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HIS
TO
RY
OF
RA
M -
RE
VO
LU
TIO
NA
RY
A
CT
ION
M
OV
EM
EN
T
Tab
le o
f C
onte
nts
Intr
oduc
tion
* c
Ear
ly B
egin
ning
s D
Dev
elop
men
t of
RA
M i
nto
a N
atio
nal
Org
aniz
atio
n 18
Mal
colm
X a
nd R
AM
2
3
Org
aniz
atio
nal
Act
ivit
ies o
f R
AM
- 19
64 t
o 1
965
28
Org
aniz
atio
nal
Act
ivit
ies
of
RA
M -
1966
to
196
8 3
1
Dis
solu
tion
of
RA
M
37
Con
clus
ion
41
Foo
tnot
es
44
Bib
liog
raph
y 4
5
Not
e:
Thi
s pa
per
was
adv
ance
d as
an
init
ial
Bla
ck S
tudi
esdo
cum
ent
and
ther
efor
e do
es n
ot
give
a c
ompl
ete
ac-
coun
t an
d an
alys
is o
f R
AM
's a
ctiv
itie
s.
INT
RO
DU
CT
ION
In
appr
oach
ing
a st
udy
of
RA
M
— t
he
Rev
olut
iona
ryA
ctio
n M
ovem
ent
— t
he
stuc
leru
of
hi
stor
y an
d po
liti
cal
scie
nce
need
s to
ide
ntif
y th
e m
odus
ope
rand
! of
stu
dyin
g th
eer
a th
at p
rodu
ced
it.
The
19
60's
is
uniq
ue i
n th
e se
nse
that
it
has
been
not
edas
an
era
of
poli
tica
l ac
tivi
sm p
arti
cula
rly
on
the
part
of
ala
rge
segm
ent
of
the
blac
k co
mm
unit
y. I
n th
e bl
ack
com
-m
unit
y am
ong
the
mas
ses,
the
196
0's
is r
emem
bere
d as
the
blac
k re
volu
tion
. T
here
ar
e se
vera
l th
ings
w
e m
ust
unde
r-st
and
in
our
stud
y of
th
e bl
ack
revo
luti
on i
n th
e 19
60's
.O
ne i
s th
at t
he 1
960'
s re
pres
ente
d a
clim
ax o
r hi
gh-n
de s
tage
in
the
cont
inuo
us s
trug
gle
of
Afr
ican
peo
ple
stri
ving
for
na-
tion
al l
iber
atio
n in
the
Uni
ted
Sta
tes.
The
19
60's
did
not
oc
cur
in a
vac
uum
nor
diii
the
mas
-si
ve r
esis
tanc
e st
age
subs
ide
beca
use
it w
as t
he e
nd o
f an
era
.T
hese
tw
o po
ints
are
im
port
ant
to r
emem
ber.
We
nvus
l vi
ewth
e bl
ack
revo
luti
on
in A
mer
ica
as a
con
tinu
ous
aist
oric
alpr
oces
s, t
akin
g m
any
twis
ts a
nd t
urns
, ha
ving
adv
ance
men
tsan
d se
tbac
ks,
empl
oyin
g di
ffer
ent
tact
ics
in
diff
eren
t his
-to
rica
l pe
riod
s. T
he
revo
luti
on,
beca
use
it fa
ced
a po
wer
ful
oppr
essi
ve
syst
em,
is a
pro
trac
ted
or
prol
onge
d st
rugg
le.
Itai
ms
to w
eake
n th
e sy
stem
, w
hich
is
both
rac
ist a
nd m
onop
-ol
y ca
pita
list
, be
fore
it
laun
ches
th
e m
ajor
thr
ust
in :
ne f
inal
blow
fo
r na
tion
al
libe
rati
on.
The
re
volu
tion
in
th
e '6
0's
wen
t th
roug
h th
ree
dist
inct
sta
ges:
a.
The
no
n-vi
olen
t di
rect
ac
tion
ph
ase
agai
nst
segr
egat
ion,
196
0-19
63.
-
b.
Th
e tr
ansi
tion
per
iod,
196
4-19
66.
—-
c.
The
ins
urre
ctio
nary
sta
ge,
1967
-196
9.In
the
ini
tial
sta
ges
of t
he b
lack
mov
emen
t in
the
six
ties
,it
s ce
nter
of
acti
vity
w
as in
the
sou
th. T
he m
ovem
ent
itil
i/ed
non-
viol
ent
dire
ct
acti
on
tact
ics
agai
nst
segr
egat
ed
publ
icfa
cili
ties
in
the
sou
th.
Sup
port
dem
onst
rati
ons
deve
lope
d in
the
nort
h pr
otes
ting
the
Jim
(/r
ow l
aws.
Tow
ards
tli
o en
d of
1963
, sp
onta
neou
s vi
olen
t de
mon
stra
tion
s oc
curr
ed
in
Jack
sonv
ille
, F
lori
da,
and
Phi
Ude
lphi
a,
Pen
n.
Sta
rtin
g in
1964
, sp
onta
neou
s vi
olen
t ui
bi'n
re
bell
ions
oc
curr
ed
inap
prox
imat
ely
five
nor
ther
n in
ner
citi
es.
Bet
wee
n 19
64
and
1906
the
for
m o
f m
ass
prot
est
bega
nto
ch
ange
fr
om
mas
s no
n-vi
olen
t de
mon
stra
tion
s ag
ains
t,se
greg
ated
fa
cili
ties
in
the
sout
h to
vio
lent
mas
s ur
ban
rebe
l-li
ons
agai
nst
the
capi
talL
si
:,\.-
iem
in
the
no
rth
. T
his
peri
odw
e'ca
ll t
he t
rans
itio
n pe
rit-
.i be
caus
e th
e tw
o fo
rms
of p
rote
stex
iste
d at
th
e sa
me
tim
e w
ith
non-
viol
ent
dem
onst
rati
ons
still
bei
ng t
he p
redo
min
ant
form
of
prot
est.
The
yea
r 19
67
repr
esen
ts a
dif
fere
nt s
tage
. In
thi
s ye
arov
er
200
citi
es h
ad r
epor
ts
of v
iole
nt r
ebel
lion
s. M
ass
spon
-ta
neou
s ur
ban
rebe
llio
ns c
onti
nued
unt
il
1969
, w
hen
they
seem
to
have
bee
n re
plac
ed b
y sn
ipin
g of
pol
ice
in
1970
.W
e sh
ould
re
mem
ber
that
th
e or
gani
zati
ons
and
per-
sona
liti
es
who
w
ere
the
mos
t re
volu
tion
ary
in
the
1960
'sw
ere
not
proj
ecte
d by
the
mas
s m
edia
and
are
pro
babl
y th
ele
ast
hear
d of
, an
d in
man
y ca
ses
they
hav
e be
en
purp
osel
y
wri
tten
out
of
hist
ory.
The
re
volu
tion
of
the
19G
O's
date
s ba
ck
to t
he M
ont-
gom
ery
boyc
ott.
O
n D
ecem
ber
1, 1
905
a bl
ack
seam
stre
ssna
med
M
rs.
Ros
a P
arks
ref
used
to
gi
ve
her
seat
to
a w
hite
man
bec
ause
she
was
too
tir
ed t
o st
and.
She
was
arr
este
d fo
rvi
olat
ing
the
city
's s
egre
gati
on l
aws.
Aft
er t
he a
rres
t, a
grou
pof
bl
ack
wom
en
aske
d m
inis
ters
and
ci
vic
lead
ers
to
call
abo
ycot
t on
Dec
embe
r 5,
the
day
of
Mrs
. P
arks
' tr
ial.
One
of
the
min
iste
rs w
ho r
espo
nded
to
that
cal
l w
as t
wen
ty-s
ix-y
ear-
old
Mar
tin
Lut
her
Kin
g, J
r.,
past
or
of M
ontg
omer
y's
Dex
ter
Ave
nue
Bap
tist
Chu
rch.
Fro
m
mas
s m
eeti
ngs,
the
Mon
tgom
-er
y Im
prov
emen
t A
ssoc
iati
on w
as f
orm
ed. T
he M
.I.A
. or
ga-
nize
d a
car
mot
or
pool
to
tran
spor
t br
othe
rs a
nd s
iste
rs w
holi
ved
too
far
to
wal
k ha
ck a
nd f
orth
to
wor
k. T
he M
.I.A
.'s
dem
ands
wer
e:a.
a
guar
ante
e of
cou
rteo
us
trea
tmen
tb.
pa
ssen
gers
to
be s
eate
d on
a f
irst
-com
e, f
irst
-se
rved
bas
is w
ith
blac
ks s
eati
ng f
rom
the
bac
k
c.
empl
oym
ent
of
i\egr
o dr
iver
s on
pr
edom
i-na
ntly
Neg
ro b
us r
oute
s.A
t m
ass
mee
ting
s D
r. M
arti
n L
uthe
r K
ing,
Jr.
em
erge
das
fli
c m
ain
mas
s le
ader
of
the
bo
yco
tt. M
ontg
omer
y fr
ied
tobr
eak
the
boyc
ott
but
afte
r a
year
of
stru
ggle
, th
e U
.S.
Su-
prem
e C
ourt
dec
lare
d A
laba
ma'
s si
,ate
and
loc
al l
aws
supp
ort-
ing
segr
egat
ion
on
buse
s un
cons
titu
tion
al. T
he M
ontg
omer
ybo
ycot
t se
rved
as
an
exam
ple
of
succ
essf
ul
mas
s di
rect
ac-
tion
. O
ther
com
mun
itie
s or
gani
/ed
sim
ilar
cam
paig
ns.
By
1957
D
r. K
ing
had
orga
nize
d SC
LC
(t
he
Sou
ther
nC
hris
tian
Lea
ders
hip
Con
fere
nce)
to d
evel
op t
he n
on-v
iole
ntm
ass
dire
ct
acti
on
mov
emen
t. B
y 19
58
smal
l non
-vio
lent
dem
onst
rati
ons
wer
e te
sted
in
diff
eren
t pl
aces
in
the
coun
try.
1960
ca
me
in w
ith
(.lie
aura
of
high
exp
ecta
tion
s fr
om b
lack
wor
king
cl
ass
stru
ggle
's fo
r na
tion
al
dem
ocra
tic
righ
ts.
On
Feb
ruar
y 1,
196
0,
four
fre
shm
en a
t A
& T
Col
lege
in
Gre
ens-
boro
, N
orth
Car
olin
a, s
at
in a
t a
Woo
lwor
th l
unch
cou
nter
dow
ntow
n, h
i a
mat
ter
of d
ays
the
idea
lea
ped
to o
ther
cit
ies
in N
orth
Car
olin
a. D
urin
g th
e ne
xt t
wo
wee
ks,
sit-
ins
spre
adto
fi
ftee
n ci
ties
in
five
sou
ther
n st
ates
. W
ithi
n th
e fo
llow
ing
year
, ov
er 5
0,00
0 pe
ople
— m
ost
wer
e bl
acks
, so
me
whi
te —
part
icip
ated
in
som
e ki
nd o
f de
mon
stra
tion
or
anot
her
in a
hund
red
citi
es a
nd
over
3,6
00 d
emon
stra
tors
sp
ent
tim
e in
jail
. In
a
year
, se
vera
l h
un
dre
d co
unte
rs h
ad
been
de
segr
e-ga
ted
in s
outh
ern
citi
es.
The
m
ain
cent
ers
of
prot
est
wer
e N
ashv
ille
. T
cnn.
,A
tlan
ta,
Ga.
, an
d O
rang
cbur
g, S
.C.
Nea
rly
1,30
0 ar
rest
s ha
d be
en
mad
e by
th
isti
me.
. .
. T
here
w
ere
400
arre
sts
in O
rang
ebur
g,ab
out
150
in N
ashv
ille
, ne
arly
40
in e
ach
of T
al-
laha
ssee
an
d F
lore
nce
(Sou
th
Car
olin
a),
abou
t80
in
Atl
anta
, ab
out
65 i
n M
emph
is a
nd n
earl
y85
in
Mar
shal
l, T
exas
. In
the
Nor
th, c
olle
ge s
tu-
dent
s st
aged
su
pp
ort
ing
dem
onst
rati
ons
and
rais
ed
fund
s fo
r ar
rest
ed
Sou
ther
n st
ud
ents
.T
lie
focu
s of
th
e si
t-in
s w
as
broa
deni
ng t
o
incl
ude
libr
arie
s, m
useu
ms,
and
art
gal
leri
es;
the
met
hods
.
. . w
ere
. . .
wad
e-in
s, s
tand
-ins
, kn
eel-
ins
and
othe
r fo
rms
of
non-
viol
ent
dire
ct
ac-
tion
.O
n A
pril
15,
a st
uden
t co
nfer
ence
was
cal
led
unde
r th
eau
spic
es o
f M
iss
Ell
a B
aker
, fi
eld
wor
ker
for
SCL
C.
.The
stu
-de
nts
form
ed
the
Stu
dent
N
on-V
iole
nt
Coo
rdin
atin
g C
om-
mit
tee
(SN
CC
).In
O
ctob
er
of
19U
O,
at a
stu
dent
con
fere
nce
of s
ever
alhu
ndre
d de
lega
tes
in
Atl
anta
, SN
CC
be
cam
e a
perm
anen
tor
gani
zati
on.
Thr
ough
out
1960
an
d ea
rly
1961
, SN
CC
de
mon
stra
ted
agai
nst
segr
egat
ion
in
publ
ic
faci
liti
es
in t
he
sout
h. I
n th
esp
ring
of
1961
, C
OR
E,
the
Con
gres
s of
Rac
ial
Equ
alit
y, d
e-ci
ded
to t
est
law
s pe
rtai
ning
to i
nter
-sta
te t
rave
l at
seg
rega
ted
term
inal
fac
ilit
ies
at b
us s
tati
ons.
As
whi
te
mob
s at
tack
ed
the
CO
RE
fr
eedo
m
ride
rs,
CO
RE
deci
ded
to e
nd
the
ride
s.
But
SN
CC
pi
cked
up
th
efr
eedo
m
ride
s an
d co
ntin
ued
them
thr
ough
out
the
spri
ng a
ndsu
mm
er o
f 19
61.
In t
he n
orth
, an
othe
r ty
pe o
f m
ass
mov
emen
t w
as d
evel
-op
ing.
It
was
the
Nat
ion
of I
slam
, le
d by
Eli
jah
Muh
amm
ad.
The
Nat
ion
of I
slam
, br
ande
d by
the
whi
te p
ress
as
the
Bla
ckM
usli
ms,
be
liev
ed
the
whi
te, m
an
was
the
de
vil,
advo
cate
dra
cial
sep
arat
ion
and
a bl
ack
nati
on i
n th
e so
uth,
and
pra
c-ti
ced
unar
med
se
lf-d
efen
se.
It
was
a'
reli
giou
s na
tion
alis
tm
ovem
ent
crea
ted
in 1
930
by W
alla
ce D
. F
ard.
Aft
er
Ear
d's
disa
ppea
ranc
e in
19
34,
Eli
jah
Mu
ham
mad
to
ok
over
th
eN
.O.I
, as
the
la
st m
esse
nger
of
All
ah.
The
m
ovem
ent
bega
nto
gr
ow
in t
he
late
fi
ftie
s,
whe
n M
alco
lm
X
was
rec
ruit
edan
d be
cam
e na
tion
al s
poke
sman
.So
tw
o m
ass
mo
vem
ents
wer
e de
velo
ping
— o
ne
inte
-gr
atio
nist
/non
-vio
lent
in
the
sou
th a
nd t
he o
ther
sep
arat
ion-
ist/
self
-def
ense
in
th
e no
rth.
B
oth
mov
emen
ts h
ad r
elig
ious
over
tone
s. T
he m
ovem
ent
in t
he s
outh
, ha
d st
rong
tie
s to
the
Bla
ck C
hris
tian
ch
urch
, an
d th
e no
rthe
rn m
ovem
ent
was
an
Isla
mic
mov
emen
t.A
th
ird
tren
d in
th
e m
ovem
ent
was
rep
rese
nted
by
Rob
ert
P.
Wil
liam
s.
Wil
liam
s in
19
57,
as p
resi
dent
of
th
eU
nion
Cou
nty,
N.C
., br
anch
o!
the
NA
AC
P, a
rmed
the
bla
ckco
mm
unit
y ag
ains
t K
KK
att
acks
. W
illi
ams
used
dir
ect
acti
onm
ass
dem
onst
rati
ons
of t
he i
nteg
rati
onis
ts b
ut h
is d
emon
stra
-ti
ons
wer
e pr
otec
ted
wit
h ar
med
gua
rds.
His
ope
n ad
voca
tion
of
arm
ed
self
-def
ense
an
d pu
blic
sta
tem
ents
of
"mee
t vi
o-le
nce
wit
h vi
olen
ce"
led
him
to
cl
ashe
s w
ith
the
nati
onal
lead
ersh
ip o
f th
e N
AA
CP.
Thi
s is
a b
rief
bac
kdro
p to
the
cli
mac
tic
even
ts t
hat
led
to
a ne
w
deve
lopm
ent
in t
he b
lack
lib
erat
ion
stru
ggle
. Thi
spa
per
is a
n in
com
plet
e an
alys
is o
f R
AM
— th
e R
evol
utio
nary
Act
ion
Mov
emen
t. It
is
hope
d it
wil
l be
the
bas
is f
or a
mor
eth
orou
gh s
tudy
in
the
futu
re a
nd w
ill
prov
ide
soci
al r
esea
rch-
ers
wit
h m
ater
ial
for
mak
ing
empi
rica
l st
udie
s of
the
sub
ject
mat
ter.
EA
RL
Y
BE
GIN
NIN
GS
The
R
evol
utio
nary
A
ctio
n M
ovem
ent
(RA
M)
evol
ved
from
the
sou
ther
n ci
vil
righ
ts m
ovem
ent
of t
he e
arly
19
GO
'san
d th
e bl
ack
nati
onal
ist
mov
emen
t in
jior
ther
n ci
ties
.A
s a
resu
lt
of
the
sit-
ins,
stu
dent
s in
no
rthe
rn
citi
esor
gani
zed
sym
path
y (s
uppo
rt)
dem
onst
rati
ons.
T
radi
tion
alci
vil
righ
ts o
rgan
izat
ions
lik
e th
e N
AA
CP
and
CO
RE
hel
dm
ass
rall
ies
in n
orth
ern
blac
k co
mm
unit
ies.
Bla
ck
and
whi
te
stud
ents
dem
onst
rate
d ag
ains
t W
ool-
wor
th s
tore
s an
d al
ong
wit
h pr
ogre
ssiv
e cl
ergy
led
eco
nom
icbo
ycot
ts.
Bla
ck
stud
ents
wit
h m
ore
radi
cal
lean
ings
in
the
nort
h,w
hile
su
ppor
ting
SN
CC
, ha
d a
tend
ency
to
reje
ct i
ts
non-
viol
ent
phil
osop
hy.
Som
e of
the
se s
tude
nts
join
ed
CO
RE
to
part
icip
ate
in d
irec
t ac
tion
act
ivit
ies.
In
the
sum
mer
of
19
61,
at
the
tim
e of
th
e fr
eedo
mri
des,
Rob
ert
F.
Wil
liam
s,
pres
iden
t of
th
e M
onro
e,
N.C
.,N
AA
CP,
iss
ued
a na
tion
-wid
e ca
ll fo
r A
fro-
Am
eric
ans
to a
rmfo
r se
lf-d
efen
se
and
go t
o M
onro
e fo
r a
show
dow
n w
ith
the
KK
K.2
W
illi
ams
also
ca
lled
fo
r fr
eedo
m
ride
rs
to
go
toM
onro
e to
tes
t no
n-vi
olen
ce.
Als
o w
ithi
n th
e w
hite
lef
t, T
he L
.I.D
.. T
he L
eagu
e fo
rIn
dust
rial
D
emoc
racy
, pl
anne
d to
fo
rm
a st
uden
t br
anch
call
ed
S.D
.S.
— S
tude
nts
for
a D
emoc
rati
c S
ocie
ty.
S.D
.S.
was
to
ho
ld
a co
nfer
ence
on
th
e ne
w
left
at
th
e N
.S.A
.(N
atio
nal
Stu
dent
Ass
ocia
tion
) co
nfer
ence
in
Mad
ison
, Wis
e.SN
CC
was
als
o re
pres
ente
d at
the
N.S
.A.
conf
eren
ce.
Dur
ing
the
conf
eren
ce,
new
s of
W
illi
ams'
flig
ht
into
exil
e re
ache
d m
ovem
ent,
circ
les.
D
iscu
ssio
ns a
mon
g bl
ack
SNC
C
and
CU
RIO
w
orke
rs
and
inde
pend
ent
blac
k ra
dica
lsto
ok
plac
e as
to
w
hat
sign
ific
ance
th
e ev
ents
in
M
onro
e,N
.C.,
had
for
the
mov
emen
t.B
lack
cad
re i
nsid
e of
S.D
.S.
met
and
dis
cuss
ed d
evel
op-
ing
a bl
ack
radi
cal
mov
emen
t th
at
wou
ld
crea
te c
ondi
tion
s
to m
ake
it f
avor
able
to
brin
g W
illi
ams b
ack
into
the
cou
ntry
.T
his
was
a s
mal
l m
eeti
ng o
f ab
out
four
peo
ple.
Don
ald
Free
-m
an,
a bl
ack
stud
ent
at
Cas
e W
este
rn
Res
erve
C
olle
ge
inC
leve
land
, O
hio,
sa
id
he
wou
ld
corr
espo
nd
wit
h ev
eryo
nean
d w
ould
de
cide
whe
n to
mee
t ag
ain.
One
of
thos
e pr
esen
tat
th
e m
eeti
ng
was
a s
tude
nt
at
Cen
tral
S
tate
C
olle
ge i
nW
ilbe
rfor
ce,
Ohi
o.D
urin
g th
e fa
ll of
19G
1 an
off
-cam
pus
chap
ter
of S
.D.S
.fo
rmed
at
C
entr
al
Sta
te,
call
ed
Cha
llen
ge.
Cha
llen
ge w
as a
blac
k ra
dica
l fo
rmat
ion
havi
ng n
o ba
sic
ideo
logy
. P
art
of i
tsm
embe
rshi
p w
as
stud
ents
w
ho
had
been
ex
pell
ed
from
sout
hern
sch
ools
for
sit
-in
dem
onst
rati
ons,
stu
dent
s w
ho h
adta
ken
free
dom
ri
des
and.
stu
dent
s fr
om
the
nort
h, s
ome
ofw
hom
had
bee
n m
embe
rs o
f th
e N
atio
n of
Isl
am a
nd A
fric
anna
tion
alis
t or
gani
zati
ons.
C
hall
enge
's
mai
n em
phas
is
was
stru
ggli
ng
for
mor
e st
uden
t ri
ghts
on
cam
pus
and
brin
ging
abl
ack
poli
tica
l aw
aren
ess
to
the
stud
ent
body
, fn
a y
ear-
long
batt
le
wit
h th
e co
lleg
e's
adm
inis
trat
ion
over
.st
uden
t ri
ghts
,m
embe
rs
of
Cha
llen
ge
beca
me
mor
e ra
dica
li/e
d. C
hall
enge
mem
bers
w
ould
att
end
stud
ent
conf
eren
ces
in t
he s
outh
and
part
icip
ate
in d
emon
stra
tion
s in
the
no
rth.
Fr
eem
an
wou
ldse
nd
lett
ers
to
the
Cha
llen
ge
cadr
e di
scus
sing
ide
olog
ical
aspe
cts
of t
he c
ivil
righ
ts m
ovem
ent.
In
the
spri
ng o
f 19
62,
Stud
ies
on
the
Lef
t, a
radi
cal
quar
terl
y,
publ
ishe
d H
arol
d C
ruse
's a
rtic
le,
"Rev
olut
iona
ryN
atio
nali
sm
and
the
Afr
o-A
mer
ican
."3
Fre
eman
w
rote
a
lett
er
to
the
Cha
llen
ge c
adre
tel
ling
the
m t
o se
riou
sly
stud
yth
e ar
ticl
e, l
ie a
lso
said
bla
ck r
adic
als
else
whe
re w
ere
stud
y-in
g th
e ar
ticl
e an
d th
at a
mov
emen
t ha
d to
be
crea
ted
in t
heno
rth
sim
ilar
to
the
Nat
ion
of
Isla
m,
usin
g th
e ta
ctic
s of
SNC
C b
ut o
utsi
de o
f th
e N
AA
CP
and
CO
RE
. T
he C
hall
enge
cadr
e st
udie
d F
reem
an's
let
ter
but
did
not
know
w
here
to
begi
n. Aft
er
muc
h di
scus
sion
, th
e ca
dre
deci
ded
to.
form
a
broa
d co
alit
ion
to
take
ove
r st
uden
t go
vern
men
t. M
eeti
ngs
wer
e he
ld
wit
h re
pres
enta
tive
s fr
om
each
cl
ass,
fr
ater
niti
es
and
soro
riti
es.
A s
late
was
dra
fted
an
d a
nam
e fo
r th
e Ji
arty
was
sel
ecte
d. I
t w
as c
alle
d H
AM
, la
ter
to.b
e kn
own_
as t
heR
evol
utio
nary
Act
ion
Mov
emen
t.T
he C
hall
enge
cad
re m
et a
nd d
ecid
ed t
o di
ssol
ve i
tsel
fin
to R
AM
and
be
com
e tin
.- R
AM
lea
ders
hip.
R
AM
jvo
n al
lst
uden
t go
vern
men
t of
fice
s.
Aft
er
the
elec
tion
, th
e in
ner
RA
M c
ore
disc
usse
d w
hat
to d
o n
ext.
Som
e sa
id t
hat
all
that
coul
d be
don
e at
Cen
tral
Sta
te h
ad a
lrea
dy o
ccur
red,
whi
leot
hers
dis
agre
ed.
Som
e of
the
inn
er c
ore
deci
ded
to s
tay
atC
entr
al S
tate
ari
d ru
n th
e st
uden
t go
vern
men
t, w
hile
a f
ewde
cide
d to
ret
urn
to t
heir
com
mun
itie
s an
d at
tem
pt t
o or
ga-
nize
aro
und
Fre
eman
's
basi
c ou
tlin
e. T
wo
of
the
retu
rnin
gst
uden
ts w
ere
Wan
da M
arsh
all a
nd M
ax
Sta
nfor
d.F
reem
an w
rote
to
Sta
nfor
d in
Phi
lade
lphi
a, s
ayin
g th
athe
was
goi
ng t
o Ph
ilad
elph
ia i
n th
e su
mm
er o
f 19
62 a
nd t
hat
he
wan
ted
him
to
or
gani
ze
a m
eeti
ng.
Fre
eman
w
ent
toPh
ilad
elph
ia a
nd m
et
wit
h a
grou
p of
Sta
nfor
d's
high
sch
ool
frie
nds.
He
disc
usse
d th
e m
ovem
ent
and
the
dire
ctio
n it
had
to
take
. L
ater
in
di
scus
sion
s w
ith
Sta
nfor
d,
Fre
eman
gav
ein
stru
ctio
ns t
hat
Phi
lade
lphi
a sh
ould
bec
ome
a pi
lot
proj
ect.
The
m
ovem
ent
wou
ld e
vent
uall
y lie
cal
led
[JA
M.
Fre
eman
cont
inue
d to
tra
vel
from
ci
ty t
o ci
ty.
In S
epte
mbe
r of
19G
2,S
tanf
ord
wen
t to
th
e N
atio
nal
Stu
dent
A
ssoc
iati
on
head
-qu
arte
rs
in
Phil
adel
phia
, w
here
iie
m
et
Mar
ion.
B
arry
fr
omSN
CC
, w
ho w
as i
n Ph
ilad
elph
ia t
o he
lp r
aise
fun
ds C
or S
NC
C.
Wan
da M
arsh
all
tran
sfer
red
to T
empl
e U
nive
rsit
y an
d be
gan
wor
king
wit
h bl
ack
stud
ents
the
re.
In t
he p
roce
ss o
f w
orki
ng w
ith
SNC
C,
Sta
nfor
d m
et t
hebl
ack
left
in
P
hila
delp
hia.
One
ac
quai
ntan
ce w
as B
ill D
avis
,w
ho w
as l
eade
r of
an
inde
pend
ent
blac
k M
arxi
st c
adre
cal
led
O.A
. (O
rgan
izat
ion
Ale
rt).
A
lso
duri
ng
this
ti
me
Sta
nfor
dha
d di
scus
sion
s w
ith
Mar
ion
Har
ry a
bout
the
dir
ecti
on o
f th
em
ovem
ent.
One
nig
ht w
hile
lis
teni
ng t
o th
e di
scus
sion
in
the
N.S
.A.
offi
ce,
Mis
s El
la
Bak
er e
ncou
rage
d S
tanf
ord
to c
on-
tinu
e to
dev
elop
his
ide
as.
Aft
er
Mar
ion
Har
ry
left
P
hila
delp
hia,
liil
l D
avis
ask
ed
8
Sta
nfor
d to
joi
n O
.A.
Sta
nfor
d w
rote
F
reem
an
abo
ut
O.A
.an
d F
reem
an
deci
ded
to n
ivet
wit
h D
avis
. Fr
eem
an
wen
t to
Phi
lade
lphi
a in
Oct
ober
of
19
62 a
nd
afte
r lo
ng d
iscu
ssio
nsw
ith
Dav
is t
old
Sta
nfor
d th
at O
.A.
was
too
int
elle
ctua
l and
not
acti
on-o
rien
ted
enou
gh.
Fre
eman
had
org
aniz
ed t
he A
fri-
can
Am
eric
an
Inst
itut
e in
C
leve
land
. M
e w
as a
lso
a sc
hool
teac
her
in t
he C
leve
land
sch
ool
syst
em,
lie
told
Sta
nfor
d th
athe
had
to
star
t so
met
hing
ind
epen
dent
of
O.A
. S
tanf
ord
was
still
not
con
vinc
ed.
Fre
eman
lef
t an
d re
turn
ed t
o C
leve
land
.D
urin
g a
mee
ting
of
O.A
., D
avis
har
shly
cri
tici
zed
SNC
Can
d sa
id
that
SN
CC
w
ould
ne
ver
chan
ge.
Sta
nfor
d op
pose
dth
at
posi
tion
, sa
ying
th
at
SNC
C
was
at
the
cent
er o
f th
em
ovem
ent
and
even
ts w
ould
for
ce S
NC
C t
o ch
ange
. The
dis
-cu
ssio
n en
ded
in
a he
ated
de
bate
. S
tanf
ord
disc
usse
d th
ede
bate
w
ith
Wan
da M
arsh
all
of t
he o
rigi
nal
RA
M c
adre
, w
hoha
d to
ref
use
to j
oin
O.A
.D
urin
g th
e T
hank
sgiv
ing
brea
k, M
arsh
all
wen
t ho
me
toW
hite
Pla
ins,
New
Yor
k, a
nd S
tanf
ord
visi
ted
her.
He
deci
ded
to v
isit
Mal
colm
X t
o as
k hi
m i
f he
sho
uld
join
the
Nat
ion
ofIs
lam
. M
arsh
all
and
Sta
nfor
d m
et
wit
h M
inis
ter
Mal
colm
at
the
Sha
bazz
Res
taur
ant
in N
ew Y
ork.
Aft
er a
len
gthy
bla
ckhi
stor
y le
sson
by
Min
iste
r Mal
colm
, S
tanf
ord
aske
d M
alco
lmif
he s
houl
d jo
in
the
Nat
ion
of
Isla
m.
Mal
colm
, to
his
sur
-pr
ise,
sai
d no
. H
e sa
id,
"You
ca
n do
mor
e fo
r th
e ho
nora
ble
Eli
jah
Muh
amm
ad b
y or
gani
zing
out
side
of
the
Nat
ion.
"M
inis
ter
Mal
colm
's
stat
emen
ts c
onvi
nced
M
arsh
all
and
Sta
nfor
d to
do
in
depe
nden
t or
gani
zing
. S
tanf
ord
draf
ted
apo
siti
on p
aper
tit
led
"Ori
enta
tion
to
a B
lack
Mas
s M
ovem
ent,
part
1"
and
circ
ulat
ed i
t am
on
g th
e bl
ack
left
in
Phil
adel
phia
.H
e w
ent
to
visi
t M
rs.
Eth
el
John
son,
who
had
be
en
a co
-w
orke
r w
ith
Rob
ert
Wil
liam
s in
Mon
roe,
N.C
., an
d w
ho w
asth
en
resi
ding
in
Phi
lade
lphi
a. M
rs.
John
son
read
th
e pa
per
and
late
r to
ld S
tanf
ord
she
wou
ld h
elp
him
org
aniz
e.F
reem
an
retu
rned
to
Ph
ilad
elph
ia
for
the
Chr
istm
asho
lida
ys.
At
a m
eeti
ng w
ith
Mar
shal
l, he
har
angu
ed
Stan
ford
for
not
havi
ng o
rgan
ized
. It
was
dec
ided
at
tha
t m
eeti
ng t
o
orga
nize
a s
tudy
gro
up i
n Ja
nuar
v of
196
3.
Tow
ards
the
end
of
1962
, M
arsh
all
and
Sta
nfor
d ca
lled
to
geth
er
a gr
oup
ofbl
ack
acti
vist
s to
dis
cuss
or
gani
zing
aro
und
orie
ntat
ion
to a
blac
k m
ass
mov
emen
t.W
ithi
n a
mon
th's
tim
e, k
ey. b
lack
act
ivis
ts c
ame
into
the
stud
y gr
oup.
Tw
o ce
ntra
l t.
gure
s w
ere
Sta
n D
anie
ls a
nd P
Jay-
thel
l B
enja
min
. T
he g
roup
dec
ided
to
call
itsel
f R
AM
— R
evo-
luti
onar
y A
ctio
n M
ovem
ent.
It d
ecid
ed i
t w
ould
be
a bl
ack
nati
onal
ist
dire
ct a
ctio
n or
gani
zati
on.
Its
purp
ose
wou
ld
beto
st
art
a m
ass
blac
k na
tion
alis
t m
ovem
ent.
By
usin
g m
ass
dire
ct
acti
on
com
bine
d w
ith
the
tact
ics
of s
elf-
defe
nse,
it
hope
d to
cha
nge
the
civi
l ri
ghts
mov
emen
t in
to a
bla
ck r
evo-
luti
on.
RA
M d
ecid
ed
to w
ork
wit
h th
e es
tabl
ishe
d ci
vil
righ
tsle
ader
ship
in
P
hila
delp
hia
and
even
tual
ly
buil
d a
base
for
mas
s su
ppor
t.R
AM
con
tact
ed R
ev.
Loo
n Su
lliv
an a
nd v
olun
teer
ed
tohe
lp o
rgan
ize
wit
h th
e m
ass
sele
ctiv
e bo
ycot
ts t
he P
hila
del-
phia
m
inis
ters
w
ere
cond
ucti
ng
agai
nst
indu
stri
es t
hat
dis-
crim
inat
ed i
n th
eir
hinn
g pr
acti
ces.
RA
M
dist
ribu
ted
leaf
lets
in
the
tens
of
thou
sand
s do
orto
do
or
thro
ugho
ut t
he c
omm
unit
y. I
n th
e ea
rly
mon
ths
of19
63
a ne
w
Phi
lade
lphi
a N
AA
CP
pres
iden
t w
as
elec
ted
nam
ed C
ecil
Moo
re,
an a
ttor
ney
who
was
dir
ect-
acti
on p
rone
.T
empl
e U
nive
rsit
y in
itia
ted
a pi
lot
proj
ect
call
ed
PCA
,co
mpo
sed
of
w.'n
tc l
iber
als
who
ha
d be
en
give
n a
gran
t of
one
mil
lion
do
llar
s to
st
udy
nort
h P
hila
delp
hia.
No
blac
kpe
ople
fr
om
the
com
mu
nit
y w
ere
incl
uded
on
the
com
mis
-si
on.
The
NA
AC
P de
cide
d to
hol
d a
mas
s ra
lly
to p
rote
st t
heco
mm
issi
on.
Moo
re
aske
d al
l co
mm
unit
y gr
oups
to
he
lp i
nor
gani
zing
the
pro
ject
.T
he
RA
M a
ctio
n st
udy
grou
p im
med
iate
ly
beca
me
in-
volv
ed.
RA
M n
umbe
rs c
ircu
late
d th
roug
h no
rth
Phi
lade
lphi
ast
reet
s w
ith
hom
emad
e lo
ud s
peak
ers,
hol
ding
str
eet
mee
ting
sar
id
hand
ing
out
leaf
lets
. R
AM
mem
bers
wen
t in
to t
he b
ars
and
pool
roo
ms
hold
ing
rap
sess
ions
.T
he
rall
y w
as a
tot
al s
ucce
ss.
But
all
the
pett
y bo
urge
ois
10
lead
ersh
ip
did
was
giv
e fl
ower
y sp
eec.
'ics.
The
w
eek
foll
ow-
ing,
th
e N
AA
CP
and
RA
M
pick
eted
th
e P
CA
off
ices
. F
orso
me
reas
on t
he N
AA
CP
call
ed o
ff t
he p
icke
ting
and
not
too
muc
h ca
me
of t
he p
rote
st.
RA
M
mem
bers
fe
lt
the
mov
emen
t ne
eded
a v
oice
tha
tw
as
inde
pend
ent
of
the
exis
ting
civ
il ri
ghts
gro
ups.
R
AM
asse
ssed
all
the
civi
l ri
ghts
gro
ups
exce
pt S
NC
C a
s bo
urge
ois
and
also
ana
ly/e
d I. h
e N
atio
n of
Is
lam
as
havi
ng a
bou
rgeo
isor
ient
atio
n.
It
was
tho
ught
th
at
a bl
ack
radi
cal
publ
icat
ion
shou
ld
be c
reat
ed.
RA
M b
egan
pub
lish
ing a
bim
onth
ly c
alle
dB
lack
A
mer
ica.
To
begi
n to
ag
itat
e th
e m
asse
s, R
AM
cir
cu-
late
d a
free
on
e-pa
ge n
ewsl
ette
r ca
lled
R
AM
Sp
eaks
. R
AM
.Spe
aks
addr
esse
d it
self
to
lo
cal
issu
es a
nd
issu
es
that
w
ere
cons
tant
ly a
risi
ng i
n th
e m
ovem
ent.
Bla
ck A
mer
ica
was
mor
eth
eore
tica
l. M
embe
rs o
f R
AM
wen
t on
rad
io a
nd p
ubli
cize
dth
eir
stud
y gr
oup
and
prog
ram
.A
s m
ore
com
mu
nit
y pe
ople
jo
ined
(h
e R
AM
st
udy
grou
p,
the
clas
s an
d ag
e co
mpo
siti
on
of
the
stud
y gr
oup
chan
ged
from
ba
sica
lly
stud
ents
in
thei
r ea
rly
20's
to
blac
kw
orki
ng c
lass
int
o th
e ea
rly
30's.
RA
M d
ecid
ed t
o be
gin
mas
s re
cru
itm
ent.
The
org
aniz
a-ti
on
bega
n to
ho
ld
mas
s st
reet
m
eeti
ngs
in N
orth
Ph
ilad
el-
phia
. Fr
ee
wee
kly
Afr
ican
and
Afr
o-A
mer
ican
his
tory
cla
sses
wer
e he
ld,
taug
ht b
y P
layt
hell
B
enja
min
, a
youn
g se
lf-e
du-
cate
d hi
stor
ian.
Oth
er m
eeti
ngs
wou
ld d
iscu
ss b
uild
ing
RA
Min
to a
mas
s m
ovem
ent.
Thr
ough
it
s pu
blic
atio
n, B
lack
Am
eric
a, H
AM
beg
an t
oco
mm
unic
ate
wit
h ot
her
new
nat
iona
list
for
mat
ions
. In
San
Fra
ncis
co,
Don
ald
War
den
had
star
ted
the
Afr
o-A
mer
ican
Ass
ocia
tion
. In
D
etro
it,
Luk
e T
ripp
, Jo
hn W
illi
ams,
Cha
rles
(Mao
) Jo
hnso
n,
Gen
eral
B
aker
an
d (J
wen
K
emp
wer
e th
ele
ader
ship
of
U'l
l'R
U,
and
Fre
eman
had
org
aniz
ed t
he A
fro-
Am
eric
an
Inst
itut
e in
Cle
vela
nd. S
terl
ing
Slu
ckey
, T
hom
asH
igge
nbot
tom
an
d Jo
hn
Bra
cey,
Jr
., ha
d fo
rmed
N
.A.O
.,N
atio
nal
Afr
o-A
mer
ican
Org
aniz
atio
n, i
n C
hica
go, a
nd
ther
ew
as
a bl
ack
cult
ural
g
rou
p in
N
ew
Yor
k ca
lled
U
mbr
a. 11
Sta
nfor
d w
ould
tra
vel
arou
nd o
n w
eeke
nds
in t
he s
outh
and
acro
ss t
he n
orth
to
keep
in
touc
h w
ith
new
dev
elop
men
ts.
SNC
C b
egan
mob
iliz
ing
blac
ks i
n m
ass
vote
r re
gist
rati
onm
arch
es i
n G
reen
woo
d, M
issi
ssip
pi.
Mis
siss
ippi
sta
te t
roop
ers
atta
cked
th
e de
mon
stra
tors
an
d m
asse
s w
ere
bein
g ja
iled
.T
hen
cam
e th
e m
ass
dem
onst
rati
ons
in
Bir
min
gham
. T
hem
ovem
ent
seri
ousl
y be
gan
to j
ell,
as t
he m
ood
of b
lack
peo
-pl
e in
the
nor
th b
ecam
e an
gry.
The
N
AA
CP
calle
d a
mas
s de
mon
stra
tion
in
fro
nt o
fP
hila
delp
hia'
s C
ity
Hal
l in
whi
ch R
AM
par
tici
pate
d, c
arry
ing
sign
s ca
llin
g fo
r ar
med
se
lf-d
efen
se.
NA
AC
P pr
esid
ent
Cec
il M
oore
de
cide
d to
te
st
mas
sdi
rect
act
ion
in P
hila
delp
hia
by p
rote
stin
g ag
ains
t un
ion
dis-
crim
inat
ion
on
a co
nstr
ucti
on
site
...at
30
tli
jmcL
Dau
phi.
nS
tree
ts i
n th
e he
art
of t
he b
lack
com
mun
ity
in N
orth
Phi
la-
delp
hia.
H
e as
ked
RA
M
to
help
in
th
e rn
obil
i/at
ion.
The
cons
truc
tion
sit
e w
as i
n R
AM
ter
rito
ry,
thre
e bl
ocks
fro
m i
tsof
fice
. M
oore
mad
e N
AA
CP
equi
pmen
t, av
aila
ble-
to R
AM
.R
AM
im
med
iate
ly
Look
a
surv
ey
of
the
com
mun
ity,
aski
ng
resi
dent
s if
th
ey
wou
ld s
uppo
rt
dem
onst
rati
ons
inPh
ilad
elph
ia s
imil
ar t
o th
e on
es b
eing
hel
d in
the
sou
th.
The
over
whe
lmin
g re
spon
se w
as "
Yes
." R
AM
mem
bers
cir
cula
ted
thro
ugho
ut
the
com
mu
nit
y w
ith
leaf
lets
an
d bu
ll
horn
s,go
ing
door
to
door
, ta
lkin
g to
str
eet
gang
s.T
he
dem
onst
rati
on
was
sch
edul
ed
to
star
t at
6
a.m
.,M
ay
27th
, 19
53.
RA
M l
eade
rs S
tan
Dan
iels
and
Max
Sta
n-fo
rd
join
ed
the
pick
et l
ine,
w
hich
bl
ocke
d th
e w
orke
rs,
all
whi
tes,
fro
m
ente
ring
the
con
stru
ctio
n si
te.
Wit
hin
min
utes
the
Phi
lade
lphi
a po
lice
fo
rmed
a
flyi
ng w
edge
and
at
tack
edth
e pi
cket
li
ne.
Sin
glin
g ou
t D
anie
ls a
nd S
tanf
ord,
tw
enty
poli
ce j
um
ped
the
m a
s th
ey f
ough
t un
til u
ncon
scio
us.
As
wor
d sp
read
th
roug
hout
th
e co
mm
unit
y,
mas
ses
wen
t to
th
e co
nstr
ucti
on s
ite.
D
anie
ls
and
Sta
nfor
d w
ere
arre
sted
. In
th
e po
lice
st
atio
n,
Sta
nfor
d as
ked
to
mak
e a
phon
e ca
ll.
lie
call
ed M
inis
ter
Mal
colm
X a
nd t
old
him
wha
tha
d ha
ppen
ed.
Mal
colm
pr
omis
ed
to
publ
iciz
e w
hat
was
12
happ
enin
g in
Phi
lade
lphi
a. H
e w
ent
on t
he r
adio
tha
t ni
ght
in
New
Y
ork
and
trav
eled
to
P
hila
delp
hia
two
days
lal
.cr,
spea
king
on
radi
o ag
ain.
Wor
d sw
op',
not
only
Phi
lade
lphi
abu
t th
e en
tire
Eas
t C
oast
. W
ithi
n a
wee
k, 5
0,00
0 to
100
,000
peop
le p
arti
cipa
ted
in d
emon
stra
tion
s th
at o
ften
tur
ned
into
viol
ent
clas
hes
betw
een
the
mas
ses
and
the
poli
ce.
The
pr
es-
sure
bec
ame
too
muc
h fo
r th
e N
AA
CP
, an
d th
ey c
alle
d of
fth
e pr
otes
ts.
The
wor
d R
AM
had
bec
ome
know
n am
ong
blac
k ra
dica
lci
rcle
s in
the
n
ort
h.
The
May
dem
onst
rati
ons
wer
e th
e fi
rst
mas
s br
eakt
hrou
gh
in t
he n
orth
of
mas
s in
volv
emen
t.T
he n
atio
nal
NA
AC
P co
nven
tion
was
bei
ng h
eld
in C
hi-
cago
du
ring
th
e su
mm
er o
f 19
63.
Moo
re
deci
ded
to
take
Sta
n D
anie
ls a
nd M
ax S
tanf
ord
"to
keep
the
m o
ut o
f tr
oubl
ew
hile
I'm
gon
e."
Sta
nfor
d an
d D
anie
ls s
lopp
ed t
hrou
gh C
leve
land
on
the
way
to
Chi
cago
. T
here
(h
oy
conf
erre
d w
ith
Fre
eman
, w
hode
cide
d to
dr
ive
into
C
hica
go a
nd
intr
oduc
e D
anie
ls
and
Sta
nfor
d to
the
cad
re t
here
.T
here
was
gen
eral
di
scus
sion
of
wha
t ha
d be
en s
tart
edin
Phi
lade
lphi
a an
d (h
en
the
disc
ussi
on c
ente
red
aro
un
d w
hat
coul
d be
don
e in
Chi
cago
. S
omeo
ne
men
tion
ed t
hat
May
orD
aley
and
Rev
eren
d Ja
ckso
n (h
ead
of t
he B
apti
st c
onve
ntio
nw
ho h
ad p
ubli
cly
den
ou
nce
d D
r. M
arti
n L
uth
er K
ii'iij
, Jr.
and
civi
l ri
ghts
de
mon
stra
tion
s)
wer
e go
ing
to
spea
k at
th
eN
AA
CP
rall
y th
at S
atur
day.
It w
as d
ecid
ed
that
the
cad
re w
ould
org
aniz
e co
mm
uni-
ty s
uppo
rt t
o pr
otes
t ag
ains
t D
aley
, and
Dan
iels
and
Sta
nfor
dw
ould
org
aniz
e th
e yo
uth
insi
de t
he N
AA
CP
conv
enti
on.
Dan
iels
and
Sta
nfor
d st
oppe
d an
NA
AC
P Y
outh
dan
ce.
The
y ca
lled
fo
r su
ppor
t of
th
e up
com
ing
dem
onst
rati
on.
NA
AC
P of
fici
als
beca
me,
ala
rmed
an
d st
oppe
d th
em
from
spea
king
. T
he C
hica
go c
adre
in
the
mea
ntim
e co
ntac
ted
acti
-vi
sts
and
othe
rs i
n th
e co
mm
unit
y ab
ou
t th
e de
mon
stra
tion
,w
hich
was
sch
edul
ed
for
July
4th
. Lea
flet
s w
ere
hand
ed o
uton
the
str
eets
, sub
way
s an
d bu
ses.
13
The
N
AA
CP
rail
y pr
ocee
ded
as
plan
ned,
w
ith
top
NA
AC
P pe
ople
in
att
enda
nce.
To
keep
the
N
AA
CP
You
thfr
om
part
icip
atin
g in
the
dem
onst
rati
on, t
he t
op b
rass
had
all
the
yout
h de
lega
tes
sit
on s
tage
wit
h th
em.
May
or D
aley
was
intr
oduc
ed.
Dem
onst
rato
rs
mar
chin
g fr
om
the
back
of
th
epa
rk b
egan
bo
oing
Dal
ey.
The
boo
ing
was
so
loud
tha
t D
aley
coul
dn't
fini
sh
spea
king
; he
be
cam
e an
gry
and
left
. T
hen
Rev
eren
d Ja
ckso
n (h
ead
of t
he N
atio
nal
Bap
tist
con
vent
ion)
was
an
noun
ced
next
to
sp
eak.
A
s Ja
ckso
n ap
proa
ched
th
epo
dium
, th
e de
mon
stra
tors
be
gan
to
chan
t, "U
ncle
T
oms
Mus
t G
o."
The
aud
ienc
e pi
cked
up
the
chan
t.
Dem
onst
rato
rsch
arge
d th
e st
age.
25
,000
be
cam
e en
rage
d an
d a
full
-sca
leri
ot
brok
e ou
t as
the
m
asse
s ch
ased
Ja
ckso
n of
f th
e st
age
into
a w
aiti
ng c
ar t
hat
sped
him
off
to
safe
ty.
It w
as d
ecid
ed b
y th
e ca
dre
to g
et D
anie
ls a
nd S
tanf
ord
out
of t
own
imm
edia
tely
bec
ause
the
cit
y m
ight
bri
ng i
ncit
-in
g to
ri
ot
char
ges
agai
nst
them
. D
anie
ls w
as s
ent
back
to
Phil
adel
phia
an
d S
tanf
ord
to
Cle
vela
nd.
In C
leve
land
, Fr
ee-
man
tol
d S
tanf
ord
to g
o to
Det
roit
to
chec
k on
UII
UR
U a
ndto
hel
p th
em g
et t
hing
s go
ing.
In
Det
roit
, S
tanf
ord
met
wit
hU
IIU
RU
and
tol
d th
em w
hat
had
tran
spir
ed i
n C
hica
go.
A
blac
k pr
osti
tute
nam
ed C
ynth
ia S
cott
had
be
en s
hot
in
the
back
by
a
whi
te
poli
cem
an
and
kill
ed
the
prev
ious
wee
kend
. U
IIU
RU
de
cide
d to
hol
d a
rall
y an
d pr
otes
t de
m-
onst
rati
on i
n fr
ont
of t
he p
reci
nct o
f th
e gu
ilty
cop
. U
IUJR
Uap
proa
ched
G
.O.A
.L.,
a bl
ack
nati
onal
ist
civi
l ri
ghts
gro
up,
for
help
in
tii
e de
mon
stra
tion
. W
ithi
n tw
o w
eeks
, m
arch
esw
ere
orga
ni/o
d ag
ains
t, th
e pr
ecin
ct w
ith
the
com
mu
nit
ypa
rtic
ipat
ing
in t
he t
hous
ands
.S
tanf
ord
retu
rned
to
C
leve
land
and
rep
orte
d w
hat
was
deve
lopi
ng
in D
etro
it.
Fro
m C
leve
land
he
retu
rned
to
Phil
a-de
lphi
a. By
mid
-Jul
y, l
ocal
gr
ass
root
s ac
tivi
sts
wer
e ta
lkin
gab
out
mar
chin
g on
W
ashi
ngto
n an
d br
ingi
ng W
ashi
ngto
n to
a st
ands
till
.F
reem
an
deci
ded
the
tim
e ha
d co
me
to c
all
the
vari
ous
14
revo
luti
onar
y na
tion
alis
t ca
dres
tog
ethe
r in
wha
t w
as c
alle
da
Bla
ck
Van
guar
d C
onfe
renc
e.
The
B
lack
Van
guar
d C
onfe
r-en
ce w
as t
o be
a s
ecre
t, al
l-bl
ack,
; ll
-mal
e co
nfer
ence
to
draf
tst
rate
gy
for
the
prop
osed
mar
ch o
n W
ashi
ngto
n an
d di
rect
ion
of
the
mov
emen
t. T
he
conf
eren
ce
-vas
hel
d in
ear
ly A
ugus
tin
C
leve
land
, O
hio.
A
ctiv
ists
at
tend
ed
from
C
hica
go,
New
Yor
k, P
hila
delp
hia
and
Cle
vela
nd. D
etro
it w
as b
arre
d be
caus
eof
a s
ecur
ity
leak
in
the
cadr
e th
ere.
Fre
eman
pr
esid
ed
over
th
e co
nfer
ence
. D
iscu
ssio
nce
nter
ed
arou
nd c
hang
ing
the
exis
ting
civ
il ri
ghts
m
ovem
ent
into
a r
evol
utio
nary
na
tion
alis
t m
ovem
ent.
It
was
dis
cuss
edth
at
the
cadr
e co
uld
achi
eve
this
by
infi
ltra
ting
the
exi
stin
gci
vil
righ
ts
grou
ps
and
also
by
pr
ovid
ing
a le
ft a
lter
nati
vefr
om
outs
ide
of
the
exis
ting
civ
il ri
ghts
gr
oups
(C
OR
E,
SNC
C,
NA
AC
P,
SC
LC
). T
he m
arch
on
Was
hing
ton
was
als
odi
scus
sed.
It
was
de
cide
d (h
at a
n or
gani
/er
wou
ld
be
sent
into
Was
hing
ton
prio
r to
the
mar
ch
lo d
ecid
e w
hat
kind
of
ast
rate
gy t
he c
adre
sho
uld
lake
dur
ing
I he
mar
ch.
Dur
ing
the
disc
ussi
on
on
wha
t fo
rm
the
coal
itio
n of
acti
vist
s sh
ould
ta
ke,
the
begi
nnin
gs o
f an
id
eolo
gica
l spl
item
erge
d.
Chi
cago
an
d N
ew
Yor
k fa
vore
d us
ing
the
nam
eR
AM
—
Rev
olut
iona
ry A
ctio
n M
ovem
ent
— s
ince
RA
M
had
esta
blis
hed
a m
ass
brea
kthr
ough
. Tho
se a
dvoc
atin
g th
is p
osi-
tion
w
ante
d a
tigh
t-kn
it s
truc
ture
bas
ed
on d
isci
plin
ed c
ells
,w
ith
rule
s an
d or
gani
zati
on
base
d on
dem
ocra
tic
cent
rali
sm.
Free
man
ar
gued
ag
ains
t th
is p
osit
ion
and
advo
cate
d a
loos
eco
alit
ion
call
ed
the
Bla
ck
Lib
erat
ion
Fro
nt.
Phil
adel
phia
vote
d w
ith
Fre
eman
, an
d be
caus
e F
reem
an
had
mor
e ex
peri
-en
ce t
han
mos
t of
the
act
ivis
ts th
ere,
the
res
t vo
ted
on c
alli
ngth
e ga
ther
ing
the
Bla
ck L
iber
atio
n F
ron
t. C
hica
go a
lso
rais
edth
e qu
esti
on o
f w
heth
er t
he
BL
F sh
ould
be
a M
arxi
st-L
enin
-is
t fo
rmat
ion,
but
th
ere
was
no
cons
ensu
s or
agr
eem
ent,
so i
tw
as d
ecid
ed t
hat
the
BL
F w
ould
be
revo
luti
onar
y na
tion
alis
t.A
t th
e M
arch
on
Was
hing
ton,
the
cadr
e ag
ain
met
. T
heB
LF
orga
nize
r w
ho
had
been
se
nt
to
Was
hing
ton
repo
rted
that
the
mar
ch d
idn'
t ha
ve s
uppo
rt f
rom
the
maj
orit
y of
the 15
blac
k co
mm
unit
y th
ere;
fro
m
his
conv
ersa
tion
s w
ith
peop
leon
the
str
eet,
man
y di
dn''
know
a m
arch
w
as b
eing
pla
nned
1'or
D.C
. It
w
as a
lso
ob:,
-rve
d th
at
the
arm
y w
as p
oste
d at
stra
tegi
c pl
aces
in
the
'-it
y an
d w
as o
n al
ert
to
mov
e in
in
case
of
tr
oubl
e. O
n t!
'o
basi
s of
th
e re
port
, it
was
dec
ided
just
to
part
icip
ate
in 1
'ie m
arch
and
obs
erve
.B
y ch
ance
, w
hs!-
- ca
dres
wer
e ha
ndin
g ou
t le
afle
ts i
n th
eco
mm
unit
y,
they
ra
n in
to
Don
ald
War
den,
w
ho
was
the
nch
airm
an o
f th
e A
AA
(A
fro-
Am
eric
an
Ass
ocia
tion
). A
mee
t-in
g w
as s
et u
p w
ith
War
den,
who
ran
dow
n w
hat
the
AA
Aw
as
abou
t fo
r ab
out
2V-J
hour
s.
Aft
er
the
mee
ting
it
was
deci
ded
that
the
cad
re w
ould
sta
y in
tou
ch w
ith
War
den,
but
Fre
eman
con
clud
ed
that
War
den
was
a b
ourg
eois
nat
iona
list
.It
was
dec
ided
tha
t th
e ca
dre
wou
ld g
o ba
ck t
o th
eir
resp
ec-
tive
loc
ales
and
bui
ld b
ases
.Se
vera
l ev
ents
oc
curr
ed
whi
ch s
hape
d th
e ci
vil
righ
tsm
ovem
ent
and
late
r th
e bl
ack
libe
rati
on m
ovem
ent.
One
was
the
bom
bing
of
four
bl
ack
sist
ers
in a
chu
rch
in B
irm
ingh
am,
Ala
bam
a. T
he n
ews
of t
his
both
ang
ered
the
bla
ck c
om
mu
ni-
ty
and
seni
w
aves
of
dem
oral
izat
ion
insi
de
the
civi
l ri
ghts
mov
emen
t. It
w
as
like
a
mor
tal
blow
af
ter
the
Mar
ch o
nW
ashi
ngto
n. T
hen
cam
e th
e as
sass
inat
ion
of J
ohn
Ken
nedy
,pr
esid
ent
of
the
U.S
. M
any
Neg
roes
acr
oss
the
coun
try
felt
they
had
los
t a
frie
nd.
To
the
cadr
e, t
he u
ltra
-rig
ht h
ad m
ade
a m
ove. M
alco
lm X
, sp
eaki
ng t
he S
unda
y af
ter
the
assa
ssin
atio
n,m
ade
refe
renc
e to
th
e K
enne
dy
assa
ssin
atio
n as
"ch
icke
nsco
min
g ho
me
to r
oo
st."
Kli
jah
Mu
ham
mad
, hea
d of
the
Na-
tion
of
Isla
m,
susp
ende
d M
alco
lm f
rom
spe
akin
g fo
r 90
day
san
d la
ter
exte
nded
I h
e su
spen
sion
ind
efin
itel
y.!n
Ph
ilad
elph
ia,
a w
hile
cop
sho
t a
blac
k ep
ilep
tic
in t
heba
ck o
f tl
ie h
ead
and
kill
ed h
im. A
coa
liti
on o
f bl
ack
radi
cal
grou
ps h
eld
mas
s ra
llie
s to
pro
test
pol
ice
brut
alit
y. A
fter
one
of t
he
rail
ies,
bla
ck t
eena
gers
beg
an s
mal
l-sc
ale
riot
ing.
RA
M,
obse
rvin
g I l
ie
riot
, be
gan
to
Iheo
ri/c
ab
ou
t th
e po
tent
ial
ofth
is k
ind
of a
ctiv
ity.
The
co
alit
ion
led
mas
s m
arch
es
on
the
cop'
s po
lice
stat
ion
only
to
be m
et
by m
achi
ne g
uns
star
ing
them
in
the
face
. T
he
coal
itio
n de
cide
d it
had
gone
as
far
as i
t co
uld
gow
itho
ut g
etti
ng i
nnoc
ent
peop
le h
urt
.F
reem
an
trav
eled
to
P
hila
delp
hia
to
talk
to
th
e R
AM
'ca
dre.
He
told
th
e ca
dre
to c
ease
all
pub
lic
acti
vity
and
sai
dth
at
the
ultr
a-ri
ght
was
pr
epar
ing
to c
rush
the
mov
emen
t.T
he w
ord
was
, "g
o un
derg
roun
d."
17
DE
VE
LO
PM
EN
T
OF
RA
MIN
TO
A
N
AT
ION
AL
O
RG
AN
IZA
TIO
N
The
ye
ar
1964
w
as a
ye
;tr
of
tran
siti
on
for
the
civi
lri
ghts
mov
emen
t an
d a
year
of
ideo
logi
cal
deve
lopm
ent
for
blac
k ra
dica
ls.
In
Janu
ary,
B
rook
lyn
CO
RE
, le
d by
Isa
iah
Bro
wns
on,
plan
ned
the
Sta
ll-i
n at
the
Wor
ld's
Fai
r to
pro
test
disc
rim
inat
ion
bein
g pr
acti
ced
ther
e.
The
pu
rpos
e of
th
eSt
all-
in
was
to
stop
or
slow
do
wn
traf
fic
in t
he s
tree
ts a
ndsu
bway
s, t
o br
ing
New
Yor
k C
ity
to a
sta
ndst
ill,
ft w
as a
new
tact
ic o
f us
ing
civi
l di
sobe
dien
ce
to d
isru
pt t
he f
unct
ion
of a
city
. W
hile
the
Sta
ll-i
n w
as n
ot s
ucce
ssfu
l, it
rai
sed
ques
tion
sof
the
pos
sibi
lity
of
the
mov
emen
t di
srup
ting
the
fun
ctio
ning
of t
he
syst
em.
Tw
o ev
ents
oc
curr
ed
in
Mar
ch
1964
. M
alco
lm
X a
n-no
unce
d hi
s in
depe
nden
ce
from
the
Nat
ion
of I
slam
. R
ober
tF
. W
illi
ams'
arti
cle
"Rev
olut
ion
Wit
hout
Vio
lenc
e?"
in
the
Febr
uary
19
64
issu
e of
Cru
sade
r re
ache
d th
e st
ates
. A
lmos
tev
ery
acti
vist
w
as
wat
chin
g M
alco
lm's
de
velo
pmen
t to
see
wha
t di
rect
ion
he w
as g
oing
. F
reem
an f
rom
th
e B
LF
was
at
Mal
colm
's p
ress
con
fere
nce
and
enco
urag
ed h
im t
o pr
ocee
din
a m
ore
radi
cal d
irec
tion
.R
ober
t W
illi
ams'
arti
cle
"Rev
olut
ion
Wit
hout
V
io-
lenc
e?"
rais
ed m
any
eyeb
row
s.
In i
t he
des
crib
ed
how
man
ybl
acks
cou
ld
brin
g th
e U
.S.
to a
sta
ndst
ill
thro
ugh
urba
n re
-be
llio
ns a
nd
urba
n gu
erri
lla
war
fare
. T
his
wen
t be
yond
th
eco
ncep
t of
arm
ed s
elf-
defe
nse.
Fre
eman
de
cide
d it
was
tim
eto
ch
alle
nge
SNC
C o
n it
s ow
n ho
me
grou
nds,
the
sou
th.
He
call
ed
Sta
nfor
d to
C
leve
land
an
d ga
ve h
im
inst
ruct
ions
to
orga
ni/o
an
al
l-bl
ack
stud
ent
conf
eren
ce i
n th
e so
uth.
T
heB
LE
had
con
nect
ions
wit
h na
tion
alis
ts w
ho w
ere
insi
de-
loca
lSN
CC
gr
oups
. O
ne
part
icul
ar
grou
p w
as
ASM
, th
e A
fro-
Am
eric
an
Stu
dent
Mov
emen
t at
Fis
k U
nive
rsit
y in
Nas
hvil
le,
Ten
ness
ee.
Sta
nfor
d w
as s
ent
to
Det
roit
to
ra
ise
mon
ey
for
the
18
conf
eren
ce.
Whi
le
fund
-rai
sing
-\e
w
ent
to
see
Jam
es
and
Gra
ce
Hog
gs,
then
' tw
o le
adin
g th
eore
tici
ans
of
the
blac
kli
bera
tion
st
rugg
le.
In
disc
ussi
ons
wit
h G
race
B
oggs
, sh
ede
scri
bed
the
prob
lem
s th
at
had
emer
ged
in
the
Mic
higa
nF
reed
om N
ow P
arty
as
less
ons
to ;
.voi
cl i
n or
gani
zing
. R
ober
tW
illi
ams'
Feb
ruar
y !%
•! (
'run
nier
art
icle
was
dis
cuss
ed, a
ndS
tanf
ord
desc
ribe
d R
AM
. H
oggs
ask
ed S
tanf
ord
to w
rite
an
arti
cle
on
RA
M,
whi
ch s
he l
ater
pri
nted
in
Cor
resp
onde
nce,
a bi
-mon
thly
per
iodi
cal
whi
ch
was
pu
blis
hed
in M
ichi
gan.
Sta
nfor
d al
so
wro
te
Mal
colm
te
llin
g hi
m
of
the
upco
min
gst
uden
t co
nfer
ence
. F
rom
I h
ere
Sta
nfor
d w
ent
sout
h to
th
ean
nual
spr
ing
SNC
C c
onfe
renc
e to
rec
ruit
SX
CC
fie
ld
wor
k-er
s,
espe
cial
ly
from
M
issi
ssip
pi,
who
w
ere
resp
onsi
ve t
o an
all-
blac
k st
uden
t co
nfer
ence
.O
n M
ay
1st,
19G
1, t
he
firs
t A
fro-
Am
eric
an
Stu
den
tC
onfe
renc
e on
Bla
ck N
atio
nali
sm w
as h
eld
at F
isk
Uni
vers
ity.
It w
as t
he
first
, ti
me
sinc
e 19
00 t
hat
blac
k ac
tivi
sts
from
th
eno
rth
and
sout
h sa
l, d
ow
n to
dis
cuss
bla
ck n
atio
nali
sm.
Don
Fre
eman
, in
hi
s ar
ticl
e "B
lack
Y
outh
an
d A
fro-
Am
eric
anL
iber
atio
n,"
desc
ribe
s th
e co
nfer
ence
:T
he
firs
t co
nfer
ence
se
ssio
n ev
alua
ted
"bou
r-ge
ois
refo
rmis
m.*
' T
he
inte
gral
ioii
isl,
civi
l ri
ghts
orga
niza
tion
s of
CO
RE
, SC
LC
, SN
CC
, N
AA
CP
,et
c. s
ubst
anti
ate
Dr.
W. E
. B
. DuB
ois'
con
vict
ion
that
"c
apit
alis
m
cann
ot
refo
rm
itse
lf;
a sy
stem
that
ens
lave
s yo
u ca
nnot
fre
e y
ou
.''4
The
co
nfer
ence
sta
ted
that
bla
ck r
adic
als
wer
e th
e va
n-gu
ard
of r
evol
utio
n in
thi
s co
untr
y, s
uppo
rted
.M
inis
ter
Mal
-co
lm's
ef
fort
s to
ta
ke
the
case
of
A
fro-
Am
eric
ans
to
the
U.N
., ca
lled
fo
r a
blac
k cu
ltur
al
revo
luti
on,
and
disc
usse
dPa
n A
fric
anis
m.
The
im
pact
of
the
conf
eren
ce w
as s
uch
that
the
Nas
hvil
le S
tude
nt
Mov
emen
t br
ough
t D
r. K
ing
to N
ash-
vill
e th
e w
eeke
nd
of
the
conf
eren
ce.
Dur
ing
his
spee
ch.
Dr.
Kin
g at
tack
ed t
he c
onfe
renc
e as
"h
ate
in r
ever
se."
Fro
m
the
conf
eren
ce
BE
E-R
AM
or
gani
zers
wen
t in
toth
e so
uth
to w
ork
wit
h SN
CC
. W
ith
the
perm
issi
on o
f SN
CC 19
chai
rman
Joh
n L
ewis
, an
exp
erim
enta
l bl
ack
nati
onal
ist,
self
-de
fens
e pr
ojec
t w
as s
tar'
ed i
n G
reen
woo
d, M
issi
ssip
pi.
In d
iscu
ssio
n w
ith
Mis
siss
ippi
fie
ld
staf
f of
SN
CC
, B
LI1'-
RA
M o
rgan
izer
s fo
und
the
staf
f w
as p
repa
red
to e
stab
lish
ast
atew
ide
arm
ed s
elf-
defe
nse
syst
em. T
hey
wer
e al
so p
repa
red
to
mov
e in
an
al
l-bl
ack
nati
onal
ist
dire
ctio
n.
All
that
w
asne
eded
was
mon
ey I
t, fi
nanc
e th
e pr
ojec
t. In
the
mea
ntim
e,M
onth
ly
Rev
iew
pu
blis
hed
an
arti
cle
titl
ed
"The
C
olon
ial
War
at
Hom
e,"
incl
udin
g m
ost
of S
tanf
ord'
s C
orre
spon
denc
ear
ticl
e "T
owar
ds a
Rev
olut
iona
ry A
ctio
n M
ovem
ent,
" ed
ited
wit
h so
me
of M
alco
lm's
rem
arks
, an
d ex
cerp
ts f
rom
Rob
ert
Wil
liam
s' "R
evol
utio
n W
itho
ut
Vio
lenc
e,"
in
an
anal
ysis
of
the
blac
k li
bera
tion
str
uggl
e.T
he
arti
cle
was
dis
cuss
ed b
y th
e m
ajor
ity
of t
iie
SNC
Cfi
eld
staf
f. S
NC
C
was
pol
ariz
ed
betw
een
blac
k an
d w
hite
orga
nize
rs
and
betw
een
loft
- an
d ri
ght-
win
y fo
rces
wit
hin
SNC
C. M
ost
of
the
whi
tes
oppo
sed
arm
ed
self
-def
ense
and
blac
k na
tion
alis
m.
The
y an
d th
eir
supp
orte
rs c
onsi
dere
d th
eB
LK
-RA
M
cadr
e:;
as
enem
ies.
Pol
itic
al
deba
tes
took
pl
ace
wit
hin
fiel
d st
aff
mee
ting
s as
to
the
dire
ctio
n of
SN
CC
an
dth
e bl
ack
libe
rati
on m
ovem
ent.
Sta
nfor
d ca
lled
an
emer
genc
y or
gani
zati
onal
mee
ting
in
Det
roit
of
BLK
cad
res.
Jam
es a
nd G
race
Bog
gs,
and
supp
or-
ters
, fi
e ga
ve a
rep
ort
on t
he c
ondi
tion
in
the
sout
h w
ith
the
Mis
siss
ippi
fi
eld
staf
f re
ady
to m
ove
into
.arm
ed s
elf-
defe
nse.
It w
as d
iscu
ssed
tha
t a
nati
onal
cen
tral
ized
org
aniz
atio
n w
asne
eded
to
fo
ordi
nato
th
e ne
w
mov
emen
t. R
AM
—
Rev
olu-
tion
ary
Act
ion
Mov
emen
t •-
w
as t
he
nam
e ch
osen
fo
r th
ene
w
mov
emen
t. A
fter
m
uch
disc
ussi
on
it w
as d
ecid
ed
that
the
mov
emen
t sh
ould
be
str
uctu
red
on
thre
e le
vels
: on
e of
ti|'J
i!-!
<nit
cell
s in
cit
ies
thai
w
ould
bu
ild
poli
tica
l ba
ses
and
fina
ncia
lly
supp
ort
rovi
ng f
ield
or
gani
zers
, w
ho
wou
ld
wor
kfu
ll-t
ime
like
SN
CC
fi
eld
orga
nize
rs i
n th
e co
mm
unit
y an
dat
th
e sa
me
tim
e ac
t as
a n
atio
nal
libe
rati
on
fron
t co
ordi
-na
ting
a b
road
coa
liti
on o
f bl
ack
nati
onal
ist
grou
ps.
20
Ideo
logi
cal
cont
radi
ctio
ns w
ere
pres
ent
from
the
sta
rt.
Poli
tica
l de
bate
ce
nter
ed
arom
u,
the
stat
us o
f bl
ack
peop
lean
d st
rate
gy f
or l
iber
atio
n. T
he n
atio
nali
sts
stal
ed t
hat
blac
kpe
ople
w
ere
an
infe
rnal
co
lony
, j
nati
on
wit
hin
a na
tion
who
se n
atio
nal
terr
itor
y w
as t
he b
lack
bel
t so
uth.
The
y sa
idth
at
in
the
proc
ess
of
libe
rati
on
thro
ugh
a bl
ack
soci
alis
tre
volu
tion
, th
e bl
ack
nati
on
wou
ld s
epar
ate
from
the
Uni
ted
Sta
tes. T
he s
ocia
list
s, o
n th
e ot
her
hand
, re
pres
ente
d by
Jam
esan
d G
race
R
oggs
, as
ked
the
ques
tion
, w
hat
wou
ld h
appe
n to
the
rest
of
th
e co
untr
y?
Cou
ld
the
whi
te
left
be g
iven
the
resp
onsi
bili
ty
to
gove
rn?
Wha
t w
ould
gu
aran
tee
that
th
eyw
ould
be
any
le
ss r
acis
t? A
fter
m
uch
disc
ussi
on a
com
pro-
mis
e w
as d
raft
ed.
The
pos
itio
n w
as t
hat
blac
k re
volu
tion
arie
sw
ould
ha
ve
to
seiz
e po
wer
in
a s
ocia
list
re
volu
tion
in
the
Uni
ted
Stat
.es,
mai
ntai
ning
a b
lack
dic
tato
rshi
p ov
er t
he
U.S
.w
ith
the
sout
h be
ing
an
auto
nom
ous
regi
on.
The
Bog
gses
pres
ente
d th
e ar
gum
ent
that
, bl
ack
mig
rati
on
was
mov
ing
tow
ards
cit
ies
and
that
by
19
70 b
lack
s w
ould
• j
nsti
tute
the
maj
orit
y of
in
ner
citi
es i
n th
e 10
maj
or u
rban
are
as.
The
irpo
siti
on
was
tha
t th
e or
gani
zati
on s
houl
d pl
ace
t-m
phas
is o
nbu
ildi
ng b
lack
pol
itic
al p
ower
in
the
citi
es.
A
twel
ve-p
oint
pr
ogra
m
was
dra
fted
by
a
com
mit
tee,
read
and
dis
cuss
ed b
y th
e co
nfer
ence
. The
pro
gram
inc
lude
d:1.
D
evel
opm
ent
of
a na
tion
al b
lack
st
uden
tor
gani
zati
on m
ovem
ent.
2.
Dev
elop
men
t of
id
eolo
gy
(Fre
edom
)sc
hool
s.
"3.
D
evel
opm
ent
of R
ifle
Clu
bs.
4.
Dev
elop
men
t of
L
iber
atio
n A
rmy
(Gue
r-ri
lla Y
outh
For
ce).
5.
Dev
elop
men
t of
P
ropa
gand
a, t
rain
ing
cen-
ters
and
nat
iona
l org
aniz
atio
n.6.
D
evel
opm
ent
of U
nder
grou
nd V
angu
ard.
7.
Dev
elop
men
t of
bla
ck w
orke
rs "
libe
rati
on"
unio
ns.
21
8.
Dev
elop
men
t of
bla
ck o
rgan
izat
ion
(cel
ls).
9.
Dev
elop
ine'
it of
nat
ion
wit
hin
nati
on c
on-
cept
, gov
ernm
ent i
n ex
ile.
10.
Dev
elop
men
t of
War
Fun
d (P
olit
ical
Eco
n-om
y).
11.
Dev
elop
men
t of
bla
ck f
arm
er c
oops
.12
. D
evel
opm
ent
of
Arm
y of
bl
ack
unem
-pl
oyed
.
Off
icer
s fo
r th
e m
ovem
ent
wer
e el
ecte
d.In
tern
atio
nal
spok
esm
an
X*
Inte
rnat
iona
l ch
airm
an
Rob
ert
F. W
illi
ams
Nat
iona
l Fi
eld
chai
rman
M
ax S
tanf
ord
Exe
cuti
ve c
hair
man
D
on F
reem
anId
eolo
gica
l ch
airm
an
Jam
es B
oggs
Exe
cuti
ve s
ecre
tary
G
race
Bog
gsT
reas
urer
M
ilto
n H
enry
/Pau
l B
rook
s
*It
was
sug
gest
ed t
hat
Mal
colm
X w
ould
be
spok
esm
anfo
r th
e m
ovem
ent.
The
fi
eld
chai
rman
was
to
go t
o N
ewY
ork
to t
alk
to M
alco
lm a
bout
it.
RA
M m
embe
rs w
ent
back
to
thei
r co
mm
unit
ies t
o or
gani
ze c
ells
, w
hile
oth
ers
trav
eled
arou
nd t
he c
ount
ry s
prea
ding
the
mov
emen
t.
22
MA
LCO
LM
X A
ND
R
AM
The
RA
M f
ield
cha
irm
an, u
pon
arri
ving
in
New
Yor
k in
1964
, m
et
wit
h th
e R
AM
cad
re t
here
and
im
med
iate
ly c
on-
tact
ed M
alco
lm X
. A
fter
des
crib
ing
the
new
dev
elop
men
ts i
nth
e bl
ack
libe
rati
on m
ovem
ent,
he a
sked
Mal
colm
to
beco
me
RA
M's
int
erna
tion
al s
poke
sman
. M
alco
lm a
gree
d to
be
com
eth
e sp
okes
man
bu
t fe
lt it
shou
ld
rem
ain
secr
et
beca
use
the
inte
llig
ence
app
arat
us w
ould
bec
ome
alar
med
abo
ut h
is c
on-
nect
ion
wit
h R
ober
t W
illi
ams,
who
was
in
exil
e in
Cub
a.M
alco
lm w
as p
repa
ring
to
deve
lop
a pu
blic
mas
s or
gani
-za
tion
w
hich
he
inte
nded
w
ould
be
ins
trum
enta
l in
lea
ding
the
broa
d m
ass
mov
emen
t an
d w
ould
ser
ve a
s a
unit
ed f
ront
.H
e as
ked
that
RA
M o
rgan
izer
s he
lp i
n fo
rmin
g th
at o
rgan
iza-
tion
and
als
o in
filt
rate
it
to
deve
lop
a se
curi
ty s
ecti
on.
He
knew
th
e M
usli
m
Mos
que,
In
c.
was
inf
iltr
ated
by
po
lice
agen
ts
and
didn
't kn
ow
who
he
coul
d tr
ust.
Mal
colm
had
just
ret
urne
d fr
om h
is f
irst
tri
p to
Afr
ica.
He
was
in
the
pro-
cess
of
atte
mpt
ing
to g
et A
fric
an n
atio
ns t
o en
dors
e hi
s pr
o-po
sal
to t
ake
the
U.S
. to
the
Uni
ted
Nat
ions
for
its
vio
lati
ons
of
the
Hum
an
Rig
hts
char
ter
in
its
crim
es
ngai
nst
Afr
o-A
mer
ican
s.B
oth
Mal
colm
and
RA
M s
aw t
hat
the
inte
rnat
iona
liza
-ti
on
of
the
Afr
o-A
mer
ican
st
rugg
le
was
nec
essa
ry
to
win
allie
s an
d to
is
olat
e th
e U
.S.
gove
rnm
ent.
In t
he o
rgan
iza-
tion
al d
iscu
ssio
ns w
hich
wer
e he
ld d
aily
for
a m
onth
, va
riou
sas
pect
s of
th
e st
rugg
le
wer
e an
alyz
ed.
The
fi
eld
chai
rman
aske
d M
alco
lm a
bout
hi
s st
atem
ents
of
whi
te p
eopl
e be
ing
in M
ecca
and
hi
s fe
elin
g th
at
som
e w
ould
be
wor
ked
wit
h.T
he
fiel
d ch
airm
an s
tate
d th
at
he f
elt
Mal
colm
w
ould
los
ehi
s bl
ack
nati
onal
ist
foll
owin
g, w
hich
was
his
bas
e of
sup
port
.M
alco
lm s
tate
d th
at w
hile
in
Alg
eria
an
Alg
eria
n re
volu
-ti
onar
y sh
owed
him
a p
ictu
re o
f hi
mse
lf t
hat
look
ed a
s da
rkas
Mar
cus
Gar
vey,
and
the
sta
tem
ents
und
er t
he p
ictu
re m
ade
it ap
pear
th
at
Mal
colm
w
as a
dvoc
atin
g th
e su
peri
orit
y of 23
,.
OA
AU
fiel
d ch
airm
an o
f R
AM
and
M
alco
lm,
duri
ng t
he m
onth
of
June
, w
orke
d ou
t pl
ans
for
deve
lopi
ng a
n in
tern
atio
nal
blac
kna
tion
alis
t m
ovem
ent.
Fro
m d
aily
dis
cuss
ions
on
the
poli
tica
lpe
rspe
ctiv
e of
R
AM
, M
alco
lm
wou
ld i
ncor
pora
te
the
idea
sin
his
Sun
day
spee
ches
.
The
OA
AU
was
to
be t
he b
road
fr
ont
orga
niza
tion
and
RA
M t
he B
lack
Lib
erat
ion
Fro
nt o
f th
e U
.S.A
., th
e un
der-
grou
nd.
Mal
colm
in
his
seco
nd
trip
to
Afr
ica
was
to
try
to f
ind
plac
es
for
even
tual
po
liti
cal
asyl
um
and
poli
tica
l/m
ilit
ary
tr l
inin
g fo
r ca
dres
. W
hile
Mal
colm
w
as i
n A
fric
a,
the
fiel
dc
lair
man
w
as t
o go
to
Cub
a to
rep
ort
the
leve
l of
pro
gres
sfo
R
ober
t F.
Wil
liam
s. A
s M
alco
lm p
repa
red
Afr
ica
to s
up-
port
our
str
uggl
e, "
Rob
" (R
ober
t F
. W
illi
ams)
wou
ld p
repa
reL
atin
Am
eric
a an
d A
sia.
Mal
colm
lef
t fo
r A
fric
a in
Jul
y an
d St
anfo
rd,
the
RA
Mfi
eld
chai
rman
, lef
t fo
r C
uba
the
end
of J
uly.
Whi
le M
alco
lmw
as
in
Afr
ica,
H
arle
m e
xplo
ded.
T
he
para
-mil
itar
y in
Mal
-co
lm's
orga
niza
tion
de
cide
d to
joi
n th
e re
bell
ion
and
part
ici-
pate
d in
arm
ed s
elf-
defe
nse
acti
ons
agai
nst
raci
st o
ppre
ssiv
efo
rces
. M
asse
s of
ou
r pe
ople
ex
plod
ed
in R
oche
ster
, N
.Y.
The
re
volu
tion
ary
Mus
lim
s (M
alco
lmit
es)
enga
ged
in a
rmed
stru
ggle
aga
inst
the
re
pres
sive
for
ces
ther
e. B
rook
lyn
CO
RE
held
a d
emon
stra
tion
to
prot
est
poli
ce b
ruta
lity
. The
dem
on-
stra
tion
pr
ecip
itat
ed a
m
ass
rebe
llio
n. T
he
Bro
okly
n R
AM
cadr
e w
ent
into
rev
olut
iona
ry a
ctio
n.
Whi
le i
n A
fric
a M
alco
lm w
as p
oiso
ned.
He
also
rec
eive
dne
ws
of
a sp
lit
wit
hin
his.
org
aniz
atio
n cr
eate
d by
po
lice
agen
ts. In C
uba,
Rob
ert
Wil
liam
s to
ld
the
fiel
d ch
airm
an t
hat
the
mov
emen
t w
as t
oo o
ut i
n th
e op
en,
that
it
was
bei
ng s
etup
to
bo
dest
roye
d.
He
felt
Mal
colm
's pr
ess
stat
emen
ts e
x-po
sed
too
muc
h pr
emat
urel
y, t
hat
he w
as f
unct
ioni
ng a
s if
he h
ad a
for
ce w
hich
he
hadn
't de
velo
ped
yet.
In r
etro
spec
t, M
alco
lm k
new
and
tol
d St
anfo
rd t
hat
hew
as a
mar
ked
man
and
had
a l
imit
ed t
ime
to l
ive.
25
Als
o w
hile
in
Afr
ica,
Mal
colm
met
wit
h Jo
hn L
ewis
and
othe
rs o
f SN
CC
. M
alco
lm h
ad a
tre
men
dous
im
pact
, on
Afr
i-ca
n le
ader
s an
d ha
d an
ex
plos
ive
effe
ct
on
the
mas
ses
ofA
fric
ans.
O
ne
inci
dent
oc
curr
ed
whi
le h
e w
as
in
Nig
eria
,sp
eaki
ng
at
a un
iver
sity
. D
urin
g th
e qu
esti
on
and
answ
erpe
riod
, a
negr
o fr
om
Am
eric
a w
orki
ng w
ith
a U
.S.
gove
rn-
men
t pr
ogra
m t
here
, m
ade
som
e re
mar
ks d
efen
ding
the
U.S
.go
vern
men
t. A
fter
M
alco
lm a
nsw
ered
him
, th
e N
iger
ian
stu-
dent
s w
ere
so a
ngry
th
at
they
ch
ased
th
e ne
gro
out
of t
heau
dito
rium
to
a fi
eld
and
wer
e go
ing
to h
ang
the
negr
o on
afl
ag
pole
. T
he
negr
o w
ould
ha
ve
been
h
un
g if
pr
ofes
sor
Essi
en
Udo
m
hadn
't in
terv
ened
an
d sa
ved
the
negr
o's
life
.T
his
will
gi
ve t
he
read
er
som
e id
ea o
f th
e im
pact
tha
t M
al-
colm
had
on
Afr
ica.
Fro
m
gove
rnm
ent
docu
men
ts
publ
ishe
d in
19
64
onM
alco
lm,
the
U.S
. go
vern
men
t es
tim
ated
th
at M
alco
lm h
adse
t U
.S.
fore
ign
poli
cy
in
Afr
ica
back
te
n ye
ars.
Mal
colm
beca
me
a pr
ime
targ
et o
f th
e U
.S.
gove
rnm
ent's
in
tell
igen
ceap
para
tus
— F
BI,
A
rmy
Inte
llig
ence
, C
IA,
etc.
O
ther
ci
ties
also
exp
lode
d du
ring
the
sum
mer
of
1964
, an
d th
e re
pres
sive
forc
es
wer
e bl
amin
g it
on
Mal
colm
, ra
ther
th
an
on
the
cond
itio
ns t
hat c
ause
d it
.W
hen
Mal
colm
ret
urne
d fr
om A
fric
a in
the
fal
l of
19
64,
his
orga
niza
tion
was
in
a sh
ambl
es, i
nclu
ding
his
per
sona
l li
fe.
The
pre
ssur
e fr
om
the
repr
essi
ve f
orce
s w
as t
akin
g it
s to
ll on
him
. M
alco
lm t
ried
to
regr
oup.
He
set
up a
-lib
erat
ion
scho
olw
ithi
n th
e O
AA
U.
He
retu
rned
to
Afr
ica
to c
onso
lida
te s
up-
port
for
his
pet
itio
n to
the
U.N
. Mal
colm
had
ope
ned
up a
ve-
nues
for
bro
ther
s an
d si
ster
s w
ho w
ere
Mus
lim
s to
go
to t
heU
nive
rsit
y of
Alc
azar
in
Cai
ro,
Egy
pt,
and
othe
r pl
aces
in
the
wor
ld f
or g
uerr
illa
trai
ning
.R
AM
pu
blis
hed
its
peri
odic
al
Bla
ck
Am
eric
a. M
alco
lmin
his
spe
eche
s in
Afr
ica
wou
ld s
ay,
"Thi
s is
my
publ
icat
ion.
"M
alco
lm r
etur
ned
from
A
fric
a an
d be
gan
to h
ave
mas
s m
eet-
ings
in
Janu
ary
1965
.E
arly
in
Feb
ruar
y, K
alie
i Sa
id,
a m
embe
r of
RA
M
who
26
had
been
se
nt
into
M
alco
lm's
or
gani
zati
on
to
deve
lop
ase
curi
ty
win
g, w
as a
rres
ted
on
the
Sta
tue
of L
iber
ty b
omb
plot
. In
side
th
e M
usli
m
Mos
que,
In
c.
and
OA
AU
, K
alie
l'sar
rest
ups
et M
alco
lm's
inte
rnal
sec
urit
y. I
t al
so s
et t
he p
ubli
ccl
imat
e th
e in
tell
igen
ce
forc
es w
ante
d fo
r co
nspi
racy
.M
alco
lm
was
ass
assi
nate
d F
ebru
ary
21st
, 19
65.
The
revo
luti
onar
y na
tion
alis
t m
ovem
ent
was
und
er a
ttac
k.
27
OR
GA
NIZ
AT
ION
AL
AC
TIV
ITIE
S O
F R
AM
1964
to
19
65
Dur
ing
the
sum
mer
of
19
64
RA
M
conc
entr
ated
on
buil
ding
sec
ret
poli
tica
l ce
lls i
n di
ffer
ent p
arts
of
the
coun
try.
The
se c
ells
wer
e to
rem
ain
unde
rgro
und
and
to d
evel
op a
nun
derg
roun
d m
ovem
ent.
The
y w
ere
to b
e th
e su
ppor
t ap
pa-
ratu
s fo
r fi
eld
orga
nize
rs w
ho
wer
e op
enly
try
ing
to
tran
s-fo
rm
the
civi
l ri
ghts
mov
emen
t in
to a
rev
olut
iona
ry b
lack
nati
onal
ist
mov
emen
t. T
hese
cel
ls w
ere
to f
inan
ce t
he a
ctiv
i-tie
s of
th
e fi
eld
orga
nize
rs a
nd
the
libe
rati
on a
rmy
once
deve
lope
d,
to h
ide
the
orga
nize
rs w
hen
forc
ed
unde
rgro
und,
to s
ecur
e th
e li
bera
tion
for
ces
wit
h su
ppli
es a
nd i
ntel
lige
nce
info
rmat
ion
on
the
acti
viti
es
of
the
raci
st
gove
rnm
enta
lap
para
tus.
RA
M
also
es
tabl
ishe
d ri
fle
club
s in
va
riou
s no
rthe
rnco
mm
unit
ies.
Man
y ti
mes
fol
low
ers
of M
alco
lm X
wer
e pa
rtof
an
alli
ance
insi
de th
ese
rifl
e cl
ubs.
RA
M i
nfil
trat
ed
CO
RE
(the
Con
gres
s of
Rac
ial
Equ
al-
ity)
in
seve
ral
citie
s. R
AM
's st
rate
gy w
as "
to
push
the
bou
r-ge
ois
refo
rmer
s as
far
'up
tem
po'
as f
ast
as p
ossi
ble,
whi
le a
tth
e sa
me
tim
e la
ying
a b
ase
for
an u
nder
grou
nd m
ovem
ent.
9
RA
M
orga
nize
d bl
ack
nati
onal
ist-
orie
nted
st
uden
tgr
oups
on
blac
k ca
mpu
ses
in t
he s
outh
and
whi
te u
nive
rsit
ies
in
the
nort
h.
The
se g
roup
s ha
d va
riou
s na
mes
at
dif
fere
nttim
es.
RA
M a
lso
esta
blis
hed
cont
act
wit
h ga
ngs
on t
he w
est
side
of
Chi
cago
. In
Cle
vela
nd a
you
th g
roup
was
for
med
.T
he
Afr
o-A
mer
ican
St
uden
t M
ovem
ent
spon
sore
d a
Nat
iona
l A
fro-
Am
eric
an S
tude
nt C
onfe
renc
e on
Afr
o Y
outh
in N
ashv
ille
, T
enne
ssee
, O
ctob
er
30th
- N
ovem
ber
1,
1964
.T
his
conf
eren
ce w
as a
tten
ded
by g
ang
mem
bers
fro
m C
hica
goan
d st
uden
ts f
rom
oth
er a
reas
of
the
coun
try.
The
con
fere
nce
was
ent
itle
d "T
he
Bla
ck R
evol
utio
n's
Rel
atio
nshi
p to
th
eB
andu
ng W
orld
."In
Jan
uary
of
1965
, R
AM
exp
erie
nced
its
fir
st o
rgan
iza-
28
tion
al
cris
is.
Jam
es
and
Gra
ce
Bog
gs
resi
gned
fr
om
thei
rpo
siti
ons
in t
he m
ovem
ent.
Thi
s le
ft on
ly t
wo
publ
ic o
ffic
ers,
Free
man
an
d St
anfo
rd.
Thr
ough
co
rres
pond
ence
, bo
th d
e-
.ci
ded
to r
esig
n th
eir
posi
tion
s in
the
org
aniz
atio
n.
An
emer
-ge
ncy
mee
ting
w
as
conv
ened
in
C
leve
land
, w
here
it
was
deci
ded
that
new
lea
ders
hip
shou
ld b
e el
ecte
d. D
iscu
ssin
g th
ean
alys
is o
f R
ober
t F.
Wil
liam
s, th
e ne
w l
eade
rshi
p de
cide
d it
was
bes
t to
rem
ain
secr
et.
From
tha
t po
int
in J
anua
ry
1965
on,
all
lead
ersh
ip i
n R
AM
was
sec
ret
and
all
arti
cles
wri
tten
for
RA
M
publ
icat
ions
w
ould
be
ano
nym
ous.
T
he p
olit
ical
pers
pect
ive
of
RA
M c
hang
ed.
The
con
cept
of
a bl
ack
dict
a-to
rshi
p of
th
e U
.S.,
whi
le s
till
bein
g m
aint
aine
d, b
egan
to
take
a s
econ
dary
po
siti
on t
o th
e bl
ack
nati
on i
n th
e so
uth.
Aft
er M
alco
lm's
assa
ssin
atio
n, e
x-R
AM
of
fici
als
expe
ri-
ence
d re
pres
sion
by
va
riou
s as
pect
s of
the
sta
te.
Free
man
was
ind
icte
d by
a C
leve
land
gra
nd j
ury
and
fire
d fr
om h
is j
obas
sch
ool
teac
her
in a
Cle
vela
nd j
unio
r hi
gh s
choo
l. A
ll th
ebl
ack
stud
ent
part
icip
ants
who
had
tra
vele
d to
Cub
a w
ere
subp
oena
ed b
y a
fede
ral
gran
d ju
ry i
n N
ew Y
ork
inve
stig
atin
gth
e St
atue
of
Lib
erty
bo
mb
plot
. St
anfo
rd
was
inve
stig
ated
by t
he f
eder
al g
rand
jur
y fo
r su
bver
sive
act
ivit
ies.
The
Dea
cons
for
Def
ense
for
med
in
Lou
isia
na i
n 19
65.
RA
M f
orm
ed n
orth
ern
supp
ort
grou
ps f
or t
he
Dea
cons
.In
A
ugus
t 19
65,
the
Los
A
ngel
es b
lack
com
mun
ity
expl
oded
. R
evol
utio
nary
nat
iona
list
s en
gage
d in
arm
ed s
trug
-gl
e ag
ains
t the
rac
ist r
epre
ssiv
e fo
rces
. N
ot k
now
ing
RA
M w
asin
Wat
ts,
RA
M o
rgan
izer
s fr
om N
ew J
erse
y w
ent
to W
atts
,w
here
the
y fo
und
stro
ng r
evol
utio
nary
bla
ck n
atio
nali
st ce
lls.
In N
ew Y
ork,
RA
M m
embe
rs b
egan
mee
ting
wit
h bl
ack
yout
h di
scus
sing
the
form
atio
n of
a b
lack
lib
erat
ion
arm
y.R
evol
utio
nary
na
tion
alis
ts a
roun
d th
e co
untr
y st
udie
dth
e A
ugus
t mas
s re
bell
ion
in W
atts
. The
y sa
w t
hat
spon
tane
-ou
s m
uss
rebe
llio
ns w
ould
be
tin;
next
pha
se o
f th
e pr
otes
tm
ovem
ent
and
bega
n di
scus
sing
how
th
ey
coul
d gi
ve
thes
ere
bell
ions
dir
ecti
on.
RA
M w
as a
lso
acti
ve w
ith
help
ing
Le R
oi J
ones
dev
elop 29
the
Bla
ck
Art
s M
ovem
ent.
The
B
lack
A
rts
Mov
emen
t w
asor
igin
ally
to
be
the
cu
ltur
al w
ing
of R
AM
. R
AM
, th
ough
ase
cret
m
ovem
ent,
was
gai
ning
pop
ular
ity
and
infl
uenc
e in
nort
hern
bl
ack
com
mun
itie
s.
On
the
inte
rnat
iona
l le
vel,
Rob
ert
Wil
liam
s, R
AM
's ch
airm
an i
n ex
ile,
iss
ued
an a
ppea
lfo
r w
orld
su
ppor
t an
d sp
oke
at i
nter
nati
onal
con
fere
nces
in
Asi
a an
d C
uba.
The
Com
mun
ist
Part
y of
Cub
a di
sagr
eed
wit
hhi
s bl
ack
nati
onal
ist
anal
ysis
and
beg
an t
o sa
bota
ge t
he m
ove-
men
t's
infl
uenc
e in
in
tern
atio
nal
circ
les.
T
his
prod
uced
a
cris
is f
or t
he m
ovem
ent
as a
venu
es o
f po
tent
ial
supp
ort
wer
ecu
t off
.In
th
e U
nite
d S
tate
s, t
he
Am
eric
an
Com
mun
ist
Par
tydi
sagr
eed
wit
h R
AM
's ra
ce
and
clas
s an
alys
is a
nd
its
clea
rco
nclu
sion
bla
ck p
eopl
e w
ere
a co
loni
zed
nati
on i
n th
e U
.S.,
and
foug
ht t
ooth
and
nai
l ag
ains
t th
e m
ovem
ent.
In
1965
se
vera
l m
ovem
ent
acti
vist
s w
ere
draf
ted
into
the
arm
y.
Son
ic d
ecid
ed t
o go
, w
hile
oth
ers
deri
ded
to s
tar!
a bl
ack
anti
-dra
ft
mov
emen
t. T
hose
who
wen
t in
to t
he a
rmy
wer
e im
med
iate
ly i
sola
ted
from
ot
her
sold
iers
by
arm
y in
tel-
lige
nce.
M
ass
orga
nizi
ng
occu
rred
ar
ound
G
ener
al
Gor
don
Bak
er,
Jr.'s
ref
usal
to
go
int
o th
e ar
my
in D
etro
it.
On
the
wes
t co
ast,
Ern
ie A
llen
he
ld a
new
s co
nfer
ence
ann
ounc
ing
his
refu
sal
to p
arti
cipa
te i
n th
e ra
cist
U.S
. ar
my.
SNC
C
bega
n to
un
derg
o a
poli
cy c
hang
e.
Its
staf
f de
-ci
ded
to
orga
nize
an
all-
blac
k pa
rty
in
Low
ndes
C
ount
y,A
laba
ma.
Whe
n R
AM
le
ader
ship
rec
eive
d ne
ws
of
this
, it
-dec
ided
to
clos
ely
stud
y th
ese
deve
lopm
ents
.
30
OR
GA
NIZ
AT
ION
AL
AC
TIV
ITIE
S O
F R
AM
1966
to
1968
Dur
ing
the
win
ter
mon
ths
of
1965
, R
AM
le
ader
ship
deve
lope
d th
eir
ideo
logi
cal
pers
pect
ive
into
a p
olit
ical
doc
u-m
ent
enti
tled
"T
he
Stru
ggle
fo
r B
lack
Sta
te P
ower
in
th
eU
.S."
T
he
docu
men
t de
scri
bed
the
diff
eren
ce
betw
een
ari
ot
and
a re
volu
tion
and
ou
tlin
ed w
hat
RA
M f
elt
was
the
futu
re
dire
ctio
n of
th
e bl
ack
revo
luti
on
in
the
U.S
. T
his
docu
men
t w
as w
idel
y ci
rcul
ated
am
ong
mov
emen
t ac
tivi
sts.
It
call
ed f
or
rais
ing
the
ques
tion
of
Bla
ck P
ower
wit
hin
the
mov
emen
t. I
n D
etro
it t
he R
AM
cad
re p
ubli
shed
a p
erio
dica
lin
the
aut
omob
ile
plan
ts t
itle
d B
lack
Van
guar
d. I
n N
ew Y
ork
RA
M b
egan
wor
king
wit
h a
yout
h ga
ng c
alle
d th
e "F
ive
Per
Cen
ters
."
Aft
er
havi
ng
been
ra
dica
lize
d th
roug
h po
liti
cal
educ
atio
n cl
asse
s,
they
fo
rmed
th
emse
lves
int
o th
e B
lack
'P
anth
er A
thle
tic
and
Soci
al C
lub.
Jam
es M
ered
ith
was
sho
t w
hile
on
hi
s m
arch
aga
inst
fear
in
M
issi
ssip
pi. T
he
civi
l ri
ghts
gro
up
deci
ded
to
com
-pl
ete
the
mar
ch.
One
ni
ght
at a
mas
s ra
lly,
SN
CC
org
aniz
erW
illi
e R
icks
ra
ised
th
e cr
y of
B
lack
P
ower
. S
toke
ly
Car
-m
icha
el,
SNC
C c
hair
man
, ra
ised
th
e sl
ogan
the
nex
t ni
ght-
ina
mas
s ra
lly.
The
B
lack
Pow
er m
ovem
ent
bega
n to
sw
eep
the
coun
try.
RA
M
bega
n ha
ving
-a
seri
es
of
mee
ting
s w
ith
loca
l na
-ti
onal
ist
orga
nize
rs i
n H
arle
m a
long
wit
h H
arle
m r
epre
sent
a-ti
ves
of
SNC
C.
The
se
mee
ting
s,
whi
ch w
ere
a co
alit
ion
ofac
tivi
sts,
de
cide
d to
se
t up
an
in
depe
nden
t bl
ack
poli
tica
lpa
rty
whi
ch
wou
ld b
e a
nort
hern
su
ppor
t ap
par
atu
s of
the
Low
ndes
Cou
nty
Fre
edom
Org
aniz
atio
n, w
hose
sym
bol
was
the
Bla
ck P
anth
er.
It w
as d
ecid
ed
to c
all
the
part
y th
e B
lack
Pan
ther
P
arty
. S
tanf
ord
wro
te
Car
mic
hael
as
king
if
it w
asal
righ
t to
use
the
nam
e B
lack
Pan
ther
for
the
par
ty.
Thr
ough
the
N.Y
. SN
CC
off
ice
the
wor
d ca
me
back
, "O
k, g
o ah
ead.
"T
he
Bla
ck P
anth
er
Par
ty
was
es
tabl
ishe
d in
N
ew Y
ork
in 31
Aug
ust
1966
.S
toke
ly
wen
t to
N
ew
Yor
k an
d m
et
wit
li th
e p
arty
.D
iscu
ssio
ns c
ente
red
arou
nd o
utlo
oks,
dir
ecti
on a
nd n
atio
nal
expa
nsio
n of
the
par
ty.
It w
as d
ecid
ed
that
the
par
ty w
ould
be a
coa
liti
on o
f SN
CC
, R
AM
and
oth
er o
rgan
izat
ions
.T
hrou
gh
the
RA
M s
truc
ture
, a
dire
ctiv
e w
as s
ent
toR
AM
cad
res
to
deve
lop
a pu
blic
co
alit
ion
wit
h co
mm
un
ity
acti
vist
s to
dev
elop
th
e B
lack
Pan
ther
P
arty
. T
he p
urpo
se o
fth
e B
PP
was
to
prov
ide
a po
liti
cal a
lter
nati
ve fo
r bl
ack
peop
leto
th
e ca
pita
list
, ra
cist
D
emoc
rati
c an
d R
epub
lica
n pa
rtie
san
d al
so e
xhau
st t
he l
egal
pol
itic
al m
eans
of
prot
est.
Bla
ck P
anth
er P
arli
es w
ere
esta
blis
hed
in D
etro
it,
Cle
ve-
land
, C
hica
go, S
an F
ranc
isco
, an
d L
os A
ngel
es a
nd e
vent
uall
yO
akla
nd,
Cal
ifor
nia.
Wit
hin
the
part
y w
as a
lso
disc
ussi
on o
for
gani
zing
bla
ck w
orke
rs.
For
B
lack
P
anth
ers
to
be
mea
ning
ful
it
mus
tde
al
wit
h th
e qu
esti
on
of
econ
omic
po
wer
as
rela
ted
to t
he p
olit
ical
sys
tem
. Thi
s m
eans
Bla
ckP
anth
ers
mus
t de
velo
p an
ove
rall
prog
ram
. T
hequ
esti
on
of e
cono
mic
s pr
esen
ts t
he d
evel
opm
ent
of
Bla
ck
Uni
on
orga
niza
tion
s as
pa
rt
of
the
part
y to
sei
ze e
cono
mic
pow
er i
n bo
th t
he u
rban
and
rura
l so
uth.
In
th
e ur
ban
sout
h it
wou
ldpo
se
the
figh
t ag
ains
t jo
b di
scri
min
atio
n an
dw
hite
uni
on d
iscr
imin
atio
n es
peci
ally
on
fed
eral
supp
orte
d pr
ojec
ts
and
in
the
rura
l so
uth
itw
ould
de
al
wit
h "p
eopl
es'
owne
rshi
p of
th
ela
nd
."1
0
In N
ew Y
ork
"Bla
ck W
omen
Enr
aged
" be
gan
pick
etin
gag
ains
t U
.S.
arm
y re
crui
ting
off
ices
. T
hey
wer
e pr
otes
ting
the
U.S
. go
vern
men
t dra
ftin
g bl
ack
men
int
o th
e ra
cist
U.S
. ar
my
to f
ight
in
a ra
cist
and
im
peri
alis
t war
. The
"A
tlan
ta p
roje
ct"
of
SNC
C
was
als
o en
gage
d in
mas
s de
mon
stra
tion
s an
d ja
il-
ings
in
Atl
anta
. M
ass
spon
tane
ous
rebe
llio
ns o
ccur
red
in m
ore
nort
hern
in
ner
citi
es i
n su
mm
er 1
966.
H
ouse
-to-
hous
e fi
ght-
ing
occu
rred
be
twee
n th
e li
bera
tion
fo
rces
an
d th
e ra
cist
32
repr
essi
ve f
orce
s in
Cle
vela
nd,
Ohi
o.P
robl
ems
soon
em
erge
d in
the
Bla
ck P
anth
er m
ovem
ent.
Dif
fere
nces
ove
r ta
ctic
s ar
ose.
In
the
N.Y
. B
PP,
a fa
ctio
n le
dby
Lar
ry N
eal
and
Edd
ie E
llis
wan
ted
to p
icke
t an
d pr
essu
reth
e bl
ack
maf
ia i
nto
fina
ncia
lly
supp
orti
ng t
he p
arty
. T
hey
also
wan
ted
to
pim
p lo
cal
poli
tici
ans
for
supp
ort.
Egg
ed o
nby
age
nt p
rovo
cate
ur D
onal
Was
hing
ton
(who
was
eve
ntua
lly
shot
by
the
peop
le i
n W
ashi
ngto
n, D
.C.)
, th
e pa
rty
spli
t in
totw
o fa
ctio
ns.
Sim
ilar
dev
elop
men
ts o
ccur
red
in D
etro
it.
But
the
maj
or
spli
t oc
curr
ed
on
the
Wes
t C
oast
, B
obby
S
cale
(who
had
bee
n pu
rged
fro
m R
AM
for
dru
nken
ness
and
ste
al-
irg
the
BS
U's
fun
ds)
join
ed
Hue
y P
. N
ewto
n in
for
min
g th
eL
lack
Pan
ther
Par
ty f
or S
elf
Def
ense
in
Oak
land
, C
alif
orni
a.M
ajor
di
ffer
ence
s an
d ne
ar g
un p
lay
occu
rred
bet
wee
n th
eB
lack
Pan
ther
P
arty
of
Nor
ther
n C
alif
orni
a le
d by
Ken
Fre
e-m
an
and
tiie
BP
P fo
r Se
lf D
efen
se l
ed b
y H
uey
P.
New
ton.
The
id
eolo
gica
l di
ffer
ence
s st
emm
ed
from
If
ucy'
s op
en d
is-
play
of
gu
ns,
bran
dish
ing
them
in
to
the
poli
ce's
fac
es
and
chal
leng
ing
them
to
sho
ot-o
uts.
The
dis
sens
ion
betw
een
the
Pan
ther
par
ties
con
tinu
ed
unti
l May
19
67.
Dur
ing
the
earl
y m
onth
s of
19
67
the
RA
M l
eade
rshi
pan
alyz
ed t
hat
beca
use
of t
he v
ast
amou
nts
of p
over
ty,
un
em-
ploy
men
t an
d po
lice
br
utal
ity
in t
he b
lack
com
mun
ity,
the
sum
mer
of
1967
w
as g
oing
to
be o
ne o
f m
ass
rebe
llio
n. R
AM
deci
ded
to
give
the
fo
rthc
omin
g m
ass
rebe
llio
ns a
po
liti
cal
dire
ctio
n an
d ar
m
the
com
mun
ity
for
defe
nse
agai
nst
raci
stat
tack
s. I
t pr
opos
ed
to
deve
lop
blac
k m
ilit
ias
and
orga
nize
blac
k yo
uth
into
a y
outh
ar
my
call
ed t
he B
lack
Gua
rds,
the
fore
runn
er
of a
Bla
ck
Lib
erat
ion
Arm
y. T
he
Bla
ck G
uard
sw
ere
to b
e a
defe
nse
arm
y an
d al
so t
o be
the
pol
itic
al c
adre
that
w
ould
ai
d th
e va
ngua
rd,
RA
M,
in
lead
ing
the
wor
ldbl
ack
revo
luti
on.
RA
M s
aw b
lack
yo
uth
as b
eing
the
m
ost
revo
luti
onar
y se
ctor
of
Bia
ck A
mer
ica.
The
y an
alyz
ed
that
blac
k pe
ople
nee
ded
to e
ngag
e in
a b
lack
cul
tura
l re
volu
tion
to
prep
are
them
for
a b
lack
pol
itic
al r
evol
utio
n. W
ithi
n th
ism
ovem
ent,
whi
ch w
ould
als
o be
a b
lack
ant
i-dr
aft m
ovem
ent, 33
the
slog
ans
of "
Am
eric
a is
the
B
lack
M
an's
Bat
tleg
roun
d,"
"Uni
te
or
Per
ish"
an
d "B
lack
P
ower
" w
ere
rais
ed.
RA
Mde
scri
bed
the
cult
ural
rev
olut
ion:
The
pu
rpos
e of
a
Bla
ck
Cul
tura
l re
volu
tion
wou
ld
he t
o de
stro
y th
e co
ndit
ione
d w
hite
op-
pres
sive
m
ores
, at
titu
des,
w
ays,
cu
stom
s,
phi-
loso
phie
s,
habi
ts,
etc.
, w
hich
the
opp
ress
or h
asta
ught
an
d tr
aine
d us
to
have
. T
his
mea
ns o
n a
mas
s sc
ale
a ne
w r
evol
utio
nary
cul
ture
.11
RA
M c
alle
d fo
r un
ity
of r
evol
utio
nary
nat
iona
list
s:T
he
firs
t st
ep
is f
or
revo
luti
onar
y na
tion
alis
tsan
d th
ose
who
agr
ee o
n ba
sic
prin
cipl
es t
o un
ite
and
form
a
Bla
ck L
iber
atio
n F
ront
. T
his
does
not
mea
n th
at a
ny g
roup
dis
solv
e it
s au
tono
my,
but
rath
er w
ork
in c
omm
on a
gree
men
t.1
2
RA
M i
ssue
d it
s cr
itic
al a
naly
sis
of t
he C
omm
unis
t Man
i-fe
sto
and
the
wor
ld M
arxi
st
pers
pect
ive
and
publ
ishe
d it
sin
terp
reta
tion
of
bl
ack
peop
le's
re
lati
onsh
ip t
o th
e w
orld
soci
alis
t re
volu
tion
in
a do
cum
ent
nam
ed "
Wor
ld
Bla
ck R
evo-
luti
on."
R
AM
dec
ided
to
iss
ue a
nat
ion-
wid
e ca
ll fo
r ar
med
self
-def
ense
and
be
acti
ve i
n th
e m
ass r
ebel
lion
s.A
long
w
ith
the
mas
s up
risi
ngs
in t
he i
nner
cit
ies,
RA
Mpl
anne
d st
uden
t re
volt
s in
bl
ack
colle
ges
and
amon
g hi
ghsc
hool
stu
dent
s.T
he B
lack
(Ju
ards
, H
AM
yo
uth
lea
gues
, wer
e to
org
aniz
eA
fric
an-A
mer
ican
hi
stor
y cl
ubs
to t
each
bla
ck h
isto
ry. T
hese
club
s w
ould
le
ad
prot
ests
dem
andi
ng t
he r
ight
to
wea
r ha
ir"n
atur
al,"
A
fric
an
dres
s, a
nd t
he r
ight
to
fly
the
Red
, B
lack
and
(Jre
en f
lag.
The
col
lege
stu
dent
s w
ould
dem
onst
rate
for
mor
e st
uden
t po
wer
wit
h th
e pu
rpos
e of
tur
ning
the
Neg
roco
llege
s in
to b
lack
uni
vers
itie
s:In
M
atch
19
67
stud
ents
of
th
e B
lack
P
ower
com
mit
tee
at
How
ard
Uni
vers
ity
dem
onst
rate
dag
ains
t (J
en'e
ral
Lew
is
B.
Her
shey
, D
irec
tor
ofth
e S
elec
tive
Ser
vice
Sys
tem
. A
s he
att
empt
ed t
ode
live
r a
spee
ch,
they
ju
mpe
d o
nto
th
e st
age
34
shou
ting
, "A
mer
ica
is t
he
blac
k m
an's
ba
ttle
-g
rou
nd
."1
3
SNC
C
orga
nize
rs a
nd s
tude
nt a
ctiv
ists
fr
om a
roun
d th
eco
untr
y m
et w
ith
the
RA
M l
eade
rshi
p in
the
spr
ing
of
1967
.T
hey
wer
e to
ld t
o pi
ck u
p on
dev
elop
men
ts a
t H
owar
d. T
heir
acti
viti
es s
prea
d to
dif
fere
nt b
lack
uni
vers
itie
s an
d ev
entu
ally
to
whi
te
cam
puse
s,
dem
andi
ng
blac
k st
udie
s pr
ogra
ms.
As
part
of
the
blac
k cu
ltur
al r
evol
utio
n, R
AM
att
empt
ed
to o
r-ga
nize
a r
evol
utio
nary
bla
ck w
omen
's m
ovem
ent
and
wor
ked
wit
h ot
her
grou
ps
to
set
up
blac
k cu
ltur
al
com
mit
tees
to
spre
ad
"rev
olut
iona
ry
blac
k cu
ltu
re"
in
the
blac
k co
m-
mun
ity.
RA
M f
elt:
The
key
mov
e in
thi
s pe
riod
of
the
revo
luti
onar
yna
tion
alis
t is
to
deve
lop
a po
pula
r m
ovem
ent
insi
de
Bla
ck
Am
eric
a. T
he
purp
ose
of c
reat
ing
this
po
pula
r m
ovem
ent
wil
l be
an
att
empt
to
deve
lop
a na
tion
al u
nite
d fr
ont
or B
lack
Lib
era-
tion
F
ron
t.
Thi
s w
ould
m
ean
atte
mpt
ing
toun
ite
all
sect
ors
of B
lack
Am
eric
a un
der
a co
m-
mon
slo
gan
led
by r
evol
utio
nary
nat
iona
list
s.R
AM
or
gani
zers
w
ere
impr
ison
ed
"en
mas
se"
in
the
sum
mer
of
19
67.
Som
e of
th
ose
rem
aini
ng
in
the
stre
ets
wer
e ki
lled
in
the
proc
ess
of l
ight
ing
poli
ce,
nati
onal
gua
rds
and
the
U.S
. ar
my.
O
ther
s co
ntin
ued
to o
rgan
ize
the
stre
etfo
rce
and
stud
ents
an
d m
obil
ized
th
e co
mm
un
ity
or l
egal
defe
nse
of i
ncar
cera
ted
mem
bers
. Sem
e 20
0 in
ner
ciii
es w
ent
up i
n fl
ames
in t
he s
umm
er o
f 19
67.
The
bl
ack
cult
ural
rev
olut
ion
reac
hed
the
high
sc
hool
leve
l w
hen
seve
n th
ousa
nd
blac
k st
uden
t-:
dem
onst
rate
d at
the
Phi
lade
lphi
a bo
ard
of e
duca
tion
on
Nov
embe
r 17
, 19
67,
dem
andi
ng
blac
k hi
stor
y cl
asse
s, t
he
righ
t to
w
ear
Afr
ican
clot
hes,
and
the
rig
ht t
o sa
lute
the
bla
ck n
atio
n':,
Hag
. F
rank
Riz
zo,
raci
st
poli
ce c
omm
issi
oner
, at
tack
ed
the
dem
onst
ra-
tion
. B
lack
gua
rds,
una
rmed
in
the
dem
onst
rati
on, e
ngng
ed i
nha
nd-t
o-ha
nd
com
bat
wit
h po
lice
. B
y 19
68,
the
mov
emen
tha
d sp
read
to
m
any
citi
es,
wit
h bl
ack
stud
ents
or
gani
zing 35
mas
sive
boy
cott
wal
kout
s, d
eman
ding
bla
ck h
isto
ry c
ours
es.
On
Apr
il 4,
19
68,
acco
rdin
g to
in
form
ed s
ourc
es,
the
inte
llig
ence
ap
para
tus
of
the
U.S
. go
vern
men
t as
sass
inat
edD
r.
Mar
tin
Lut
her
Kin
g,
Jr.
Tho
usan
ds
of
angr
y A
fric
ans
rose
in
revo
lt as
ove
r 10
0 A
mer
ican
cit
ies
burn
ed.
36
DIS
SO
LU
TIO
N
OF
RA
M
By
sum
mer
19
68
som
e R
AM
org
aniz
ers
wer
e ba
ck o
nth
e st
reet
s. R
AM
and
the
Bla
ck G
uard
s es
peci
ally
had
gro
wn
into
a
mas
s or
gani
zati
on.
The
is
sue
that
ar
ose
wit
hin
rank
sw
as h
ow t
o su
rviv
e th
e pe
ndin
g re
pres
sion
ag
ains
t th
e m
ove-
men
t. In
tern
al
cont
radi
ctio
ns
bega
n to
bec
ome
prev
alen
t as
argu
men
ts
over
di
rect
ion
occu
rred
an
d so
me
seco
ndar
yca
dres
be
gan
stri
ving
fo
r pe
rson
al
lead
ersh
ip.
Som
e m
ade
them
selv
es
gene
rals
or
re
gion
al
com
man
ders
of
th
e bl
ack
nati
onal
ist
arm
y th
at e
mer
ged.
How
to
m
aint
ain
disc
ipli
ne w
ithi
n a
poli
tica
lly
unde
r-de
velo
ped
arm
y an
d tr
ansf
orm
it
in
to
a po
liti
cal
forc
e be
-ca
me
a pr
eocc
upat
ion
of t
he R
AM
. lea
ders
hip.
Als
o, n
ew
forc
es
had
emer
ged
wit
hin
the
blac
k li
bera
-ti
on
mov
emen
t. T
he
Bla
ck
Pan
ther
P
arty
(O
akla
nd)
was
grow
ing
into
a n
atio
nal
orga
niza
tion
. O
n th
e ot
her
hand
, th
eco
ncep
t of
"c
ultu
ral
nati
onal
ism
" w
as
gain
ing
popu
lari
tyas
Ron
Kar
enga
and
ass
ocia
tes
wer
e em
ergi
ng a
s a
forc
e re
pre-
sent
ing
trie
rad
ical
ized
bla
ck m
iddl
e cl
ass.
The
Rep
ubli
c of
New
Afr
ica
had
been
for
med
in
Mar
ch19
68
in D
etro
it.
All
thr
ee
orga
niza
tion
s w
ere
stru
ggli
ng f
ordo
min
ance
ove
r th
e bl
ack
libe
rati
on s
trug
gle.
But
R
AM
le
ader
ship
kn
ew
that
th
e fo
rce
the
FB
Iw
ante
d to
cru
sh c
onsi
sted
of
thos
e w
ho h
ad f
ough
t th
e st
ate
and
had
been
ad
voca
ting
urb
an g
uerr
illa
w
arfa
re.
In C
leve
-la
nd,
Ohi
o,
RA
M s
ecti
on
lead
er
Fre
d "A
hm
ed"
Eva
ns w
asbe
ing
cons
tant
ly h
aras
sed
by p
olic
e.
On
July
23
, 19
68,
the
raci
sts
in
Cle
vela
nd's
po
lice
fo
rce
fire
d on
th
e ap
artm
ent
hous
e w
here
A
hmed
w
as
stay
ing.
A
gu
n ba
ttle
oc
curr
ed,
kill
ing
seve
n A
fro-
Am
eric
an f
reed
om f
ight
ers
ami w
ound
ing
15 p
olic
e.G
un
batt
les
wer
e oc
curr
ing
betw
een
the
poli
ce a
ndB
lack
P
anth
ers
on
the
wes
t co
ast.
Wit
h se
vera
l ke
y R
AM
mem
bers
un
der
lega
l in
dict
men
ts,
othe
rs
inca
rcer
ated
in 37
diff
eren
t pa
rts
of
the
coun
try,
an
d th
e U
.S.
gove
rnm
ent
and
FB
I pl
anni
ng a
maj
or c
onsp
irac
y ag
ains
t th
e m
ovem
ent,
the
RA
M
lead
ersh
ip
deci
ded
to
conv
ene
a co
nfer
ence
to
re-o
rgan
ize.
It w
as f
elt
that
it
wou
ld b
e da
nger
ous
for
blac
k re
volu
-ti
onar
ies
to a
ssem
ble
in o
ne p
lace
, so
it
was
dec
ided
to
form
a br
oad
coal
itio
n th
at
wou
ld h
ost
the
Bla
ck P
ower
Con
fer-
ence
. T
he
Bla
ck P
ower
C
onfe
renc
e w
as u
sed
as a
fro
nt f
orth
e re
volu
tion
arie
s to
ass
embl
e an
d di
scus
s st
rate
gy. E
ldri
dge
Cle
aver
dur
ing
this
per
iod
was
cal
ling
for
the
ope
n di
spla
y of
guns
by
revo
luti
onar
ies.
RA
M f
elt
this
ten
denc
y re
pres
ente
dle
ft-w
ing
adve
ntur
ism
, a t
ende
ncy
that
m
ight
liq
uida
te t
heen
tire
arm
ed
mov
emen
t.M
ost
left
gro
ups
wer
e su
ppor
ting
the
Pan
ther
s an
d th
eyw
ere
capt
urin
g th
e im
agin
atio
ns
of m
any
blac
k yo
uth.
T
heot
her
tend
ency
whi
ch
RA
M f
elt
was
jus
t as
dan
gero
us w
asri
ght-
win
g op
port
unis
m o
f cu
ltur
al
nati
onal
ism
, rep
rese
nted
by R
on K
aren
ga,
whi
ch r
efut
ed a
rmed
str
uggl
e an
d ad
voca
ted
elec
ting
bla
ck p
olit
icia
ns a
s a
solu
tion
. K
aren
ga s
aw t
he b
lack
mid
dle
clas
s as
hav
ing
the
reso
urce
s to
cre
ate
a re
volu
tion
and
saw
the
m a
s a
lead
ing
forc
e.D
urin
g th
e su
mm
er o
f 19
68,
RA
M c
adre
s an
d ot
hers
had
form
ed a
bla
ck c
aucu
s of
w
orke
rs i
n th
e D
odge
Ham
-tr
amck
pla
nt i
n D
etro
it a
roun
d a
new
spap
er c
alle
d In
ner
Cit
yV
oice
. A
spo
ntan
eous
wil
dcat
str
ike
by b
lack
wor
kers
led
to
the
form
ing
of D
RU
M (
Dod
ge
Rev
olut
iona
ry
Uni
on
Mov
e-m
ent)
. RA
M l
eade
rshi
p fe
lt th
at
the
mos
t im
port
ant
thin
g in
that
pe
riod
w
as m
aint
aini
ng u
nity
am
ong
the
vari
ous
maj
orgr
oups
aro
und
the
cou
ntr
y.
Bec
ause
it
wou
ld b
e to
o da
nger
-ou
s fo
r R
AM
to
ca
ll fo
r th
e fr
ont,
Am
iri
Bar
aka
(Le
Roi
Jone
s)
was
app
roac
hed
and
aske
d to
go
arou
nd
the
coun
try
to
call
for
a N
atio
nal
Bla
ck U
nite
d F
ront
. Se
vera
l m
eeti
ngs
wer
e he
ld
of
the
fron
t, bu
t th
e fr
ont
soon
dis
solv
ed a
s fr
ic-
tion
am
ong
(he
Pan
ther
s, S
N'C
C,
and
U.S
. (K
aren
ga's
gro
up)
cont
inue
d.
Dur
ing
the
thir
d N
atio
nal
Bla
ck
Pow
er
Con
fer-
38
ence
, po
liti
cal
diff
eren
ces
betw
een
the
Bla
ck G
uard
s an
dK
aren
ga's
S
imba
s ne
arly
le
d to
sh
oot-
outs
. A
t th
e R
AM
mee
ting
s du
ring
the
Bla
ck P
ower
Con
fere
nce,
RA
M d
ecid
edto
go
into
the
Rep
ubli
c of
New
Afr
ica
(RN
A)
and
be t
he l
eft-
win
g in
side
the
R
NA
. T
he
RN
A w
as t
o be
the
bro
ad
fron
tof
the
m
ovem
ent.
RA
M l
eade
rshi
p al
so d
ecid
ed t
hat
a m
ass
revo
luti
onar
yac
tion
m
ovem
ent
had
been
cre
ated
bu
t th
at t
here
was
ide
o-lo
gica
l co
nfus
ion
wit
hin
it.
It
was
fel
t th
at a
rev
olut
iona
ryna
tion
alis
t pa
rty
had
to b
e cr
eate
d. A
new
s re
leas
e w
as s
ent
out
anno
unci
ng
the
form
atio
n of
th
e A
fric
an-A
mer
ican
Par
ty o
f N
atio
nal
Lib
erat
ion
that
wou
ld b
e po
pula
rly
know
nas
the
Bla
ck L
iber
atio
n P
arty
.Se
vera
l m
eeti
ngs
wit
h ca
dres
wer
e he
ld
to e
xpla
in
the
prog
ram
an
d ta
ctic
s of
th
e pa
rty.
T
he
part
y's
prog
ram
was
the
sam
e as
the
R
NA
's:
self
-det
erm
inat
ion
of t
he b
lack
na-
tion
in
the
bl
ack
belt
so
uth;
th
e se
cess
ion
of
the
stat
es o
fM
issi
ssip
pi,
Geo
rgia
, S
outh
Car
olin
a, L
ouis
iana
and
Ala
bam
ato
bec
ome
an i
ndep
ende
nt b
lack
soc
iali
st r
epub
lic.
Thi
s w
as a
maj
or s
hift
ide
olog
ical
ly f
or t
he R
AM
lea
der-
ship
. T
hey
drop
ped
the
blac
k di
ctat
orsh
ip o
f th
e U
.S.
con-
cep
t; t
he
nati
onal
ist
posi
tion
had
gai
ned
prom
inen
ce w
ithi
nth
e or
gani
zati
on.
Tow
ards
th
e en
d of
O
ctob
er,
inte
rnal
con
trad
icti
ons
pola
rize
d in
side
of
RA
M a
nd t
he B
lack
Gua
rds.
Som
e m
em-
bers
of
the
cadr
es g
ot s
trun
g ou
t on
dru
gs a
nd i
nter
nal
figh
tsbr
oke
out
betw
een
diff
eren
t fac
tion
s.T
he
poli
tica
l sec
tion
of
RA
M h
eld
soul
ses
sion
s de
alin
gw
ith
inte
rnal
pro
blem
s an
d di
scus
sed
or d
ealt
wit
h m
ista
kes
they
had
mad
e. T
hey
had
buil
t a s
izea
ble
tuic
e, b
ut n
ow h
owto
m
aint
ain
un
ity
, co
nsol
idat
e th
e ra
nks,
inc
reas
e po
liti
cal
educ
atio
n, d
evel
op a
day
-to-
day
wor
k st
yle,
and
tra
nsfe
r th
elu
mpe
n —
who
m
aint
aine
d a
mil
itar
y ad
vent
uris
t ap
proa
ch—
int
o po
liti
cal
cadr
es?
The
y re
aliz
ed
they
had
bee
n w
rong
in p
revi
ousl
y sa
ying
tha
t th
e bl
ack
yo;i
;h
(Ihe
bl
ack
stre
etfo
rce)
w
as t
he v
angu
ard
of t
he r
evol
utio
n. W
hile
man
y of
our 39
peop
le w
ore
yout
h, t
he o
verw
helm
ing
maj
orit
y w
ere
wor
kers
,w
orki
ng o
r tr
ying
to
wor
k fo
r a
livi
ng.
Hav
ing
mob
iliz
ed
a co
mm
unit
y,
the
orga
nize
rs
wer
etr
ying
to
ad
dres
s th
emse
lves
to
w
hose
cl
ass
inte
rest
s th
eor
gani
zati
on o
f th
e pe
ople
is
goi
ng t
o re
pres
ent,
and
how
the
orga
niza
tion
is
goin
g to
fin
ance
its
elf.
Tow
ards
th
e en
d of
Oct
ober
a s
hoot
-out
occ
urre
d in
the
Bla
ck G
uard
s in
Wes
t Ph
ilad
elph
ia. T
he p
olic
e us
ed t
he s
hoot
-ou
t as
an
excu
se
to
repr
ess
the
orga
niza
tion
. M
ass
arre
sts
took
pla
ce
as o
ther
s w
ent
unde
rgro
und.
The
RA
M n
atio
nal
cent
ral
com
mit
tee
met
in
C
leve
land
, Ohi
o.
It w
as d
ecid
edth
at t
he i
ntel
lige
nce
appa
ratu
s of
the
U.S
. cap
ital
ist
stat
e w
asus
ing
the
wor
d R
AM
as
an e
xcus
e to
arr
est
brot
hers
and
sis-
ters
not
ev
en i
n th
e m
ovem
ent.
Man
y m
embe
rs w
ere
unde
rin
dict
men
t, ot
hers
in
pr
ison
an
d ot
hers
un
derg
roun
d. T
heor
gani
zati
on h
ad e
xhau
sted
its
con
tact
s fo
r fi
nanc
ial
supp
ort.
It w
as u
nder
att
ack,
inf
iltr
ated
and
ful
l of
int
erna
l co
ntra
dic-
tions
. T
here
wer
e di
ffer
ent
ideo
logi
es a
nd f
acti
ons
in t
he o
r-ga
niza
tion
; m
ilit
aris
m —
"th
e gu
n in
com
man
d"
— w
as r
am-
pant
. A
rep
ort
on t
he b
reak
thro
ugh
in m
ass
orga
niza
tion
in
Det
roit
was
giv
en. D
iscu
ssio
n ce
nter
ed a
roun
d sa
ving
as
man
yca
dres
as
poss
ible
fro
m t
he c
ount
er-i
nsur
genc
y pr
ogra
m b
eing
wag
ed b
y th
e go
vern
men
t. It
was
dec
ided
to
diss
olve
RA
Man
d th
at t
he w
ord
RA
M w
ould
no
long
er b
e pr
ojec
ted.
Eff
orts
w
ould
be
cent
ered
on
trai
ning
sec
ond-
line
lea
d-er
ship
for
the
B
lack
Lib
erat
ion
Par
ty,
and
all
cadr
es w
ould
focu
s on
D
RU
M a
s a
mod
el
for
mas
s w
ork.
The
lea
ders
hip
wou
ld
conc
entr
ate
its
effo
rts
on
buil
ding
st
rong
D
RU
Mm
ovem
ents
in
Det
roit
.T
he
mee
ting
ana
lyze
d th
at t
he b
lack
wor
king
cla
ss w
asth
e va
ngua
rd o
f th
e re
volu
tion
.St
rate
gic
retr
eat
was
the
to
pic
on
tact
ics.
Pr
otra
cted
stru
ggle
(w
ar) w
as t
osse
d ar
ound
fo
r so
me
tim
e. P
olit
ical
asyl
um
for
thos
e un
derg
roun
d an
d un
der
lega
l in
dict
men
tsw
as h
amm
ered
ou
t. H
ow t
o re
grou
p a
badl
y sh
atte
red
mov
e-m
ent
was
talk
ed a
bout
int
o th
e w
ee h
ours
of
the
nigh
t.
40
CO
NC
LU
SIO
N
Tho
ugh
the
Rev
olut
iona
ry
Act
ion
Mov
emen
t fa
iled,
in
its
obje
ctiv
e of
a
blac
k na
tion
alis
t so
cial
ist
revo
luti
on a
ndna
tion
al i
ndep
ende
nce
of t
he b
lack
nat
ion,
it
was
an
impo
r-ta
nt m
ovem
ent
in t
he
hist
ory
of t
he b
lack
lib
erat
ion
mov
e-m
ent
in t
he U
nite
d S
tate
s.It
w
as t
he
firs
t re
volu
tion
ary
nati
onal
ist m
ovem
ent
toem
erge
in
the
1960
's a
nd t
he f
irst
bla
ck o
rgan
izat
ion
to a
dvo-
cate
rev
olut
iona
ry v
iole
nce
agai
nst
the
capi
tali
st s
yste
m.
Itw
as t
he p
roto
type
for
lat
er d
evel
opm
ents
suc
h as
the
Bla
ckPa
nthe
r P
arty
, th
e R
epub
lic
of N
ew A
fric
a,
the
Lea
gue
ofR
evol
utio
nary
Bla
ck W
orke
rs a
nd t
he A
fric
an P
eopl
e's
Part
y.It
w
as
the
firs
t bl
ack
orga
niza
tion
in
the
19
60's
tha
tat
tem
pted
to
an
alyz
e th
e co
ndit
ion
of
blac
k pe
ople
in
th
eU
.S.
thro
ugh
a di
alec
tica
l and
his
tori
cal
mat
eria
list
appr
oach
.It
at
tem
pted
to
ap
ply
Mar
xism
-Len
inis
m-M
ao T
se
Tun
gT
houg
ht t
o th
e un
ique
con
diti
ons
of t
he
Uni
ted
Stat
es.
Inre
visi
ng m
any
of t
he b
asic
pre
-con
cept
ions
of
the
foun
ders
of
scie
ntif
ic
soci
alis
t th
ough
t, pa
rtic
ular
ly
Mar
x-E
ngel
s an
dL
enin
, it
adva
nced
the
the
ory
that
the
bla
ck l
iber
atio
n m
ove-
' men
t in
the
U.S
. was
par
t of
the
van
guar
d of
the
wor
ld s
ocia
l-is
t re
volu
tion
. A
nd
unli
ke m
ost
of
the
cont
empo
rary
bla
ckM
arxi
st-L
enin
ist
grou
ps, t
he R
evol
utio
nary
Act
ion
Mov
emen
tde
velo
ped
a m
ass
foll
owin
g. I
ts m
ajor
wea
knes
s w
as i
ts f
ailu
reto
de
velo
p a
long
-ran
ge s
trat
egy
for
the
over
thro
w o
f th
eca
pita
list
sy
stem
—
how
it
s ac
tion
s w
ould
re
late
to
othe
rse
ctor
s of
the
pop
ulat
ion,
i.e
., w
hite
, Chi
cano
, Pue
rto
Ric
an,
Asi
an a
nd N
ativ
e A
mer
ican
com
mun
itie
s.T
he
Rev
olut
iona
ry
Act
ion
Mov
emen
t's
conf
ront
atio
npo
liti
cs w
as a
sin
gula
r ap
proa
ch s
trat
egy
and
was
not
fle
xibl
een
ough
as
a co
mpr
ehen
sive
str
ateg
y fo
r ca
rryi
ng o
ut a
soc
ial-
ist r
evol
utio
n in
the
Uni
ted
Sta
tes.
In o
nly
havi
ng (
or a
t le
ast
bein
g pu
blic
ized
as
only
hav
-in
g)
a si
ngul
ar
appr
oach
—
vio
lent
con
fron
tati
on p
olit
ics
41
agai
nst
the
stat
e —
RA
M w
as o
ut-m
aneu
vere
d by
the
U
.S.
capi
tali
st
stat
e an
d w
as i
sola
ted
from
it
s po
tent
ial
supp
ort
base
, th
e ra
dica
lize
d se
ctor
of
the
blac
k m
iddl
e cl
ass.
The
Rev
olut
iona
ry A
ctio
n M
ovem
ent
was
an
embr
yoni
cre
volu
tion
ary
nati
onal
ist,
sci
enti
fic
soci
alis
t m
ovem
ent
— th
efi
rst
of
its
kind
in
the
hist
ory
of t
he b
lack
lib
erat
ion
mov
e-m
ent.
Thr
ough
th
e st
udy
of t
he m
ovem
ent,
we
see
that
ide
o-lo
gica
l ou
tloo
ks w
ere
in c
onst
ant
flux
and
oft
en i
n co
ntra
dic-
tion
w
ith
one
anot
her.
It
is i
nter
esti
ng t
houg
h th
at t
he t
wo
maj
or
high
tid
es o
f th
e bl
ack
libe
rati
on s
trug
gle
in A
mer
ica,
the
1920
's a
nd
the
1960
's,
prod
uced
si
mil
ar o
rgan
izat
iona
lde
velo
pmen
ts.
In t
he 1
920'
s, t
he A
fric
an B
lood
Bro
ther
hood
(AB
B)
was
the
bl
ack
radi
cal
orga
niza
tion
of
tha
t er
a an
d in
the
1960
's
the
Rev
olut
iona
ry A
ctio
n M
ovem
ent
emer
ged.
Whi
le R
AM
was
ins
trum
enta
l in
tra
nsfo
rmin
g th
e ci
vil
righ
tsm
ovem
ent
from
a
non-
viol
ent
mov
emen
t se
ekin
g pe
acef
ulre
form
to
a bl
ack
mov
emen
t se
ekin
g ra
cial
cha
nge
or r
evol
u-ti
on t
hrou
gh a
rmed
st
rugg
le,
it n
ever
was
abl
e to
bec
ome
the
hege
mon
ic g
roup
in
the
blac
k li
bera
tion
str
uggl
e. I
t the
refo
refa
iled
to
gain
lea
ders
hip
of t
he
mov
emen
t.B
ecau
se o
f th
e un
derg
roun
d na
ture
of
the
mov
emen
t, it
fail
ed t
o ut
iliz
e m
ost
of t
he a
venu
es o
f m
ass
com
mun
icat
ions
and
thus
did
n't
util
ize
all
of t
he
reso
urce
s in
the
bla
ck c
om-
mun
ity.
Whi
le R
AM
had
maj
or i
mpa
ct o
n no
rthe
rn i
nner
cit
ybl
ack
com
mun
itie
s,
as
was
evi
dent
fr
om
the
spon
tane
ous
mas
s ur
ban
rebe
llio
ns
from
19
64
to 1
968,
it
was
una
ble
toco
nsol
idat
e th
is m
ass
mov
emen
t an
d to
lea
d it
to
its
hist
oric
alco
nclu
sion
s.
RA
M
was
pla
gued
wit
h th
e pr
oble
m
of
tran
s-la
ting
the
ory
into
pr
acti
ce,
that
is
, de
velo
ping
a d
ay-t
o-cl
ayst
yle
of w
ork
(mas
s li
ne)
rela
ted
to t
he o
bjec
tive
mat
eria
list
real
ity
in t
he
Uni
ted
Sta
tes.
Lik
e m
ost
blac
k re
volu
tion
ary
orga
niza
tion
s,
RA
M
was
not
ab
le
to
deal
su
cces
sful
ly
wit
hpr
otra
cted
st
rugg
le. R
AM
as
a so
cial
mov
emen
t is
an
impo
r-ta
nt s
tudy
bec
ause
it
was
ins
trum
enta
l in
the
mas
s ur
ban
re-
bell
ions
of
the
1960
's.
It a
lso
set
the
stag
e fo
r m
ore
adva
nced
type
s of
lib
erat
ion
orga
niza
tion
s to
em
erge
in
the
1960
's.
42
Giv
en t
he e
vide
nce
rele
ased
abo
ut t
he U
.S.
gove
rnm
ent's
cons
tant
w
ar
agai
nst
the
blac
k n
atio
n th
roug
h lo
cal
poli
cede
part
men
ts,
nati
onal
gu
ard,
ar
my
, L
i'A,
and
the
FB
I's
infa
mou
s C
OIN
TE
LP
RO
pr
ogra
m,
RA
M's
id
eolo
gica
l-
per-
spec
tive
may
one
day
bec
ome
the
futu
re d
irec
tion
of
30 m
il-
lion
cap
tive
Afr
ican
s in
the
U
.S.
In t
he w
ords
of
the
late
RA
M s
poke
sman
E
l H
ajj
Mal
ikE
l Sh
abaz
z (M
alco
lm X
), W
e w
ill
win
our
lib
erat
ion
by
any
mea
ns n
eces
sary
.
43
