15 Direct and indirect speech

Direct speech

15.1 When do we use direct speech?

We use direct speech whenever we speak. We use the term direct

speech to describe the way we represent the spoken word in writing.

15.2 Form of direct speech in writing

actual spoken statement direct statement in writing I'm waiting ' 'I'm waiting,' John said actual spoken question direct question in writing 'When did you arrive, John?' 'When did you arrive, John?' Mary asked

15.3 Notes on the use of punctuation marks

1 Quotation marks (or 'inverted commas') go round what is actually spoken and enclose other punctuation marks such as commas (,) full stops (.), question marks (?) and exclamation marks (!). They may be single ('...'), or double ("...") and are placed high above the base-line at the beginning and end of each quotation: 7s that you Jane

7' Bob asked "Is that you, Jane?' Bob asked

2 What is said, plus reporting verb and its subject, is considered as a whole unit. When the subject + reporting verb [> App 45] comes at the beginning of a sentence, the reporting verb is always followed by a comma (sometimes by a colon (:) in AmE) and the quotation begins with a capital letter: John said 'It's good to see you ' When the subject + reporting verb comes after what is said, the quotation has a comma before the second quotation mark: It's good to see you ' John said But if the quotation ends with an exclamation mark or a question mark, a comma is not used as well: 'Where can I get a taxi? John asked Subject + verb can come in the middle of a quotation-sentence: 'Where in this wretched town ' John asked 'can I get a taxi? The second part of the quotation does not begin with a capital letter because it is not a separate sentence.

3 If there is a 'quote within a quote' (e.g. if we are quoting someone's exact words), we use a second set of quotation marks. If double quotation marks have been used on the 'outside', single ones are used on the 'inside' and vice versa. The inside quotation has its own punctuation, distinct from the rest of the sentence: Ann said 'Just as I was leaving, a voice shouted "Stop! 'What do you mean? "Are you all right?” Ann asked

Direct speech

We can also use a second set of quotation marks when we mention the title of e.g. a book, film or play: How long did it take you to read "War and Peace"?' I asked However, this is often a matter of personal taste. In print, titles often

appear in italics without quotation marks.

4 Noun + reporting verb may be in subject + verb order or may be inverted (verb + subject) [> App 45.1]: 'This is a serious offence,' the judge said/said the judge If the subject is a long one, then inversion is usual: 'Where's this train going

9' asked the lady sitting beside me

With a pronoun subject, inversion is rare in modern English: 'This is a serious offence,' he said Some reporting verbs, particularly those requiring an object, such

as assure, inform and tell cannot be inverted {> App 45.2].

Adverbs of manner usually come at the end [compare > 7.16.1]: 'Go away

1' said Mr Tomkins/Mr Tomkins said angrily

5 Quotation marks are generally not required with reporting verbs such as ask oneself, think and wonder wonder they are used to describe 'direct thoughts' in 'free indirect speech' [> 15.27.3]: So that was their little game he thought

Where are they now, he wondered

15.4 Direct speech in context

15.4.1 Printed dialogue Printed dialogue is particularly common in works of fiction and can occur without connecting narrative:

A tissue of lies!' Boyle cried 'You think so?' the inspector asked 'Think so? I know it' 'And no doubt you can prove it First there are a few important

points that need answering '

In this kind of dialogue, each new speech begins on a new line in a new paragraph. Once the characters have been established, it is not necessary to go on repeating names (or pronouns) and reporting verbs - except to remind the reader from time to time who is speaking. If a speech goes on for more than a paragraph, we put opening quotation marks at the beginning of each paragraph, but closing ones only at the end of the final paragraph.

Dialogue can also occur within connecting narrative: Boyle was agitated He paced the room as the inspector

reconstructed the crime Finally, he could bear it no longer. A

tissue of lies ' he cried The inspector paused and asked with heavy irony, 'You think so?' 'Think so? I know it,' Boyle snapped

The inspector was unconvinced 'And no doubt you can prove it'

he said First there are a few important points that need answering,'

he added, glancing quickly at his notebook

In this kind of dialogue, the words spoken by the characters are

quoted within each new paragraph as part of the narration.

15 Direct and indirect speech 15.4.2 Quotations

We use the conventions of direct speech when we are quoting exact words, e.g. in letters, reports and statements by witnesses:

/ reconstructed the crime and before I had finished speaking, Boyle said, A tissue of lies! I asked the accused if he really thought so and he answered 'Think so! I know it! '

15.4.3 Scripts Quotation marks are not used in scripts for plays, etc.:

BOYLE (agitated): A tissue of lies! INSPECTOR WILEY: You think so? BOYLE [sharply): Think so! I know it! INSPECTOR WILEY: And no doubt you can prove it

'Say, 'tell' and 'ask'

15.5 Indirect speech and the sequence of tenses [compare > 9.5.2]

We use indirect speech (sometimes called 'reported speech') when we are telling someone what another person says or said. The reporting verb (e.g. say tell) may be in the present or past (most often in the past) and the tenses of the reported statement are often (but not always) affected by this. Compare: - actual spoken statement: I can see him now - direct statement in writing: I can see him now,' the boss

says/said - indirect statement (present): The boss says (that) he can see you

now - indirect statement (past): The boss said (that) he could see you

now Quotation marks are not used in indirect speech. For verbs that can

introduce reported statements and questions [> App 45].

15.6 Reporting verbs and adjectives in direct/indirect speech

The commonest reporting verbs in both direct and indirect speech are say, tell and ask Many other verbs can be followed by that or ii, whether and can serve as reporting verbs [> App 45]. A number of these do not strictly 'report speech' (actual spoken words), but thoughts, feelings, etc. That is why 'indirect speech', as a term, is preferable to 'reported speech'. Similarly, a number of adjectives, such as certain, sure [> App 44] can be followed by that if, whether (whether) to and question-words.

15.7 The verbs 'say', 'tell' and 'ask'

15.7.1 Basic uses of 'say', 'tell' and 'ask' These three verbs do not follow the same pattern. The most important thing to remember is that fe//must be followed by a personal indirect object (tell somebody ). Say can be followed by an optional to+ the person who is addressed:

You haven't got much time, he told me/he said (to me)

'Say', 'tell' and 'ask'

Ask can be followed by an indirect object [> 15.17, 16.20]: 'Are you comfortable?' he asked (me) He asked (me) if I was comfortable

In reported requests [> 15.24, 16.20] the inclusion or not of an object affects the meaning:

She asked to go (actual spoken words: 'May I go?') She asked me to go (actual spoken words: 'Will you go? )

The following references give further details about say tell and ask : - say in direct speech in writing [> 15.2-3, 15.8]. - say + that-clause, indirect statement [> 15.9-16]. - say if/whether + indirect Yes/No question [> 15.I8ns3,8]. - say + indirect Wh-question [> 15.20n.3], - say + to-infinitive [> 15.24.1].

- tell somebody in direct speech in writing [> 15.2-3, 15.8]. - tell somebody + that-clause, indirect statement [> 15.9-16]. - tell somebody + if/whether + indirect Yes/No question [> 15.18n8]. - tell somebody + indirect Wh-question [> 15.20n.3], - tell somebody + to-infinitive [> 15.23-24, 16.21, 16.25].

- ask (somebody) in direct speech in writing [> 15.2-3, 15.8], - ask (somebody) + if/whether + indirect Yes/No question [> 15.9,

15 17-18]. - ask (somebody) + Wh-question [> 15.19-22]. - ask (somebody) + to-infinitive [> 15.23-24, 16.20]. - ask that something (should) be done [> 11.75.2].

15.7.2 Secondary uses of 'say', 'tell' and 'ask' - say so: 'The meeting's off,' Jill said

'Who says so? 'The boss says so/said so,' Jill answered

- the passive 'He is said to be' [> I2.8n.3] does not have an active equivalent: Not "They say him to", but: They say (that) he is

- say + object in fixed expressions: e.g. say a few words, say no more, say nothing, say (your) prayers, say something

- tell somebody so: 'You were right about the meeting.' I said I told you so,' Jill answered

- tell + object in fixed expressions: e.g. (can) tell the difference tell a lie tell a story, tell the time tell the truth

- ask for something: ask somebody for something: / asked for a loan I asked Jim for a loan

I — ask in fixed expressions: e.g. ask after someone, ask (for) a favour ask the price, ask a question, ask the time

15.8 'Say', 'tell' and 'ask' in direct speech

Say is commonly associated with direct speech in writing: 'It's raining, I said

We can also use say with short, ordinary questions in direct speech (not long and complicated ones):

'Are you all right?' he said/asked (Not "told me*)

15 Direct and indirect speech

Say (Not "told him/asked*) can introduce a statement or question / said It s raining I said Is it ready?

Say or tell can be used in direct speech [> 15.2-3] and can also introduce direct commands

Don t touch that1 he said (to them)/told them

Ask is used in direct questions How are you? she asked (me)/said (Not *told me*)

15.9 'Say', 'tell' and 'ask' in indirect speech

Say and tell someone + optional that can introduce indirect statements We never use a comma after say or tell someone

He said (that)/told me (that) his life was in danger If we need to mention the listener, tell + indirect object is generally preferable to say + to someone [> 15.7.1] When the reporting verb comes at the end of the sentence, we cannot use that

His life was in danger he told me/he said

Ask (with or without a personal indirect object) can report a question Ask (someone) is followed by if/whether or a question-word

She asked (me) if/whether I wanted anything She asked (me) what I wanted

We use say/tell to introduce noun clauses [> 1.23.2], not to report questions For the use of ask/tell to report commands [> 15.23-24]

Indirect statements: reporting verb in the present

15.10 Form with reporting verb in the present

actual spoken statements / ve read Tony s book and I don t understand it I ve read Tony s book and I didn t understand it indirect statements: reporting verb in the present

If the reporting verb in indirect speech is in the present the tenses that follow are usually the same as those used in the original spoken statement This is

often the case when we report words that have just been spoken [compare >

952 15 14-16] Jim says tells me (that) he s read Tony s book and doesn t understand it

Jim says tells me (that) he s read Tony s book and didn t understand it

15.11 Indirect speech in context (reporting verb in the present)

The reporting verb is often in the present when the reference is general or to 'present time' in contexts like the following - reporting, e g a rumour

A A little birdie tells me you re applying for a new job B Who tells you? A Never you mind!

Indirect statements with tense changes

- passing on messages A Come in now Jim Dinner s ready B What does your mother say? C She says you must come in now dad (She says) dinner s

ready - reading a newspaper, etc and reporting

A What does the article say? B It s about the kitchen of the future The writer says we'II have

robots which can understand instructions and carry them out - general (no special time)

A So how are we supposed to wire this plug? B The instructions say that the brown wire means live and it goes

into the hole marked L It says here that the blue means neutral and it goes into the hole marked N

- reporting something someone says very often Mary s always talking about money She s always complaining that things are expensive and she s always asking how much I ve paid for one thing and another

Indirect statements with tense changes

15.12 Form with reporting verb in the past

actual spoken statements in the present (simple and progressive) TOM / need to go to the bank PAM I'm waiting for Harriet

indirect statements: present past Tom said (that) he needed to go to the bank Pam said (that) she was waiting

for Harriet

actual spoken statement in the present perfect I've moved to another flat

indirect statement: present perfect past perfect (past perfect obligatory) Sylvia said (that) she had moved to another flat

actual spoken statements in the past (simple and progressive) / moved to another flat I was waiting for Harriet

I had been waiting for hours before you arrived

indirect statements: past -> past or past perfect (past perfect optional) She said (that) she moved/had moved to another flat He said (that) he was waiting had been waiting for Harriet He said (that) he had been waiting for hours (past perfect does not change)

actual spoken statements with the'present' form of modals / can see you tomorrow I'II help you

indirect statements: modal 'present' -> 'conditional' or 'past' [> 11.8.3] She said (that) she could see me the next day

She said (that) she would help me

actual spoken statements with the 'past' or 'conditional' form of modals / could see you tomorrow I would complain if I were you

indirect statements: the 'past' or 'conditional' modal does not change He said (that) he could see me the next day She said (that) she would complain if she were me

15 Direct and indirect speech

15.13 Notes on the form of indirect speech with tense changes

1 'Rules' in indirect speech Tense changes often occur in indirect speech because there is an interval between the original spoken words and the time when they are reported, but these changes are not always obligatory [> 15.10, 15.14-16]. It is the changing viewpoint of the reporting speaker or writer that decides the choice of appropriate forms, not complicated rules. The notes that follow are not 'rules', but are based on observation of what often happens in practice.

2 Linking phrases Indirect speech rarely occurs in sets of unrelated sentences, but is found in continuous paragraphs of reported language. Continuity is achieved by the use of linking phrases, such as: she went on to say, he continued, he added that, and by varying the reporting verbs: he observed, noted, remarked, etc. Such forms remind the reader that the language is reported. Many features present in direct speech, such as Yes/No short answers and speech 'fillers', such as Well, etc., disappear in indirect speech.

3 Tense changes [> 9.5] In indirect speech we do not usually repeat the speaker's exact words. Reporting usually takes place in the past, so the reporting verb is often in the past. As a result, the tenses of the reported clause are usually 'moved back'. This 'moving back' of tenses is called backshift. A useful general rule is 'present becomes past and past becomes past perfect'. 'Past' modals and the past perfect are unchanged when reported, since no further backshift is possible [> 15.12]. We must normally use the past perfect to report a statement whose verb was in the present perfect: 7 have lived in the south for years,' Mrs Duncan said Mrs Duncan told me (that) she had lived in the south for years If the verb in the original statement was in the simple past, we do not usually need to change it to the past perfect (unless we wish to emphasize that one event happened before another): I lived in Scotland in the 1970's Mrs Duncan said Mrs Duncan said that she (had) lived in Scotland in the 1970's

4 Pronoun changes Pronouns change (or not) depending on the view of the reporter: 'I'll send you a card Sue ' (actual words spoken by Ann) Ann told Sue she d send her a card (reported by someone else) Ann said/told me she would send me a card (reported by Sue) / told Sue (that) Id send her a card (reported by Ann)

Some typical pronoun changes are: / he/she me/you him/her my his/her we they us them our their mine his/hers ours theirs myself himself/herself

5 Time and place changes It is often necessary to make time and place changes in relation to

Indirect statements with tense changes

tense changes. For example, on Tuesday, A says: 'A card came yesterday saying Sue will arrive tomorrow ' B, reporting this on Wednesday, might say: A told me a card had come the day before yesterday/on Monday saying Sue would arrive today/on Wednesday But time and place changes are not always necessary. If, for example, it was still Tuesday when the statement above was reported, B might say: A told me a card came (or had come) yesterday saying Sue will (or would) arrive tomorrow Examples of possible time and place changes: time: now immediately/then

two days ago two days before/earlier today that day tonight that night tomorrow the next/the following day yesterday the previous day/the day before last night the night before

place: here there when what is referred to is clear this place that place these places those places

verbs: come/bring go/take

6 Modal verbs 'Modal present' becomes 'modal past' [> 11.8.3]: e.g. can becomes could; will becomes would; may becomes might: 7 can/will/may see you later,' he said He said he could/would/might see me later

shall When shall is used with future reference for prediction, speculation, etc. it becomes would in indirect speech: I shall tell him exactly what I think, she said She said she would tell him exactly what she thought When shall is used in offers, suggestions or requests for advice it becomes should (even after the second and third persons): Shall I speak to him in person?' she asked She asked whether she should speak to him in person

should/shouldn 't When should or shouldn't refer to desirability, obligation or likelihood, they remain unchanged in indirect speech: 'You should see a specialist,' he told me He told me I should see a specialist. Should used in place of would, e.g. in conditional sentences [> 14.2. 14.11n1], becomes would [compare shall above]: 'If I were you, I should get another lawyer' She said (that) if she were me, she would get another lawyer

would, could, might, ought to, needn't have, used to These (including negative forms where applicable) remain unchanged in indirect speech in all combinations:

15 Direct and indirect speech

'/ would like an appointment tomorrow, I said to my dentist I told my dentist (that) I would like an appointment the next day 'You ought to slow down a bit, the doctor told him The doctor told him (that) he ought to slow down a bit

'perfect' and 'past' modal forms [> 11.8.4] Forms such as must have and could have remain unchanged:

7 must have slept through the alarm ' she said

She said she must have slept through the alarm

must When referring to the past, must can remain unchanged in indirect speech when it is used to indicate inescapable obligation. Or we can use had to (the past of have to) in its place: / must warn you of the consequences,' he said He told me he must/had to warn me of the consequences

Must, indicating future necessity, can remain unchanged, or can be replaced by would have to or sometimes had to: 'We must go early tomorrow ' she said She said they must go early the next day (or She said they would have to go/they had to go )

When must is used to indicate deduction or possibility, it remains

unchanged in indirect speech. It cannot be replaced by had to: 'George must be a fool to behave like that' he said

He said George must be a fool to behave like that

Mustn't (prohibition) remains unchanged or changes to couldn't:

'You mustn't/can't cross the border,' the guard said

The guard said we mustn't/couldn't cross the border

needn't Needn't (absence of necessity) can remain unchanged or can be replaced by didn't have to in indirect speech:

'You needn't/don't have to come in tomorrow ' the boss said

The boss said I needn't/didn't have to come in the next day

7 Conditional statements [> 14.2] Type 1 conditional statements are reported as follows: ' I f you pass your test, I'll buy you a car' he said He said that if I passed my test he would buy me a car

Type 2 conditional statements are reported as follows: 'If you passed your test I would buy you a car' he said He said that if I passed my test he would buy me a car

Type 3 conditional statements are reported as follows: 'If you'd passed your test I'd have bought you a car' he said He said that if I'd passed my test he'd have bought me a car

8 Exclamations Note the word order in reported exclamations: 'What a silly boy you are' she exclaimed

She told him what a silly boy he was

She told him that he was a silly boy

Indirect statements with mixed tense sequences

Indirect statements with mixed tense sequences

15.14 Form of indirect statements with mixed tense sequences

actual spoken statement I've read Tony's book and I don't understand it'

indirect statements with mixed tense sequences Jim says he's read Tony's book and didn't understand it

Jim said he's read Tony's book and doesn t understand it

Jim said he'd read Tony's book and doesn't understand it

Jim said he d read Tony's book and didn't understand it

15.15 Indirect speech: the speaker's viewpoint [compare > 15.10-11]

A speaker can choose to report a statement or a question using the tenses that match his viewpoint, based on the facts of the situation as he sees them at the time of speaking. Note the different viewpoints expressed in the following examples:

Jim says (now) he's read Tony s book and didn't understand it (then, when he finished reading, or then, while he was reading). Jim said (then) he's read Tony's book (now) and didn't understand it (then). Jim said (then) he'd read Tony's book (then) and doesn't understand it (now). Jim said (then) he'd read Tony's book (then) and didn't understand it (then).

15.16 Reporting permanent states, facts, habits

Permanent states and conditions are often reported in the simple present after a reporting verb in the past to show that they are matters of fact now [> App 45 for reporting verbs]:

Copernicus concluded that the earth goes round the sun However, the 'proximity rule' [> 9.5.2] would also allow us to say:

Copernicus concluded that the earth went round the sun A change in tense can lead to ambiguity. Compare:

He told me he works as a builder (at present) He told me he worked as a builder (at present or in the past?)

Indirect Yes/No questions

15.17 Form of indirect Yes/No questions

The rules about tense sequences [> 9.5, 15.10, 15.12-16] also apply to questions: actual spoken questions Indirect questions be: 'Are you ready?' He asked (me) if/whether I am/was ready have: 'Have you finished

9' He asked (me) if/whether I (have)/had finished

do 'Do you play chess9' He asked (me) if/whether I play/played chess

modals: 'Can I have it7' He asked (me) if/whether he can/could have it

15 Direct and indirect speech

15.18 Notes on the form of indirect Yes/No questions

1 Quotation marks and question marks Quotation marks and question marks are not used in indirect questions and there is a change in word order (notes 2 and 3 below).

2 Word order: be, have and modal auxiliaries The inversion in the direct question changes back to statement

word order (subject + verb) in the reported question and, if

necessary, the tense is changed at the same time. Modals may

change from their 'present' form to their 'past' form [> 11.8.3]:

direct statement: He is ready ' (subject + verb) direct Yes/No question: Is he ready'?' (inversion) indirect question: She asked me if he was ready (if + subject + verb)

3 Word order: do, does and did

Do/does/did in Yes/No questions disappear in reported questions:

direct statement: He went home direct Yes/No question: Did he go home'? indirect question: She asked me if he went home

or: She asked me if he had gone home

This reflects normal usage, but in everyday speech it is not uncommon to hear direct questions embedded in indirect speech: She said she was going to the shops and (asked me) did I want anything while she was out

4 Reporting Yes/No questions All kinds of Yes/No questions [> 13.5, 13.14, 13.17-23] are reported in the same way. If necessary, phrases like in surprise can be added to interpret intonation, etc. [> 15.25]: 'Do you play chess?' 'Don't you play chess?' He asked me if/whether 'You don t play chess, do you?' I played chess 'You play chess, don't you?' etc.

5 If and whether [compare > 1.24.1, 14.23.4, 16.24] If and whether are interchangeable after ask, want to know, wonder etc., but whether conveys slightly greater doubt. Some verbs, like discuss [> App 45], can only be followed by whether. If or whether must always be used when reporting Yes/No questions and cannot be omitted (unlike that in reported statements): Tom asked if/whether it was raining Whether is usually preferred when there are alternatives [> 13.44-45]: She asked me whether I wanted tea or coffee

6 That and whether in short answers Short answers can be given with that and whether/if; What did she tell you

7 What did she ask you?

- That she would be late - Whether/If I would be late

7 Reporting Yes/No questions with or not [> 1.24.1, 13.44-45, 14.21] 'Do you want any dinner or not? He wants to know if/whether we want any dinner or not He wants to know whether or not we want dinner (Not 'if or not*)

Indirect question-word questions

8 Indirect Yes/No questions with reporting verbs other than ask Many reporting verbs can be used other than ask, want to know, etc. in combinations with whether and (sometimes) if [> App 45]: He didn't tell me if/whether he would be arriving early or late She didn't say if/whether she was coming to lunch I don't know if/whether I've passed my exam yet I wonder if/whether they've heard the news yet

Indirect question-word questions

15.19 Form of indirect question-word questions

ie rules about tense sequences [> 9.5, 15.10, 15.12-16] also apply to questions1

actual spoken questions indirect questions be Where are you going?' He asked (me) where I was going

have. 'Why haven't you finished? He wanted to know why I (haven't)/hadn't finished

do. 'What do you think of it7' He wanted to know what I (think/thought of it

modals 'When must I be there9' He asked (me) when he must be/had to be there

15.20 Notes on the form of indirect question-word questions

1 Word order: be, have and modal auxiliaries [compare > 15.18n2]

The inversion after a question-word in a direct question changes

back to statement word order (subject + verb) in the reported

question and, if necessary, the tense is changed at the same time. Modals may change from 'present' form to 'past' form [> 11.8.3]:

direct statement: We are going home

direct Wh-question: Where are you going? (Wh- + inversion)

indirect question: He asked (us) where we were going (Wh- + subject + verb)

2 Word order: do, does and did [compare > 15.18n.3]

Do/does/did in direct questions disappear in reported questions:

direct statement: I gave it to John

direct Wh-question: When did you give it to John?'

indirect question: He asked me when I gave it to John

3 Indirect question-word questions with verbs other than ask Many different reporting verbs can be used other than ask, want to know, etc. [> App 45]:

/ know where he lives She didn't say why she was coming home late He didn't tell me how he did it

4 Question-words in short answers Short answers can be given with Why, When, etc.: What did she want to know? - Why/When we were leaving (= She wanted to know why/when we were leaving.)

15 Direct and indirect speech

Indirect subject-questions

15.21 Form of indirect subject-questions

actual spoken questions indirect questions be: 'Who is in charge here?' He asked (me) who was in charge

there

present: 'Which firm makes these parts'?' He asked (me) which firm (makes) made those parts

past: 'What caused the accident?' He asked (me) what caused/had caused the accident

modals. 'Whose novel will win the prize?' He asked (me) whose novel would win the prize

15.22 Note on the form of indirect subject-questions

Tense changes and changes in modals occur in the usual way, but

the word order of the direct question is retained in the indirect

question. Reporting verbs other than ask can be used to introduce

indirect subject.questions [> App 45]: Please tell me who delivered this package I want to know which piece fits in this puzzle

Uses of the to-infinitive in indirect speech

15.23 Form of the to-infinitive in indirect speech

actual spoken words reported version 'Keep a record of your expenses ' I told him to keep a record of his expenses 'Don't make a mess in the kitchen I told him not to make a mess in the kitchen 'How do I prepare the sauce?

He wanted to know how to prepare the sauce

I want to speak to the manager She asked to speak to the manager

15.24 Form and use of the infinitive in indirect speech

15.24.1 The imperative: affirmative and negative Imperatives (usually orders, requests, advice, etc.) are reported with appropriate verbs followed by a to-infinitive. Commonly-used verbs (always followed by a personal object in indirect speech) are: advise ask instruct remind tell warn, etc. [> App 45.3]. In each case the reporting verb must match the function of the imperative (asking, telling, advising, etc.) [compare > 16.20-21]:

Keep a record of your expenses I said tell: I told him to keep a record of his expenses

Remember to switch off all the lights ' she said remind: She reminded me to switch off all the lights

When a negative imperative (e.g. Don t make a mess!) is reported, no' always goes before the to-infinitive [but compare > 16.14]:

She told 'asked'warned him not to make a mess in the kitchen Direct orders can also be reported with be to:

'Wait for me He says I am to wait for him He said I was to

When we use indirect speech

Or we can use the passive with verbs other than say: I have been told/was told to wait for him

Note the informal use of say in: He said (not) to wait for him

Ask, when a speaker is asking permission or making a request, may be followed by the infinitive:

/ asked to speak to the manager and by the passive infinitive [> 12.2]:

He asked to be kept informed about developments I asked for two items to be added to the list

15.24.2 The infinitive after question-words [compare > 16.24] Direct suggestions and requests for advice and information with Shall I ? Should I ?, Do you want me to ? etc. (expecting Yes/No answers) can be reported in two ways:

direct request: Shall/Should I phone her?' indirect request: He wanted to know if/whether he should

phone her whether + infinitive: He wanted to know whether to phone her

Requests, etc. with question-words can also be reported in two ways:

direct request: How shall I prepare the sauce?' indirect request: He wanted to know how he should

prepare it question-word + infinitive: He wanted to know how to prepare it

Other examples: when she should be/to be at the station where she should park/to park

She wanted to know which she should choose/to choose who(m) she should ask/to ask what she should do/to do

Note that why or if cannot be followed by a to-infinitive.

When we use indirect speech

15.25 Interpreting direct speech

Indirect speech requires a great deal more than the mechanical application of 'rules', for we must interpret what we hear or read before reporting it. We need to convey the manner in which the words were spoken or written. So, for example, stress and intonation in direct speech can be 'reported' by means of adverbs or emphatic reporting verbs, such as insist and suggest:

'You really must let me pay the bill,' Andrew said Andrew insisted on paying the bill. Why don't we go sailing?' Diana said Diana suggested they should go sailing. 'You've just won a lottery!' Tom said 'Really

9' Jennifer exclaimed

Jennifer was amazed when Tom told her that she had won a lottery.

15 Direct and indirect speech

15.26 Oral reporting

Oral reporting may be concerned with other people's conversations, gossip, instructions, conveying the gist of lectures and so on. In oral reporting, direct speech is often quoted and there may be sudden changes in the sequence of tenses. A few examples are:

15.26.1 Reporting everyday conversation

'Mrs Come asked me how we all are and I told her all our news Her eldest son has just got his exam results and has done very well, apparently "What do you expect?" I said to her, "he's always been a bright lad " "Oh, he is that," she says, "but he's really lazy " I told her I didn 't think he was lazy '

15.26.2 Passing on instructions

'The boss wants you to go to the airport to pick up the company s guests She says you 're to take the company car. Oh - and she asked me to tell you to phone if there are any flight delays '

15.26.3 Giving the gist of e.g. a lecture

'Or Barnaby gave us a very interesting talk on boat-building in ancient times. He explained how boat-building methods changed over a period of about 1500 years He also had some slides showing us how the ancient world lost most of its forests because so much wood was needed for boats. He began his talk by telling us about Ancient Greece at around 300 BC '

15.27 Written reporting

Written reporting includes newspaper reports, records of conferences, minutes of meetings, reports of debates and so on. Consistency in such matters as the sequence of tenses is carefully maintained, particularly in formal reporting. A few examples are:

15.27.1 Company reports

The Chairman opened his address to the shareholders by pointing out that pre-tax profits had fallen for the second year running, which was disappointing Market conditions were difficult for almost every company and the combination of high interest rates and the strong dollar had affected profit margins

15.27.2 Parliamentary reports

Mr Harry Greene said that airlines were losing money because of their cheap air fares policies We could only expect airlines to fail

unless they were supported by massive government grants 15.27.3 'Free indirect speech'

The following is an example of fiction in which indirect speech is freely

woven into the narrative to reveal a person's thoughts, motives, etc.:

Opening his case he found a handkerchief inside it It was certainly

not his for the initials M D B were stitched into the corner So that

was their little game, he thought Someone had opened his case to plant this evidence But how did they open the case? How did they

even know the case was his, he wondered, as he slowly unfolded the

dead man's handkerchief