is gnrallysoially unaptal, and w thus asri lam to th pr-son. Howvr, in ordinary situations that sam prson may kind and gntl, and it was th situation that ausd him orhr to mov rom rational thoughts to irrational haviors. Asdsignrs w annot ompnsat or individual mntal dts(th prson). W, howvr, an inun situations throughspa planning suh as widr walkways, largr athrooms, andth availaility o aommodations suh as ampl sating andlighting, nsuring adquat rsours suh as multipl hkstands, and th us o rdundant sours to aquir inorma-tion suh as oards stating, your wait tim is stimatd to 15 minuts.

T onit twn natur vrsus nurtur assigns ausas ing ithr a gnti prdisposition or th rsult o soialors. Following th prviously mntiond situation, thnatur prsptiv would ontnd that th prson lost his/hr tmpr aus o som gnti prdisposition to angrand hostility. T nurtur prsptiv assums that th

prson lost his/hr tmpr aus h/sh had nvr ntaught angr managmnt, or that th prson larnd at a

young ag that th loss o ons tmpr would yild positivrsults. T natur-nurtur dat is a slippry slop auso th impliations. Considr that i w ar nothing morthan th sum o our gnti ods, what w ar rally sayingis that w hav no ontrol ovr our haviors.

Staility vrsus hang is a onit twn th lithat human haviors ar rlativly stal throughout su-ssiv gnrations vrsus onstantly hanging and adapting.T notion that womn have always and will always wantto nurtur and ar or hildrn is an xampl o a staility

prsptiv. Chang, on th othr hand, is th ida that ourhaviors ontinually adapt and volv. Tis ida suggststhat it is possil or mn to om mor nurturing whil

womn om mor aggrssiv. Within dsign, w an sthat whil styls hang throughout th yars, gndr spatial

prrns gnrally rmain stal. Mal prrns orhighr ilings and gratr visual ass hav rmaind airlystal, and womn still prr gratr omplxity and spatial

vrsatility within thir nvironmnts.

In some societies such as in Korea, people are moving

away from more traditional housing with mat or low

seating to more westernized interior spaces. This may

be a condition of becoming more international or an

example of the dynamic changes humans are capable

of despite deterministic behaviors.

cultural connection 1.1

T onit twn divrsity and univrsality is thida that popl ar ithr undamntally dirnt or thsam. Tos who susri to diversity viw all popl asing uniqu and divrs whras thos who asri to uni-versality onsidr all humans as ing undamntally thsam. From a dsign prsptiv, divrsity mans that vry

prson will hav a uniqu and individualist dsign styl.Convrsly, univrsality suggsts that popl will sharommon dnominators suh as th prrns or a viwto th outdoors.

T last onit to disussd is mind vrsus ody. Tonit ariss rom lis that haviors ar ithr psyho-logial or iologial. T ida that all popl nd to llovd is psyhologial sin lov is an motion. Howvr,sintists hav provn that th asn o lov an lad tolss dvlopd rgions o th rain. In this way, lov thnoms a iologial nd. In dsign, th notion o satyrom a psyhologial onstrut hlps popl to l mor atas. Howvr, ons li that h/sh is not sa an lad tostrss-rlatd illnsss, inluding slp dprivation, lvatdhart rat, and othr similar rations.

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Again, rathr than susri to on or th othr o thsparadigms, many within nvironmntal psyhology ondthat ah has mrit and an aount or our nds and wants

within dsign.A prson may rsponsil or his/hr ations, ut th

nvironmntal or soial situation an also init a havior.Tis is partly aus th prson has n plad in a situa-tion whr his/hr ody is srting high lvls o adrnalinaus h/sh has larnd that thr is no vial altrnativto th solution. Tis prson may or may not always rspond

with hostility whn prsntd with similar situations. Tprson may hang th way h/sh thinks aout th situa-tion, ut th at that it ontinus to an annoyan toth prson will not hang. Baus popl ar divrs,not all popl will rspond in th sam way. Howvr, thsituation will most likly univrsally intrprtd as ingrustrating. How th situation is handld will dpnd uponth mind, ut rpatd xposur to th situation will liklyat th ody y way o inrasd strss.

History oF environmentalFactors WitHin PsycHoloGy

T prinipls o osrvation and assssmntthat is,osrving th rol o stimuli and traking th susqunt ra-tionar at th or o vry sin. Howvr, vn todaymost soial sin lds, inluding th various disiplins o

psyhology, tnd to nglt th rol o th nvironmnt whnonsidring havioral rsponss. Tis wasnt always th as;a grat numr o soial sin lds arrid out y many oth arly studis doumntd th ts o nvironmntal

phnomna. Psyhologists in th 1800s xamind th tso nvironmntal prption as rlatd to light, sound, wight,and prssur, among othr varials, on larning and hav-ior (Bll t al., 2001). A 1916 study xamind how xtrnaldistrations atd work prorman (Morgan, 1916).Ts pionr studis wr soon ollowd y anothr thatxamind th inun o workrs hours and th ts o

vntilation on thir produtivity (Vrnon, 1919). In 1929, aninuntial study xamind th rlationship twn whr ina lassroom studnts sat ompard to th grads thy arnd(Grifth, 1929).

Among th most amous analyss ondutd o thhumannvironmnt rlationship wr th 19241932Hawthorn studis, whih analyzd th ts o light-ing on workrs prormans (Snow, 1927) (Figur 1.5).T rsarhrs involvd in ths studis hypothsizd thatinrasd lighting in th room would orrlat with inrasd

workr prodution. o tst this prmis, th rsarhrsplad a group o workrs in a room whr thy prormdthir jo dutis. Eah day, th rsarhrs rightnd th

room y using a highr-wattag light ul. As hypothsizd,workr prorman inrasd with rightr lighting; how-vr, to rosshk thir rsults, th rsarhrs didd todras th rightnss, th ida ing that workr produ-tion should dras with lowr lighting lvls. Tis did nothappn; instad, workr prodution ontinud to inrasas a rsult o othr varials. Baus o ths ndings,many sintists rgardd th Hawthorn studis as a ailur.Howvr, ths studis taught us th importan o ontrols(rrrd to as th Hawthorn Et) in rsarh, and thy

produd th ollowing thr important ndings:

1. T t o th physial nvironmnt is urd yprptions, lis, prrns, xprins, and pr-sonality (i.., a nw ul must an improvmnt;onsquntly, th workrs privd that this must a ttr nvironmnt).

2. On nvironmntal varial turnd out to morimportant than th sutlr variations (i.., th mploy-s who wr sltd or th study lt that thy

wrspecial).3. T physial nvironmnt hangd th soial dynam-

is (i.., th study room layout ailitatd mor soialontat among th workrs; thus thy wr happir).

Ts rsults ar important or dsignrs aus thyillustrat th importan o nvironmntal varials. To-rtially, dsignrs should al to inras workr pror-man simply y making workrs liv that thir nviron-mnt is ttr than othrs, making mploys liv thatth organization valus thm and ss thm as ing spial,and providing appropriat masurs to mt th spa-plan-ning nds.

T Hawthorn study, along with othr arly studis,illustratd that th nvironmnt w oupy dramatiallyinuns how w priv th world around us, how w sourslvs in rlation to th gratr soial hirarhy, and howth nvironmnt ats our soial haviors. Undrstandingthis symioti rlationship is ssntial to an nvironmntal

psyhologist.Egon Brunswik, onsidrd y many to th oundr

o nvironmntal psyhology, is rditd with using thistrm rst in 1943 to dsri th ld o humannviron-mnt rlations (Brunswik, 1943). Othr rsarhrs whohav ontriutd to th study o th humannvironmntrlationship om rom th lds o havioral gogra-

phy and uran soiolog y. Kurt Lwin, a soial ologist,rgardd th nvironmnt as a signiant varial in thdtrmination o haviors and is rditd with th idao intgrating inormation otaind rom rsarh withthat o soial pratis, othrwis known as action research

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(Lwin, 1943). Anothr notal ontriutor to th studyo humannvironmnt rlations was Rogr Barkr, who is

widly rgardd as an ologial psyhologist. Barkr andhis ollagus ormd th Midwst Psyhologial Fild Sta-tion in Oskaloosa, Kansas, in 1947. Ty osrvd that twohildrn in th sam pla havd mor similarly than onhild in two plas and onludd that th surroundingnvironmnt xrtd a grat dal o ontrol ovr havior.Evntually, Barkr and his ollagus would doumnt this

phnomnon, ultimatly onluding that our nvironmntsrat havior sttings.

Othr important nams in nvironmntal psyhologyinlud Araham Maslow, William Ittlson, and HaroldProshansky. Maslow ondutd a study with photographso popl and ound that osrvrs rspondd mor posi-tivly to th popl photographd whn th osrvrs wrin autiul rooms and mor ngativly whn th osrvrs

wr in ugly rooms (Maslow, and Mintz, 1956). Althoughthis rsarh may sm trivial, whn w onsidr th hav-iors that likly manist rom a positiv nvironmntalxprin, w may thoriz that autiul nvironmntsvok happy or plasant lings whras ugly rooms vokannoyan or disomort. Tis kind o inormation ouldgo a long way to inrasing ustomr satisation in manygovrnmnt and institutional nvironmnts. Ittlson andProshansky not only ondutd xtnsiv rsarh rlativto thory, mthodology, and appliation in ral-world st-tings, ut also dvlopd th rst Ph.D. program in nvi-ronmntal psyhology in 1968 at th City Univrsity oNw York (CUNY), whih awardd th rst dotorat innvironmntal psyhology in 1975. T 1974 txt, titld

Introduction to Environmental Psychology, writtn withLann Rivlin and Gary Winkl, was th rst txtook inthis nw ld.

[Figure 1.5] A study, which lasted rom 1924 to 1932, at the Western Electric Hawthorne Works acility in Cicero, Ill inois, was designed to analyze

the efects o various working conditions on production. One o the conditions they tested was l ighting levels. However, they ound that no matter

what they tested, the production went up. Te answer was simplethe test subjects elt special and responded to this eeling. rinity Mirror /

Mirrorpix / Alamy

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The work of these early environmental psychologists

serves to highlight not only the incredible impact

buildings, interior spaces, and landscape have on us,

but also the capacity humans have to understand

that taking care of our physical environments is the

same as taking care of ourselvesin other words,

environmental consciousness.

sustainability connection 1.2

deFininG tHe ProFession

Idas and onpts rlativ to th ts o th uilt nvi-ronmnt on humans hav n popularizd within massmdia. Howvr dsriptiv titls suh as design psychologyand design therapy ar usd to dsri work that has ntraditionally assoiatd with nvironmntal psyhology.In many ways th titl design psychology is a mor pristrm to dsri an ara o xprtis within th roadrld o nvironmntal psyhology. Notwithstanding, thAmrian Psyhologial Assoiation (APA), th govrn-ing ody o psyhologial sins, has yt to aknowl-dg dsign psyhology as prossional division within th

psyholog y ld.Prossional assoiations suh as th Amrian Psyho-

logial Assoiation, Amrian Soity o Intrior Dsignrs(ASID), or th Amrian Institut o Arhitts (AIA)dvlop govrning guidlins that lad thir rsptiv pro-ssions. Ty do this y stalishing aslin omptnisand thial standards among prossionals within thirlds. Whn a nw titl, suh as dsign psyhology, is on-trivd, thr is no way o knowing th lvl o omptnthat a prson using suh a titl rings with him/hr. Hn,urrnt or ormr thrapists dsiring a arr hang mightrinvnt thmslvs as dsignrs without any ormal dsignduation and thus ar unawar o important uildingods and muniipal rgulations. Likwis, dsignrs might

want to xpand thir usinss y adding th dimnsion opsyhology or human halth and haviors to thir list osrvis with only limitd ormal duation in psyhology,and vn lss in iology or mor spially nuroiology.As suh, many will not ompltly undrstand individualonditions in whih th nvironmnt ould thratn onsquality o li. On o th nuroiologial issus o onrnis th xposur to sunlight. Morning sunlight, or xampl,has mor ands o lu light, whih ar assoiatd withalmnss and th asorption o mlatonin. Convrsly,vning sunlight has mor ands o rd, whih ar assoi-atd with xitatory rsponss. Hn, popl with psyho-logial disordrs suh as Alzhimrs disas, shizophrnia,

and ipolar disordrs an inund y sunlight (Gilli,2004). From a havior prsptiv, w an xpt popl to mor alrt and gnrally in a mor positiv mood withinhoms that hav kithns orintd to th ast to aptur thmorning light. From a dsign prsptiv, w an los thisnial t whn ultra violt (UV) ltring windowsar usd, or i window tratmnts prvnt th ow o thisull sptrum sunlight.

In a hypothtial situation, a dsignr might rat auilding with opral windows in an attmpt to mak auilding mor sustainal. Howvr, ar thr months ooupany, many mploys ar omplaining o asthma-liksymptoms. T dsignr oms ak assuming that th issuis oupational asthma and rings in svral plants knownto hlp mitigat th o-gassing o arpts and uildingmatrials (nvironmntal toxins). T dsignr also tlls thoupants to kp thir windows opn or longr priodso tim in ordr to ttr ush-out th nvironmnt. Tn,on day an mploy surs suh a svr asthma attak thath/sh is rushd o to th mrgny room. Furthr analy-sis rvald that this prson surd rom allrgi asthmaand th additional plants oupld with th opn windowsthat ad a pin tr orst ratd a potntially dangroussituation or this mploy. T mploy, who had to hospitalizd ovrnight, sus his/hr mployr who in turn,sus th linsd dsignr aus th dsignr should havrought in a prossional onsultant whn analyzing th sitand attmpting to addrss an issu o onrn.

Likwis, th ourts ar starting to hold linsd dsign-rs lial or thir dsigns whn thos dsigns ompromishuman halth and saty. Hn, it hoovs th dsign

prossional to sk out prossional guidan in thosaras whr h/sh laks a rm knowldg as. Trough-out this ook, sustainability connections hav n adddto th spi nvironmnts undr disussion as a manso thought-provoking xampls o th plthora o onsidr-ations dsignrs must awar o in any givn stting, spa,or uilding.

Formal duation isnt th only way to aquir knowldg;it an also attaind through apprntiships, as wll as sl-tahings. Whats important aout nontraditional duationmthods, suh as apprntiships, is that th knowldg must aquird rom rputal sours suh as a dsignr who isa linsd arhitt or rtid y th National Counil orIntrior Dsign Qualiation (NCID). Whn it oms toissus o physial or psyhologial halth and saty; linsdmdial dotors, linsd psyhologists, or thos who havn rtid y th National Commission or Halth Edu-ation Crdntialing (NCHEC) should onsultd. Itis important to undrstand howvr, that whn a prson islinsd or rtid in a spi ara, that dos not quat to

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omnipotn and othr xprts should sought out as parto th dsign pross. It is qually important that thos whoar sl-taught us pr-rviwd txtooks and not rly sollyon ooks intndd or mass mdia. Grantd, mass mdia or

popular press ooks tnd to asir to rad, ut th inorma-tion laks authntiation.

Mass mdia has ailitatd a growing intrst amongth gnral population on th way our uilt nvironmntan at popls livs. Howvr, this ormat ors onlysound its or a ri ovrviw o th total availal knowl-dg. T nvironmntal psyhology ld, along withdsign prossions, must tak th nssary stps to pro-

vid maningul duation to thos who hav n ntidy popular mdia. Currntly, nvironmntal psyhology isth only rognizd aadmi disipl that ridgs dsignand psyhology.

environmental PsycHoloGy today

Environmntal psyhologists study a rang o issus rlatdto th humannvironmnt xprin and, as a rsult, an

prdit with som rtainty many motional and physialrations to nvironmntal attriuts. Ty analyz nviron-mntal us that ontriut to prptions aout a ommu-nity, inluding:

inrastrutur quality th ondition o ity-ownd uildings th typs and ondition o loal usinsss th availaility and maintnan o grn spas ownr-to-rntr ratios

Othr us om rom advrtising mthods, plamnt,and th mssags thmslvs. For xampl, signs on polsor roos along a ommrial strt indiat a driv-throughommunity; signs situatd just aov had lvl along sid-

walks indiat that it is walkal. Advrtising mssagsindiat haviors within a ommunity and an inspirstrotypial or ngativ imags whn limitd to rtainaras; howvr, distriuting th sam ads qually throughoutth ommunity invalidats th imag. For instan, th par-nts o tnag girls may did to not uy a hom in an ara

plastrd with anti-tn-prgnany ampaign ads austh ads might invok a sit-spi judgmntal ration:Our daughtrs would at risk in this nighorhood. Buti thos ads wr all ovr town, th parnts would tnd toonsidr tn prgnany as a ommon onrn rathr than asit-spi onrn.

Larg-sal gathring aras, suh as orporat ofs,shools, and rsorts, ar idal sttings or analyzing th nvi-ronmnt to idntiy ators that ontriut to or dtratrom dsird haviors. For xampl, th oupants oorporat ofs who us uil spas or opn of planstnd to xhiit gratr lvls o strss, lowr produtivity,and highr turnovr rats than do oupants o ofs with

privat work spas. Environmntal psyhologists xaminnot only omponnts rlatd to th physial attriuts, suhas lighting, room siz, aoustis, anillary rooms (lunh-rooms or loungs), wall and oor ovrings, plamnt o

work/study stations and quipmnt, and th us o olor,ut also th various rlationships among mploys, supr-

visors, and managmnt to analyz th links twn hav-iors and outoms. For hom nvironmnts, nvironmntal

psyhologists analyz oupant dsirs and haviors todvlop homs that ailitat thos ativitis (Figurs 1.6aand ).

Environmntal psyhology is spially important in thinitial planning and dvlopmnt o rsidntial proprtis.

[Figures 1.6a and b] Grandparents have diferent requirements o

their homes than do young gay couples. As such, designers must get

to know their clients and without judgment develop the best and most

appropriate environment or people. a: Ocean / Corbis; b: Rainer

Elstermann / Corbis

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For xampl, i a homs adult oupants work 9-to-5 jos,th worst position or th kithn is southwst; th ou-

pants ar alrady strssd rom th days ativitis, th v-ning sun adds glar and hat whil thy prpar dinnr, andooking adds to th hat o th room. Ts omind a-tors rat in th oupants an agitatd stat and a gratr

propnsity or vral hostility. Environmntal psyhologyan srv to rat supportiv nvironmnts or popl hal-lngd y physial, psyhologial, and ag-rlatd illnsssand injuris, and th strss and anxity rlatd to daily li ornd-o-li issus, as thos dtaild in susqunt haptrs.

a Pg Pe oppFor many in th mainstram population, th disiplin onvironmntal psyhology is virtually unknown. Tis is partlyaus no proativ mdia ampaigns duat th puliaout th ld, its rsarh ous, or th importan o thsstudis to th human ra. Also, only a handul o shools inth Unitd Stats or stand-alon dgrs in nvironmntal

psyhology, and th vast majority o studnts who matriulatwith a dgr nd thmslvs in aadmia aus th dgris availal almost xlusivly at th graduat lvl. Gnr-ally, only a small prntag o studnts who graduat witha dgr in nvironmntal psyhology mov on to work inth ld, ithr or a dsign rm or or thmslvs as indpn-dnt onsultants. Baus th disiplin itsl is quit road

with urrntly only a w opportunitis or highr duation,individual intrsts within th ld urthr sparat thosindividuals who study nvironmntal psyhology.

Most institutions hous thir nvironmntal psyholog yourss in th shools o arhittur, dsign, psyhology,human or soial ology, or arts and sins. Tis limitsth uniormity o what is taught within th ld; a linial

psyhologist will tah an nvironmntal psyhology oursdirntly rom an arhitt. It is important that pratiingdsignrs appriat that ah approah is valual ausit ontriuts a dirnt prsptiv to th total ody oknowldg. Not all nvironmntal psyhologists shar anintrst in a partiular ara o spialization, ut thy doshar th li that th nvironmnt plays a ruial rol inhuman havior. T Amrian Psyhologial Assoiation(APA) rognizs nvironmntal psyhology undr Divi-sion 34, Population and Environmental Psychology (Amri-an Psyhologial Assoiation, 2003). Its wsit lists thollowing aras o rsarh intrst:

human rspons to uilt and natural sttings impat o thnologial and natural hazards nvironmntal prption and ognition dsign and planning issus

For popl who ntr th lds o nvironmntal andhavioral psyhology, ommon suspialtis or onn-trations inlud, ut ar not limitd to, th ollowing:

divrsity, xlusion, and th nvironmnt housing issus and poliy th manings and xprins o th hom and hom-

lssnss onits and ontraditions in uran planning nighorhood and ommunity partiipation opn spa planning and us human moility and transportation dsign, us, and valuation o puli institutionspartiipatory rsarh and dsign gndr and spapolitial ology and dvlopmnt nvironmntal justi supportiv nvironmnts or popl with disailitis ldrly popl and th nvironmnt

T sop and pratis o th nvironmntal psyhol-ogy ld hav a dirt and symioti rlationship with thdsign industris. But th ld itsl studis th humannvironmnt rlationship on thr lvls o analysis (Gi-ord, 2002) as ollows:

1. Fundamntal psyhologial prosss o prption,ognition, and prsonality as thy ltr and struturah individuals xprin o th nvironmnt

2. Soial managmnt o spa rlatd to prsonal spa,trritoriality, rowding, and privay

3. T t o th physial stting on omplx ut ommonhaviors in vryday li (suh as working, larning, and

partiipating in daily ativitis in th hom or ommu-nity) and our rlationship with th natural world

Environmntal psyhology may dnd as th studyo symioti rlationships twn humans and thir nvi-ronmnts. It is this holisticapproah that sparats nviron-mntal psyhologists rom othr prossionals within thlds o dsign and soial sin.

P appBaus nvironmntal psyhology is a sin that xam-ins human haviors in rlation to thir nvironmnt,muh o th rsarh has road pratial appliaility withinth human xprin. In 1954, Maslow unvild a modldpiting a hirarhy o nds, asd on natural instints

prsnt in all animals (Figur 1.7).Almost rom its inption, th modl has om undr

srutiny, with ritis laiming that it laks a sinti asis,

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an intgratd onptual strutur, and supportiv rsarhvidn and that th onpts lak validity. Maslow, ahumanist psyhologist, proposd that all humans havundamntal nds and that thy mov up th hirarhy asah nd is mt. Whn an individuals nvironmnt is notright or appropriat or his/hr nds (and many timsthis is th as), h/sh will not prod up th hirarhy;and this ailur to advan auss psyhologial and mo-tional dysuntion.

I w wr to apt Maslows notion o th hirarhyo nds, along with th prmis that th nvironmntsrvs no othr purpos than to ulll hdonisti dsirs,th traditional humannvironmnt rlationship would at th top o th pyramid as an aspt osel-actualization.Howvr, humannvironmnt rsarh provs that ournvironmnts hav a trmndous impat on how w l,rspond, and op in daily li. Baus th nvironmnt

plays an intriat rol in th ovrall physiologial halth andrsponss o th human psyh, onrn or our surround-ings is a omponnt not only o sl-atualization ut also osaty and o physiologial nds.

Children of all cultures are resilient and curious abouttheir environments. They learn from the world via

textures, colors, materials, and spatial arrangements.

However, the complexities of social aspects can

be difficult for them, such as the dynamics of their

placement among siblings, parent interactions, familial

composition, and economic stressors. Given this, an

environmental psychologist could create a space of

private refuge for a child to mitigate his/her own

desire for stimuli or interaction with others within

home or school.

cultural connection 1.2

For xampl, a hild who ls rowdd and vulnralwithin an nvironmnt may xprin hild-rlatd strss( Jwtt & Ptrson, 1997). Flings o rowding an lad toth ght-or-ight rspons, whih is haratrizd y sym-

pathti nrvous systm ativation that srts hmialsinto th loodstram and moilizs a havioral rspons(aylor t al., 2000). I a hild is rpatdly sujtd to suh

[Figure 1.7] Maslows hierarchy o needs pyramid. Maslow, a humanist psychologist, proposed that all humans have undamental needs and that

they move up the hierarchy as each need is met. Consider how the environment urther impacts each level o the individuals ascent, or better or

worse. Illustration by Precision Graphics

Self-actualization

Esteem

Love/Belonging

Safety

Physiological breathing, food, water, sex, sleep, homeostasis, excretion

security of body, of employment, of resources,

of morality, of the family, of health, of property

friendship, family, sexual intimacy

self-esteem,condence, achievement,

respect of others, respect by others

morality,creativity,

spontaneity,problem solving,

lack of prejudice,acceptance of facts

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a rspons du to an nvironmntal ondition, a physiianmay prsri mdiation, and a ounslor or thrapistmay pursu havior-modiation thniqus; howvr,an nvironmntal psyhologist, using th mthods mostompatil with natural human haviors and rsponss,

will modiy th hilds nvironmnt y liminating sourso stimulation in th hilds nvironmnt as th rst stp.

Humannvironmnt intrations ar asd on ourpsyhologial prosss in rlation to our surroundings. Ournvironmnts ar mad up o physial stimuli (nois, light,and tmpratur), physial struturs (dimnsions, urni-tur, and hallways), and symoli artiats (th maning orimag o a stting). T undamntal psyhologial prosssoarousal, overload, afect, adaptation,and personal con-trol ar intgral to humannvironmnt intrations.

Arousal an dnd as xitmnt or stimulation toation or physiologial radinss or ativity.

Overload is th ngativ mntal stat that rsults romxssiv stimulation and arousal.

Afect nompasss motional rations to th nvi-ronmnt.

Adaptation dsris th pross o adjustmnt tonvironmntal onditions.

Personal control is th aility to ontrol an nviron-mnt or a situation.

Ts intrations lad to outoms that all into atgo-ris o prorman, intrprsonal rlationships, satisation,and halth or strss. T positiv rlationship twnhuman prorman and th attntion givn to th individ-ual, as wll as th ts o room siz and xtrnal stimulisuh as nois, at prorman. For xampl, i a tahr

pays mor attntion to studntX, studntXshould do ttrin shool. Howvr, this on-dimnsional approah assumsthat varial Y (th tahrs attntion) inuns human

prorman, whih quals th havioral output. T ldo nvironmntal psyhology has volvd to approah hav-ioral sin rsarh in a multidimnsional mannr. Tismans that studnt X, whn atord with situation Yand

prsonalityZ: may dvlop havioral rspons XYZ. Inothr words, i a tahr givs addd attntion to a studnt

who has (1) atn a propr rakast, (2) rivd noughslp, and (3) is not strssd at hom, and (4) w drasth dnsity within th lassroom, (5) inras natural ull-sptrum lighting, and 6) dras xtrnal stimuli suh asnois, thn th studnts aadmi prorman will opti-mizd. T lvl o optimization, howvr, is ontingnt onall o ths ators.

P

app

f dgUs ths rsours, ativitis, and disussion qustionsto hlp you idntiy, synthsiz, and rtain this haptrsor inormation. Ts tools ar dsignd to ompl-mnt th rsours youll nd in this ooks ompanionStudy Guid.

summing it up

Our symbiotic relationship with the environment causes

researchers to struggle with the timeless question of

Which came first: the behavior or the environment?The premise behind the research and practice of

environmental psychology is a holistic thought processthat considers biological, social, and environmentalcausal agents. Environmental psychologists not only

consider these biological and sociological influences, but

they also use methods of environmental modificationand design to enhance preferred actions and reduce

undesirable behaviors.

Within design, we can differentiate between thepsychological perspectives by thinking of cognitionas the process of figuring something out, humanistic

as ones desire to match his/her perceived self withthe way in which he/she is perceived in the world, andneurobiology as ones compulsion to do or behavea certain way because it is in his/her nature. Socialsciences are based on the social world and systems (e.g.,

culture, religious beliefs, traditions) and tend to studythe social perspectives that lead to certain outcomes.

Understanding the importance of including multiple

disciplines into design is essential. Gone are the days

when one person can possibly know everything.

Currently, environmental psychology is the only

recognized academic disciple that bridges design and

psychology. The environment plays an intricate role in

the overall physiological health and the responses of

the human psycheconcern for our surroundings is a

component not only of self-actualization but also of

safety and of physiological needs.

You can also refer to this textbooks companion Study

Guide for a comprehensive list of Summary Points.

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Key terms

adaptation affect arousal deterministic behaviors effect neurotransmitter overload paradigm

personal control tradition

Web linKs

All Psych Online: The Virtual Psychology Classroom(http://allpsych.com)

American Academy of Neurology(http://www.aan.com)

American Psychological Association (APA), selectGlossary of Psychological Terms(http://psychologymatters.apa.org)

Association for Humanistic Psychology

(www.ahpweb.org)

BBCs Mind Changers series, The Hawthorne Effect(www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00lv0wx)

Center for Human Environments (CHE)sponsored City University of New York(http://web.gc.cuny.edu/che/)

InformeDesign sponsored by the University ofMinnesota (www.informedesign.umn.edu/)

International Association for People-EnvironmentStudies (http://iaps.scix.net)

National Commission for Health EducationCredentialing (NCHEC) www.nchec.org

Research Design Connections(www.researchdesignconnections.com)

Smithsonian Encyclopedia(www.si.edu/Encyclopedia_SI/History_and_Culture)

Society for Environmental Graphic Design(www.segd.org)

United Nations Environment Programme(www.unep.org)

U.S. Environmental Protection Agencys National Centerfor Environmental Research(www.epa.gov/ncer)

U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC)

(www.usgbc.org)U.S. National Library of Medicine, PubMed(www.pubmed.gov)

expert spotlight 1.1

Enhancing Quality of LifeThrough Design

Denise A. Guerin, Ph.D., FIDEC, FASID, IIDA,University of Minnesota

Holism. Interdisciplinary. Collaboration. Wicked prob lems.

Interaction among the parts. All of these terms seem toask us to think about what we, as designers, must knowto solve problems in ways that support and enhance

peoples quality of life. And all of these terms seem topoint in the direction of the synthesis of the parts into acohesive wholei.e., the many knowledge areas, some ofwhich are outside the designers body of knowledgethat

must be considered to not only enhance peoples livesbut keep them out of harms way. Furthermore, these

terms imply that our work processes may be changing inthe futureeven as we speak. The amount and diversity

of knowledge that are required to solve todays complexdesign problems call on designers to know more thanever before about a wider number of topics, with deeper

understanding, and when to find other knowledgeable

people to bring onto the team.

What can be helpful to guide us in our identificationand application of knowledge is the idea that a theoryabout design and human behavior can actually become

an ordering system or a framework upon which to placeknowledge, make decisions, and measure outcomes. Infact, that is exactly how theories are supposed to work;

they define the constructs or structure of the knowledgeand the relationships among all the knowledge areasor parts. How simple! Yet most designers are woefully

unprepared to use a theoretical framework to identifyproject parameters, evaluate design options, make decisions

upon which solutions are determined, and measure the

results of the design outcome. We tend to limit ourselves

to the notion of design theory; that is, the principles ofdesign as applied to the elements of design such as the

principle of balance as applied to the element of volume.This is only one part of the designers body of knowledge.

There is moreso much more.

Interior designers are educated to identify problems and

solutions that improve the human condition and protectpeoples lives. With the increasing emphasis on evidence-based design, or evidence-informed design, it is timelyto focus on educating designers to underpin their designdecisions with the constructs of theories that explain

human behavior. We must consider each design solution

as a simple hypothesis, a prediction that the solution willwork. Understanding theories about design and human

behavior can increase the probability that our prediction

will work. This is the method new designers will use tooptimize the design of environments that support peoples

behaviors, activities, cultures, and norms and preventharm from coming to them in the spaces in which they

lead their daily lives.

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Discussion Questions

1. Considering how the environment influences our

behaviors and we in turn influence the environment,

discuss how applying this perspective into design would

benefit the design process.

2. Discuss reasons why a thorough understanding of

culture should be analyzed and understood before

the consideration of a design project. Do you think

its important that a cultural analysis be conductedand implemented in the design process? If so, explain

your opinion.

3. Consider your daily routine and analyze one aspect

of it from three different psychological perspectives

(cognitive, humanistic, learning or behavioral,

neurobiological, or sociocultural). For example, you

wake up to music rather than an alarm sound, or you

musthave a cup of coffee to begin your day.

4. Discuss the benefits of having an architect with

environmental psychology understanding working

in the design of a space versus an architect without

knowledge on the subject. What differences in design

do you think there would be? Would one design be

more comfortable than the other, or would there be a

small difference between the two?

5. Discuss reasons why an environmental psychologist

with a background in architecture may take a different

approach to analyzing an environment than would

a designer with no background in environmental

psychology.

learning activities

1. Research events in which we have modified our living

environment by altering our surroundings to better

suit our needs.2. Observe a site where people need to perform some

sort of work. Evaluate the environment and document

peoples behaviors. Point out what you would modify

in the environment to facilitate the task.

3. Research examples of social trends our society has

embraced from the past to the present. Explain how

these events exemplify the evolution of human social

trends.

4. Develop your own examples for all the conflicting

viewpoints that are constantly being examined and

challenged by psychologists.

5. Research two design projectsone done by a designer

with environmental psychology background and theother by a designer who didnt have the same skills.

Observe the two designs, and evaluate both the

positive and negative impacts of the designs. Describe

the benefits of applying the use of environmental

psychology into design.

stuDio activity 1.1

Postapocalyptic WorldDesign Problem Statement

A gamma ray storm from outer space just hit the planet

and wiped out all electronic devices (e.g., cars, phones,

computers) on the planet. Civilization has regressed to

warring tribal villages that compete for basic resources.

Using only trash found from around your school, create

a model of an inhabitable village that has some colorscheme or building attribute that distinguishes your village

from others.

Directions

Step One: Identify cultures that built and abandoned

villages (e.g., those of Canadian Eskimos or Mongolian

tribes), and that developed temporary villages that could

be assembled and disassembled, and temporary villages

that simply reverted back to the landscape.

Step Two: Identify the pros and cons of each village type

along with the building configuration (i.e., tee pee versus

yurt versus hut).

Step Three: Identify and justify your village type.

Step Four: Build your village.

Deliverables: Village model. Written and/or oral

presentation.

stuDio activity 1.2

Observation and AssessmentObserve ones surroundings as a means to identify design

needs.

Directions

Step One: With a camera walk around your community

and photograph common environmental conditions thatcan be influenced with design (for example, you may note

that a lot of snow builds up during the winter months).

Step Two: Develop chains of logic from the photos (for

example, photo deep snow mound). The chain of logic

would look like this: Deep snow mounds = snow being

tracked inside. Snow on wood floors = wet wood = warped

floorboards.

Step Three: From the chain of logic deduce a solution

(for example, inside the doorway will be a 3 2 polished

concrete inlay where people can come inside to take their

shoes off without getting the wet snow on the wood floor).

Step Four: Develop a sketch of what the proposed design

solution would look like.Deliverables: Using ten different photos showing ten

different issues, students will develop ten chains of logic.

Ten solutions to the issues presented earlier with ten

sketches showing the design intervention.

Documents

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