1964 Milne CLASSIC Dynamics of the Deform Able Airplane

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    M I N I S T R Y O F A V I A T I O N

    R . & M . N o . 3 3 4 5

    AERONAUTICAL RESEARCH COUNCILREPORTS AND MEMORANDA

    D ynam ics of the D eform able A eroplaneP a rt I . T h e E q u a t i on s o f M o t i o n

    P ar t I I . u A S tudy o f the Tr im S ta te and Lo ng i tud ina l S tab ilityo f the Slen der Integrated Aeroplane Con figuration

    By R. D. MILNE,QUEEN MARY COLLEGE, UNIVERSITY OF LONDON

    LONDON: HER MAJESTY'S STATIONERY OFFICE1964

    PRICE I 5$. od. NET

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    Dynam ics of the D eform ab le AeroplaneP a rt 1 . r a T h e E q u a tio n s o f M o t io n

    Part I I . - A Stu dy o f the T r im State and Longi tudina l Stabil ityo f the S lender Integrated Aeroplane Conf iguration

    B y R . D . ~/IILNE,Q U E E N ~ /[ A R Y C O L L E G E , U N I V E R S I T Y O F L O N D O N

    Reports and Mem oranda No. 3345*September, i962

    Part t . T he Equa tions O f M ot ionSummary.An in tegra ted analy t i ca l t rea tm ent i s p resen ted w hich deal s wi th the equi l ib r ium a nd s tab i l ity o f the f lex ib le

    aeroplane in f l igh t . The analys is embodies those metho ds cu rren t ly emp loyed to inves tigate the be haviour o fthe f l ex ib le aerop lane s temming on the one hand f rom the s tab i l i ty theory of the r ig id aerop lane and on theothe r from c onve ntional aeroelastic s tudies . Th e inte grate d t reatm en t serves to clarifT~ he regions of appl icat ionof these res t r i c ted methods .

    In Par t I the equat ions of mot ion for a f lex ib le aerop lane are developed in as genera l a mann er as possible.In Par t I I the gene ra l analys is i s app l ied to a deta i l ed s tudy of the e qui l ib r ium and s tab i l ity o f the s lender ,in tegra ted aerop lane conf igura tion .

    1. Introduction.,T h e e f f e c t o f f le x i b i l i ty o n t h e s t a b i l i t y a n d c o n t r o l o f a e r o p l a n e s i s re c o g n i s e d a s b e i n g o f

    p a r a m o u n t i m p o r t a n c e . Y e t t h i s p r o b l e m t e n d s t o b e t r e a t e d e i t h e r a s a m o d i f i c a t i o n o f r i g i d - a e ro p l a n es t a b i l i t y t h e o r y o r a s af t e x t e n s i o n o f th e m e t h o d s c o m m o n t o f l u t t e r a n a l y s i s . I n t h e f i r s t c a se t h er i g i d -a e r o p l a n e e q u a t i o n s o f m o t i o n a r e m o d i f i e d b y t h e u s e o f s o - c a ll e d ' m o d i f i e d d e r i v a t i v e s 'w h i c h i n c l u d e a n a l lo w a n c e o n l y fo r t h e s t e a d y o r e q u i l i b r iu m d e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e a e r o p l a n e s t r u c t u r e .T h e f l u t t e r e q u a t i o n s a r e e x t e n d e d t o i n c l u d e s m a l l t r a n s l a ti o n a n d r o t a t i o n o f t h e a e r o p l a n e a s aw h o l e a b o u t a z er o p o s i ti o n : b u t t h e z e r o p o s i ti o n c a n n o t , w i t h t h e m o d i f i c a t i o n a d o p t e d , b e a tr u ee q u i l i b r i u m s t a t e f o r t h e a e r o p l a n e i n f li g h t . B o t h t h e s e a p p r o a c h e s a r e , t o s o m e e x t e n t , d e f i c i e n t ind e a l in g w i t h t h e g e n e r a l p r o b l e m o f t h e s t a b i l it y a n d c o n t r o l o f t h e f l e x ib l e a e r o p la n e .

    T h e a d v e n t o f th e s l e n d e r , in t e g r a t e d a e r o p l a n e c o n f i g u r a t i o n w h i c h i s c u r r e n t l y t h o u g h t t o b es u i ta b l e f o r a S u p e r s o n i c t r a n s p o r t d e m a n d s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a n a n a ly s is d e a l in g w i t h t h ed y n a m i c s o f t h e d e f o r m a b l e a e r o p l a n e in a s f u n d a m e n t a l a m a n n e r a s p os s ib l e. P a r t I o f t h is p a p e r

    ~' Replaces A.R2C. 24,060.

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    presents such an analysis in general terms: it is natural that th e choice of an axis system for anaeroplane in flight should be, in a generalised sense, body axes and a central consideration of theanalysis is the defini tion of body axes for a deformable aeroplane. Part II applies the general analysisto the investigation of the trim states and t he stability of these trim states for the slender, integratedaeroplane configuration. This type of aeroplane configuration is very different from the classicallayout and illustrates well the ex tent to which overall aeroplane stability is inseparable from aeroplaneflexibility.

    2. The Equations of M otion.2.1. The Equations of M otion of a Deformable Bo dy in the Absence of Kinem atic Constraints.

    2.1.1. I n t r o d u c t i o n . - - T h e equations o f motion are to be set up for a bod y which possesses,in addition to an overall spatial motion, a local deformation motion due to its inherent flexibility, thebody as a whole being subjected to gravitational (body) forces and such external forces as are causedentirely by the relative motion of the body surface through a fluid medium. In particular, the bodysuffers no external kinematic constraints.

    It is assumed in all that follows that the relative displacement of any point of the body from theposition it occupies in some assigned reference configuration is small in comparison with a typicaloverall linear dimension of the body: thus second and higher powers of the displacement areneglected. This assumption is that usually made in the Classical Theory of Elasticity: it impliesthat the strain at any point is small and, in addition, that the relative rotation of any element issmall. As a consequence of these restrictions a set of linear relations connects the strain anddisplacement components at a point. It is not necessarily assumed that the relation between stress andstrain is a linear one.

    The lack of kinematic bound ary conditions means that the Elastic Boundary Value Problem is theNeum ann Problem 1, any solution of which is, arbitrary to the extent of a small rig id-body displacementand rotation. T he resolution of this arbitrariness will be discussed at length in connection with thechoice of reference axes moving in a generalised sense with the body. However , it may be emphasi sedat this point that the arbitrary nature of the Neumann Solution is quite inadequate to describe theoverall motion of the body because of its necessary smallness: indeed, any interpretation in thislight is essentially misleading.

    The equations of motion must be referred to inertial or space axes and for the purpose ofaeroplane stability and control the motion of the earth may be neglected and 'earth' axes adopted.However, as in the case of the motion of rigid bodies it is advantageous to interpose a set of axesmoving with t he bod y and in a conventional sense the mot ion is then referred to bod y axes. In thecase of a deformable body the specification of such an axis system is not obvious or indeed unique;the resolution of this question is postponed for reasons which will become clear.

    Accordingly we shall refer to body axes (origin O) whose position and orientation are not specifiedexcept in so far as they lie always in the region of a set of axes positioned at a defin ite point and alongdefinite directions in the body in a reference configuration.

    The specification of this reference configuration is not unique but, once chosen, it remainsunchanged. It may coincide, for example, with a particular equilibrium configuration of the bodybut more naturally it will be taken to coincide with the body configuration when completely freefrom external or body forces. In the latter case it is then essentially an idealised assembly of materialpoints in a purely geometric sense.

    2

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    L e t t h e p o s i t i o n v e c t o r o f a g e n e r a l p o i n t o f th e b o d y b e r : l e t t h e p o s i t i o n v e c t o r o f th e s a m e p o i n ti n t h e r e f e r e n c e c o n f i g u r a t i o n b e r 0 t h e n a d i s p l a c e m e n t v e c t o r r ' i s d e f i n e d b y

    r ' = r - r o (2 .1 , 1 )w h e r e , i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e c o n d i t i o n o f s m a l l n e s s o f t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t ,

    r '~ ~ l ~.2 . 1 . 2 . T h e l in ea r, a n d a n g u l a r m o m e n t a . - - L e t cr b e t h e m a s s p e r u n i t v o l u m e a t a n y p o i n t

    a n d d V a n e le m e n t o f v o l u m e . T h e l in e a r m o m e n t u m o f t h e b o d y isM = ~ V + d t d V (2 .1 , 2 )v

    w h e r e v i s t h e v e l o c i t y o f t h e o r i g i n o f t h e b o d y a x e s r e l a ti v e t o i n e r ti a l a x e s a n d d / d t r e p r e s e n t s t i m er a t e o f c h a n g e w i t h r e s p e c t t o i n e r ti a l a x e s .

    T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g a n g u la r m o m e n t u m a b o u t t h e o r ig i n o f t h e b o d y a xe s i s= ~ r x v + - ~ d V . ( 2 . 1 , 3 )H f v

    L e t t h e a n g u l a r v e l o c i ty o f t h e b o d y a x e s a t a n y i n s t a n t b e ~ a n d l e t t h e o p e r a t o r a / a t r e p r e s e n tt i m e r a t e o f c h a n g e w i t h r e s p e c t t o a n o b s e r v e r s t a t i o n e d i n t h e b o d y a x e s ; th e n t h e o p e r a t o r s

    d ~ ' ~ + ~ a re c o m m u t a b l e .T h e l in e a r m o m e n t u m { e q u a ti o n ( 2 .1 , 2 ) i~ m a y b e w r i t t e n

    f f a r ' ( 2 . 1 , 4 )= M v + M f 2 x r 0 o + ~ x a r ' d V + a ~ d Vv vw h e r e

    M -- fvi s t h e m a s s o f t h e b o d y a n d1 f a r 0 d Vr g = m _ g

    i s t h e p o s i t i o n v e c t o r o f t h e c e n t r e o f m a s s o f t h e r e f e r e n c e c o n f i g u r a t i o n .T h e a n g u l a r m o m e n t u m ( e q u a t i o n ( 2. 1, 3 )} m a y b e w r i t t e n

    H = M r o g x v + ( i , o + 0 3 ~ 2 +

    + e r ' d V x v + ~r o x d V (2 .1 , 5 )v vw h e r e

    = [ ~ [ ro~ I - r 0 ro ]f~0 d Vd Vi s t h e i n e r t ia t e n s o r ( o r d y a d i c ) f o r th e r e f e r e n c e c o n f i g u r a t i o n a n d

    f f~ ' = ( e [2 r o r ' I - (F r o + ro r ' ) ] d VO v

    r e p r e s e n t s ( to f i rs t o r d e r i n r ') t h e a d d i t i o n t o if% d u e t o t h e r e l a t iv e d e f o r m a t i o n .3

    (88240) h 2

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    2.1.3. Overall and elemental equations of motion.--The e q u a ti o n s o f m o t i o n f o r t h e b o d yt a k e th e f o r m o f t w o e q u a t i o n s w h i c h r e la t e t h e o v e r a l l f o r c e a n d m o m e n t o n t h e b o d y t o it s m o t i o na n d i n w h i c h t h e i n t e r n a l r e a c t i o n s d o n o t e x p l i c i t l y a p p e a r a n d a n e q u a t i o n w h i c h e m b o d i e s t h ec o n d i t i o n s o f e q u i l i b r iu m f o r t h e e l e m e n t s o f t h e b o d y .

    T h u s i f F i s t h e r e s u l t a n t f o r c e a n d L t h e r e s u l t a n t m o m e n t a b o u t t h e o r ig i n o f t h e b o d y a x e s o fthe e x te r na l ( su r f a c e ) t r a c t ions a nd g i s t he a c c e le r a t ion due to g r a v i ty the n

    d Md td H- - = F + M g , ( 2 . 1 , 6 )o . d . } . .

    V(2.1, 7)d t

    a r e the ove r a l l e qua t ions ' o f m o t ion .T h e e q u a t i o n o f ' m o t i o n f o r an e l e m e n t o f th e b o d y i s

    w i t h i n , w h e r e ~ i s t h e s t r es s t en s o r . O n t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e b o d y t h e s t a t i c a l .b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n i stha t t he su r f a c e s t r e s s c om pone n t s m us t be e qu iva le n t t o t i l e e x te r na l su r f a c e t r a c t ion t~ ; t hus ont h e b o d y s u r f a c e S ,

    n . I ~ = d ? ( 2 . 1 , 9 )wh e r e n i s t he ' ou tw a r d no r m a l . Th e ove r a l l e qua t ion s o f m o t ion ( 2 . 1 , 6 ) a nd ( 2 .1 , 7 ) m a y bec ons ide r e d a s ne c e s sa r y c ond i t ions f o r t he c ons i s t e nc y o f e qua t ion ( 2 . 1 , 8 ) a nd the s t a t i c a l bounda r ycondi t ion (2 .1 , 9) .

    2.1.4. Specif ication o f the body ax es .-- Th e d e t a il e d s p e c i f ic a t io n o f t h e b o d y a x es m a y n o wpr o f i t a b ly b e d i sc usse d . Le t r ' 1 be a so lu t ion o f e qua t ion ( 2 .1 , 8 ) s a t i s f y ing ( 2 .1 , 9 ) t he n

    r'~ = A R + A 0 x r 0 + # 1w h e r e A R ( t ), A 0 ( t) = 0 ( r ') i s al s o a s o l u t i o n w h e r e t h e r o t a t i o n m a y b e r e p r e s e n t e d a s a v e c t o r A 0 b yv i r tue o f i t s sm a l lne s s .

    L e t A o b e a n a x is s y s t e m s e t u p i n t h e r e f e r e n c e c o n f i g u r a ti o n b y c h o o s i n g s o m e ( m a t e r ia l ) p o i n ta s o r ig in a nd a l ine o f ( m a te ri a l ) p o in t s a s a n a x i s o f o r i e n ta t ion . T he n i f m o t ion e nsue s a t t im e t o t hespe c i f i c a t ion o f t he b od y a xe s ( o f a s im i l a r na tu r e to t i l e o r ig ina l ) m a y f o r m a l ly b e sa id to be sp e c i f i e db y a k n o w l e d g e o f A R a n d A 0 a t a n y s u b s e q u e n t t i m e t . F o r i t m u s t b e n o t e d t h a t t h e o r i g in o f t h eb o d y a x e s w i ll n o l o n g e r n e c e s s a r il y b e i n v e s t e d i n a m a t e r ia l p o i n t o f t h e b o d y n o r w i l l t h e a x i s o fo r i e n t a ti o n c o n t a i n t i le in i ti a l m a t e r ia l p o i n t s . I t n e e d o n l y b e d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t A R a n d A 0 m a y b ec ons i s t e n t ly sp e c i f i e d in t e r m s o f a so lu t ion o f ( 2 .1 , 8 ) : i n p r a c t i c e a know le dge o f AR a nd A0 i sno t r e qu i r e d d i r e c t ly a s w i l l be s e e n in t i l e s e que l .A n y n u m b e r o f w a y s o f c h o o s i n g th e b o d y a x es e x i st b u t i n p r a c t i c e t h r e e p a r ti c u l a r c h o i c e sw o u l d s e e m t o b e w o r t h y o f d is c u ss i on .

    ( a ) A t t a c he d Axe s .T h e s e a x e s a r e s p e c i f i e d b y t h e s i m p l e c o n d i t i o n s t h a t

    A R = A O = O .

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    I n t h i s c a s e t h e o r i g i n o f t h e b o d y a x e s r e m a i n s i n v e s t e d i n o n e m ' a te r ia l p o i n t o f t h e b o d y w h i l ea n a x is o f o r i e n t a t i o n i s t a n g e n t t o t h e c u r v e f o r m e d b y t h e m a t e r i a l p o i n t s o r i g i n a ll y d e f i n i n g t h ea x i s o f o r i e n t a ti o n . F o r e x a m p l e , i n t h e c a s e o f C a r t e s i a n A x e s t h e a x is d i r e c t io n s m a y b e t h e t a n g e n t ,n o r m a l a n d b i n o r m a l t o a c u r v e o f m a t e r ia l p o i n t s . F u r t h e r , a n y s e t o f a x e s w h i c h h a v e a f i x e do r i e n t a t i o n t o s u c h a s e t o f ax e s , a r e a l so A t t a c h e d a x e s .

    ( b ) M e a n A x e s . ~ ,aT h e s e a x e s a re c h o s e n i n s u c h a w a y t h a t , a t e v e r y in s t a n t , t h e l i n e a r a n d a n g u l a r m o m e n t a o f t h e

    r e l a t i v e m o t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e b o d y a x e s a r e i d e n t i c a l l y z e r o . T h u s ,

    o r

    I a t , 2 f a r ' 2v ~ T d V = v ~r o x 3 t d V = 0f s { A R + x r o r ' d ,0 d V cons t .

    V l=to

    f x { A R + A 0 x r o + r ' l } d V = c o n s t .71"0V t=lO

    where, for coincidence of the body axes and reference axis system A o at time t o the constants shouldbe taken to be zero. The latter equations are sufficient o determine AR, AO, thus,

    M A R + A 0 x M r o a = f ~ r ' ld Vv

    (2 .1 , l Oa)

    M r o g A R + A 0 . @ o = f e r o x r ' l d V .v

    ( 2 . 1 , l O b )

    I n p r a c t i c e t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n t h a t t h e d e f o r m a t i o n m o t i o n s h a l l s a t i s f y t h e c o n d i t i o n s

    f crr'dV = 0 ( 2 . 1 , l l a )vf a r o x r ' d V = 0 ( 2 .1 , l l b )

    i s e q u i v a l e n t t o r e f e r e n c e o f t h e m o t i o n t o M e a n A x e s . T h e n e q u a t i o n s ( 2 .1 , 4 ) a n d ( 2 . 1 , 5 ) r e s p e c t i v e l yt a k e t h e f o r m s M = M v + M K ~ x ro a

    H = M r o a X V + ( ~ o + O ' ) ' ~ Z .T h e u s e o f M e a n A x e s e f f e c t iv e l y r e d u c e s t h e i n e r ti a l c o u p l i n g b e t w e e n t h e o v e r a l l a n d r e l a t iv e

    d e f o r m a t i o n m o t i o n s .I t m a y b e n o t e d t h a t i f t h e o r i g in o f t h e r e f e r e n c e a x is s y s t e m A 0 i s c h o s e n t o b e t h e c e n t r e o fm a s s o f t h e r e f e r e n c e c o n f i g u r a t i o n t h e n b e c a u s e o f c o n d i t i o n ( 2 .1 , 1 1a ) t h e o r i g i n i s a l w a y s a t t h ec e n t r e o f m a s s .

    ( c ) P r i n c i p a l A x e s .T h e b a s i c r e q u i r e m e n t i n t h is c a s e i s t h a t t h e t e n s o r ~ ' s h o u l d b e d i a g o n a l a n d t h i s i s m o s t

    c o n v e n i e n t l y c o u p l e d w i t h t h e c o n d i t i o n ( 2 . 1 , l l a ) w h i c h e n s u r e s t h a t r 'g i s z e r o . T h e e q u a t i o n s

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    d e t e r m i n i n g A R a n d A 0 a r e c o m p l i c a t e d b u t i n t h e c a s e w h e n t h e o r i g i n o f t h e r e f e r e n c e a x i s s y s t e md 0 i s c h o s e n s o t h a t r0 g = 0 t h e y s i m p l i f y t o

    = f ~ r ' l d V ( 2 . 1 , 1 0 a )A R~ V

    a n d t h e t h r e e s c a l a r e q u a t i o n s ,j . ~ ' ~ . k = k . ~ ' ~ . i = i . ~ ' ~ . j = 0 ( 2 .1 , 1 2 )

    w h e r e i , j , k a r e t h r e e o r t h o g o n a l u n i t v e c t o r s p a r a l l e l t o t h e b o d y a x e s a n da [ 2r o r '21 - (r '2 r 0 + r0 r '2)]'~ d V

    d V

    = f v c r [2 r 0 r ' 11 - ( r ' l r o + r0 r ' l ) ] d V- A 0 ( E ,o i - d r - ( + d v A 0 .

    d v J vT h e t h r e e s c a l a r e q u a t i o n s ( 2. 1, 1 2 ) a r e s u f fi c i e n t t o d e t e r m i n e t h e c o m p o n e n t s o f A 0 .

    P r i n c i p a l A x e s i n t h i s s e n se w i l l m o s t o f t e n b e c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e c h o i c e o f P r i n c i p a l A x e s i n t h eu s u a l g e o m e t r i c s e n s e s i t u a t e d a t t h e c e n t r e o f m a s s f o r t h e r e f e r e n c e a x i s s y s t e m A 0. T h e b o d y a x e sa r e t h e n a l w a y s P r i n c i p a l A x e s s i t u a t e d a t t h e c e n t r e o f m a s s o f t h e d e f o r m e d b o d y . T h e c o n d i t i o n s( 2 .1 , 1 b ) a n d ( 2 .1 , 1 2 ) i m p o s e d o n r ' b y t h e c h o i c e r e s p e c t i v e l y o f M e a n A x e s o r P r i n c i p a l A x e s a r em o r e c l ea r ly i ll u s tr a t e d b y w r i t i n g t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s i n t e r m s o f C a r t e s i a n c o m p o n e n t s . T h u s , w i t h

    r o = x o i + Y o J + z o k ,r ' = x ' i + y ' j + z ' k

    w h e r e , a s b e f o r e , i , j , k a r e a u n i t ( b o d y ) t r i a d , c o n d i t i o n s (2 .1 , l l b ) a r ef ~ ( Y o Z '- Z o Y ') d V = f ~ ( Z o X ' -X o z ' ) d V = f c ~ ( X o y ' - y o x ' ) d V = O ( 2 . 1 , 1 3 )

    v v vw h i l e c o n d i t i o n s ( 2 . 1 , 1 2 ) b e c o m ef ~ ( y o Z ' 4 Z o y ' ) d v = fz o x ' + x o z ' ) d v = f e ( X o y ' + y o x ' ) d V = O . ( 2 . 1 , 1 4 )

    v v vF o r s h a p e s w h i c h a r e t y p i c a l o f a e r o p l a n e s i n w h i c h t r a n s v e r s e d i s p l a c e m e n t r e l a t iv e to a p la n e o r

    l i n e c o n t r i b u t e s t h e m a i n d e f o r m a t i o n t h e c o n d i t i o n s ( 2 .1 , 13 ) a n d ( 2 .1 , 14 ) m a y b e i d e n t i c a l . F o re x a m p l e , l e t t h e m e d i a n p l a n e o f a p l a t e - li k e s t r u c t u r e b e f l a t i n th e r e f e r e n c e c o n f i g u r a t i o n a n d l e t aC a r t e s i a n a x i s s y s t e m O , x , y , z b e c h o s e n t o h a v e t h e ( x , y ) p l a n e a s t h e m e d i a n p l a n e . T h e n i fz ' (xo, Yo) i s t h e t r a n s v e rs e d i s p l a c e m e n t c o m p o n e n t a n d i t is a s s u m e d t h a t t e r m s o f O ( zox ' , Zoy ' a r em u c h s m a l l e r t h a n t e r m s o f O (Z'Xo, z 'yo) t h e n s i n c e t h e l a s t i n t e g r a l v a n i s h e s i d e n t i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n s( 2 . 1, 1 3) a n d ( 2 . 1 , 1 4) a r e i d e n t i c a l . T h i s l a t t e r a s s u m p t i o n i s e f f e c t i v e l y t h e n e g l e c t o f r o t a t o r y i n e r t i a .

    2 . 1 .5 . V a r i a t io n a l f o r m o f t h e e l em en t a l eq u a t io n o f m o t i o n . - - H a v i n g d i s c u s s e d t h e q u e s t i o no f t h e s p e c i f i c a t io n a n d c h o i c e o f t h e b o d y a x e s w e m a y r e t u r n t o f u r t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f th ee q u a t i o n s o f m o t i o n , i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n ( 2 .1 , 8 ) a n d b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n ( 2 . 1, 9 ).T h e s e m a y c o n v e n ie r i tl y b e c o m b i n e d i n a s in g le v a r ia t i on a l e q u a t i o n o f m o t i o n . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h ev a r i a t i o n a l f o r m o f t h e e l e m e n t a l e q u a t i o n o f m o t i o n i s b y f a r t h e m o s t f e r t il e f o r t h e d e d u c t i o n o fa p p r o x i m a t e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f t h e f l e x i b i l it y o f t h e b o d y .

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    Le t t h e p a th o f t h e m o t io n o v e r a fi x ed , a r b l t r a r y t im e in t e r v a l t 1 < t < t~ b e v a r i ed f r o m th ea c t u a l p a t h b y t h e v i r t u a l d i s p l a c e m e n t 8 r ', t h e n s i n c e t h e f o r c e s o n a n e l e m e n t o f th e b o d y a r e, a te v e r y in s t a n t, i n e q u i l i b r i u m ( o v e r t h e a c t u a l p a t h ) t h e n t o a fi r s t - o r d e r v a r ia t i o n i n t h e p a t h n o w o r ki s p e r f o r m e d b y t h e s e f o r c e s t h r o u g h t h e v i r t u a l d i s p la c e m e n t . T h u s , i n t e g ra t i n g o v e r e v e r y e le m e n tand over the t im e in terval t 1 < t < t ., ,

    T r a n s f o r m i n g t h e t h i r d t e r m b y t h e D i v e r g e n c e T h e o r e m , u s i n g th e b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n (2 .1 , 9 )a n d n o t i n g t h a t

    Z : VS r ' = ~ : VSr ' + St 'V) = ~ : 8Wwh er e W i s t h e s t r a in t en so r t h en , f i n a l ly , t h e v a r i a t io n a l eq u a t io n o f m o t io n i s

    ; , : { L E ( v + + L , 2 1 ,T h e v a r i a ti o n S t ' i s a r b i t r a ry e x c e p t t h a t i t m u s t s a t i s f y t h e s a m e ( q u a s i - k i n e m a t ic ) c o n d i t i o n s a sa r e s a ti s f ie d b y r ' c o n s e q u e n t u p o n t h e c h o i c e o f a p a r t ic u l a r t y p e o f b o d y a x es . T h u s , i n p a r ti c u la r ,

    t h e v a r i a t io n a l m o d es 8 r ' = co n s t , an d 8 r ' = co n s t . r 0 a r e n o t ad m iss ib l e u n d e r an y ch o ice o fb o d y ax es so th a t eq u a t io n ( 2 .1 , 1 6 ) d o es n o t co n ta in eq u a t io n s ( 2 .1 , 6 ) an d ( 2 .1 , 7 ) a s sp ec ia l ca se s .S im i l a r ly eq u a t io n ( 2 .1 , 8 ) an d a n y d i f f e ren t i a l eq u a t io n ( r e l a tin g to so m e ap p r o x im a te ty p e o fan a ly s is ) d e d u c ed f r o m ( 2 .1 , 1 6 ) m a y n o t h av e a s a so lu t io n co n s tq + co n s t . 2 . r 0 .

    T o t h e e q u a t i o n s o f m o t i o n f o r t h e a e r o p la n e m a y b e a d d e d e q u a t i o n s r e p r e s e n t i n g c o n t r o l s y s t e m si n c o r p o r a t i n g s e r v o - m e c h a n i s m s . W i t h l a r g e c o n t r o l s i t m a y b e i m p o r t a n t t o i n c l u d e t h e i n e r t i a o fth e co n t r o l an d in th a t ca se a p a r t o f r ' m ay b e a l lo t t ed to co n t r o l d e f l ec t io n ; a p a r t o f t h e su r f acelo ad in g q ~ wi l l o f co u r se b e a sso c ia t ed wi th co n t r o l d e f l ec t io n . Th ese ad d i t i o n a l e q u a t io n s o f m o t io nwi l l em b o d y { in p l ace o f th e v a r i a t io n in s t r a in en e r g y in t eg r a l o f eq u a t io n ( 2 .1 , 1 6 ) } th e T r a n s f e rFu n c t io n o f. t h e co n t r o l a s r e l a t ed to th e d em an d and :: tm th e o v e r a l l an d d e f o r m a t io n m o t io n s o f t h eae r o p lan e .

    2.1.6. Attitude of the body axes in space.--The p r esen ce o f t h e g r av i t a t io n a l f o r c e in t h ee q u a t i o n s o f m o t i o n r e q u i r e s t h a t r e f e r e n c e b e m a d e t o t h e a t t i t u d e o f t h e b o d y a x e s i n s p a c e s in c eth i s f o r ce is fi x ed in d i r ec t io n r e l a t iv e to ' e a r th ' ax es .

    I t i s n e c e s s a ry t o a d o p t a s c h e m e w h e r e b y a s e q u e n c e o f r o ta t i o n s w i l l , fr o m a re f e r e n c e a t t i tu d e ,l ead u n iq u e ly to a f in a l a t t i t u d e : t h e f o l lo w in g sch em e 4 i s u su a l ly ad o p ted . I n th e r e f e r en ce p o s i t i o n ,ax i s 0 , 3 o f t h e ( in e r t ia l ) t r i ad 0 , 1, 2, 3 i s v e r t i ca l ly d o w n w ar d ; t ak in g a ll r o t a t io n s to b e r ig h t - h a n d e dth e f in a l a t t i t u d e i s o b ta in ed f r o m th e r e f e r en ce b y th e seq u en c e o f r o t a t io n s C a , 2 , 1 each ro t a t ! g nb e i n g a b o u t t h e c a r r i e d p o s i t i o n o f t h e r e l e v a n t ax is . T h u s , u s i n g t h e a b b r e v i a t i o n s c o s , = Qs in ~ = s t t h e o r th o g o n a l m a t r ix o f d i r ec t io n co s in es 5 f o r t h e f in a l a t t i t u d e i s

    C2C8 , C2S3 ,[I] = - qsa+sxs~ca, qca+sls~sa, slc~

    S l S a -4- C1S2C3 , - - S1C3 + C I$2S 3 , Cj_C2_](2.1., 17) .

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    T h e n i f t h e c o l u m n {v~F r ep re s e n t s t h e c o m p o n en t s o f a v ec t o r v in t h e f i x ed (v e r t ica l ) ax is s y s t eman d { V ~ M i t s co m p o n en t s i n t h e m o v i n g (b o d y ) ax i s s y s t em ,

    {villi } = [1] ~.veu}. (2.1 , 18)A k i n e m a t i c r e l a t i o n i s a l s o r e q u i r e d b e t w e e n t h e c o m p o n e n t s o f g a r e f e r r e d t o t h e b o d y a x e s ,

    s ay (p , q , r ) , a n d t h e i a n d t h e i r t i m e r a t e s o f c h a n g e , i . T h e r e q u i r e d r e l a t i o n is

    o l _ sC1 SlOg ~2

    -- S l C12J ~3(2.1, 19)

    2.2. T h e D e v i a n t E q u a t i o u s o f M o t i o n .2.2.1. I n t r o d u c t i o n . - - A c o n s i d e r a ti o n o f t h e b e h a v i o u r o f a n a e r o p l a n e i n f l ig h t w i ll d e a l

    e s s en t i a l l y w i t h t h r ee d i s t i n c t p ro b l em s :(1) eq u i l i b r i u m o f a s t ead y - f l i g h t s t a te ,(2) t h e s t ab i l it y o f s u ch s t ead y - f l i g h t s ta t e s ,( 3) t h e r e s p o n s e o f t h e a e r o p l a n e to c o n t r o l s o r g u s ts a n d b e h a v i o u r i n u n s t e a d y m a n o e u v r e s( r ap i d l y ro l l i n g f l ig h t , r ap i d p u l l -o u t s , e t c . ) . .

    O f t h e s e t h r e e p r o b l e m s t h e l a st i s v e r y C o n si d er a b ly m o r e d i ff ic u l t t h a n t h e f i r s t tw o . T h e p r o b l e mo f e q u i l i b r iu m b y v i r t u e o f it s d e f i n i ti o n is i n d e p e n d e n t o f ti m e b u t i t m a y o f t e n b e n o n - l i n e a r i nch a rac t e r . T h e s t ab i li t y o f s u ch eq u i l i b r i u m m ay , b y v i r t u e o f t h e s t ab i l i t y t h eo ry d u e t o L i ap u n ov 6 , 7,b e t e s t e d b y c o n s i d e r i n g t h e s t a b il it y o f a l in e a r i se d s y s t e m h a v i n g a s m a l l d i s t u r b e d m o t i o n a b o u tt h e p o s i t io n o f e q u i l i b r iu m . I f t h e s y s t e m r e t u r n s t o i ts e q u i l i b r i u m p o s i ti o n u n d e r p e r t u r b a t i o n s o fs u f f i c ien t l y s m a! l m ag n i t u d e , t h e eq u i l i b r i u m p o s i t i o n is s a i d to b e s t ab le . I f i t d o es so u n d e r a l lp o s s i b le p e r t u rb a t i o n s o f a rb i t r a ry m a g n i t u d e , t h e e q u i l i b r i u m p o s i t i o n is s a id t o b e t o t a l ly st ab l e .T h e l i n ea r ap p ro x i m a t i o n i s n o t a t e s t f o r t o t a l s t ab i l i t y .

    T h e t h i r d p r o b l e m w i ll g e n e r a l ly b e n o n - l i n e a r e x c e p t w h e n t h e c o n t r o l f o r c e s o r e x t e r n a ld i s t u r b a n c e s a r e r e s t r i c t e d to b e s m a l l e n o u g h t o p e r m i t l i n ea r i sa t io n o f t h e e q u a t i o n s o f m o t i o n a s

    fo r s t ab i li t y : in t h i s ca s e t h e s t ab i l i t y an d r e s p o n s e p ro b l em s a r e s o l u t io n s o f t h e h o m o g e n eo u s an di n h o m o g e n e o u s f o r m s o f t h e s a m e s e t o f e q u a ti o n s .

    2.2.2. T h e s t e a d y s t a t e . - - W i t h o u t d i s c u s s i n g i n d e t a i l t h e p r o b l e m o f e q u i l i b r i u m(see P a r t I I ) w e m a y c o n s i d e r th e n a t u r e o f p o s s ib l e s t e a d y - f l ig h t s ta t es . T o d o t h is i t n e e d o n l y b er e c a l le d t h a t t h e a e r o d y n a m i c fo r c e s a re n o t d e p e n d e n t o n t h e p o s i t i o n o r a t t i t u d e o f th e a e r o p l a n ei n s p a c e w h i l e t h e g r a v it a ti o n a l f o r c e is o f c o n s t a n t m a g n i t u d e a n d d i r e c t io n w i t h r e s p e c t t o ' e a r t h 'axes .

    T h e m o s t g e n e r a l s t e a d y s ta t e i n a h o m o g e n e o u s a t m o s p h e r e c l e ar ly c o n s is ts i n v = c o n s t, a n dr ' ~ f ( t ) w h i l e g ~ m ay b e a v e r t i ca l l y d i r ec t ed v ec t o r o f co n s t an t m ag n i t u d e ; t h a t i s , a s p i r a l l i n gm o t i o n a t c o n s t a n t sp e e d . W h e n t h e a t m o s p h e r e i s r e c o g n i s e d t o b e v e r t ic a l l y i n h o m o g e n e o u s t h e nv m u s t b e a h o r i z o n t a ll y d i r e c t e d ve c t o r.

    8

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    T h e m o s t u s u a l s t e a d y - f l i g h t c a s e i s t h a t o f r e c t i l i n e a r f l i g h t (g ~ = 0 ) f o r w h i c h t h e e q u a t i o n s o fe q u i l i b r i u m t a k e t h e f o r m s

    F 1 + M g 1 = 0L l + M r o l g x g l = 0

    t" F| ~ .1 : ~ W d K - g l" | e ~ r ' d V - | d ? l . ~ r ' d S = 0 (2.2, 1)d V d g J N!w h e r e t h e s u f f i x 1 r e f e r s t o t h e s t e a d y s t a t e .

    T h e s e e q u a t i o n s d e t e r m i n e , f o r g i v e n c o n t r o l f o r c e s o r s e tt i n g s , t h e s p e e d o f f l i g h t , t h e a t t i t u d e o ft h e a e r o p l a n e a n d t h e f o r m o f t h e d e f o r m a t i o n : a l t e r n a ti v e ly , w h e n t h e s p e e d ( a n d a l t it u d e ) i s s p e c if i e d,t h e r e q u i r e d c o n t r o l f o r c es a n d t h e r e s u l t in g a t t it u d e a n d d e f o r m a t i o n m a y b e d e t e r m i n e d (see P a r t I I ) .

    U p o n s o l vi n g th e e q u i l i b r i u m p r o b l e m a n y e q u i l i b r iu m s t a te r o t = r 0 + r ' t m a y b e c h o s e n a s an e w r e f e r e n c e c o n f i g u r a t i o n i n t h e s e n s e o f S e c t i o n 2. 1. 1.

    F o r s o m e p u r p o s e s i t m a y b e p o s s i b le t o n e g l e c t g r a v i ta t i o n a l f o r ce s . T h i s a r is e s w h e n t h e( i n t e g r a t e d ) i n e r t i a l f o r c es , i n t h e s t e a d y s t a t e a r e l a r g e s u c h a s in a r a p i d p u l l - o u t o r r a p i d l y r o l l i n gm o t i o n s . I n t h i s c a s e t h e a t t i tu d e o f t h e a e r o p l a n e i n s p a c e is i m m a t e r i a l a n d t h e m o s t g e n e r a l s t e a d ys t a t e is v = co n s t . , g~ = co n s t , an d r ' # f ( t ) .

    2.2 .3 . T he f o r m o f t he de v i an t e qua t i ons o f m o t i on . - - T he d e v i a n t e q u a t i o n s o f m o t i o nr e l a t e t o t h e d i s t u r b e d m o t i o n o f t h e a e r o p l a n e r e l a t i v e t o a s p e c i f i e d s t e a d y o r e q u i l i b r i u m s t a t e a n dc a n o n l y b e c o n s t r u c t e d o n c e t h e r e l e v a n t e q u i l i b r i u m s t a t e h a s b e e n s o lv e d . T h e v a r ia b l e s in t h ed e v i a n t e q u a t i o n s o f m o t i o n a r e s o d e f i n e d t h a t w h e n t h e y a r e a l l i d e n t i c a ll y z e r o t h e e q u i l i b r i u ms t a t e i s r e c o v e r e d .

    U s i n g t h e s u f f i x 1 a s i n S e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 2 t o m e a n a n e q u i l i b r i u m s t a t e t h e n w e d e f i n e t h e d e v i a n tv a r i a b l e s ( w i t h o u t s u f f i x ) b y t h e r e l a t i o n s

    V g = V t + V

    ~ t = ~2 (2.2, 2)r t = ( t o + r ' l ) + r '

    w h e r e t h e s u f f i x t i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e v a r i a b le s r e f e r to t h e t o t a l m o t i o n . S i m i l a r l y , t h e f o r c e s a r e g i v e nb y t h e r e l a t i o n s

    F ~ = F ~ ( v t , r ' J + F ( V l , r ' l , v , ~ , r ' )

    a n d

    L t = L t ( v l , r ' l ) + L ( v l , r ' l , v , g t, r ' )q~ , = + ~ ( v t , r 'a ) + + ( v ~ , r ' l , v , ~ , r ' )

    ( 2 . 2 , 3 )

    g~ = g l + g . (2 .2 , 4 )A l s o, t h e t o t a l a t t i t u d e o f t h e b o d y a x e s is g i v e n b y t h e r o t a t i o n s ~ i l f o l l o w e d b y t h e r o t a t i o n s ~ i ( t h ed e v i a n t r o ta t io n s ) . T h e d e v i a ti o n s ~ i d o n o t h a v e t h e s a m e m e a n i n g a s th e r o t a t i o n s ~ 1 f o r t h er o t a t i o n s ~ a r e c a r r i e d o u t a b o u t t h e a x i s d i r e c t i o n s o f t h e e q u i l i b r i u m s t a t e 1 w h e r e a s t h e r o t a t i o n s~ i l w e r e c a r r i e d o u t a b o u t t h e ' v e r t i c a l ' a x i s s y s t e m f i x e d i n s p a t ia l o r i e n t a t i o n . T h u s i f { v~ F

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    a n d {V~M}, a r e th e c o m p o n e n t s o f a v e c t o r i n t h e ' e a r t h ' a n d e q u i l i b r i u m a x e s r e s p e c t i v e l y a n d {V ,Mi ts c o m p o n e n t s i n t h e m o v i n g a x e s t h e na n d , i n p a r t i c u l a r ,

    { g2 11 TI } - - { g ) / M } l = ( [ / ] - I ) [ l ] l { g ) i F } . ( 2 . 2 , 5 )T h e d e v i a n t e q u a t i o n s o f m o t i o n a r e o b t a i n e d b y s u b s t i t u t i n g ( 2 .2 , 2 ) , ( 2 . 2, 3) a n d ( 2 .2 , 4 ) i n t h e

    e q u a t i o n s o f m o t i o n ( 2 .1 , 6 ) , ( 2 .1 , 7 ) a n d ( 2 .1 , 16 ) a n d u s i n g t h e e q u a t i o n s o f e q u i l i b r i u m ( 2 . 2, 1) .T h e d e v i a n t e q u a t i o n s o f m o t i o n a r e w r i t t e n o u t i n f u ll in A p p e n d i x I .2 .2 .4 T h e d e v i a n t e q u a t io n s t o f i r s t o rd e r i n t h e v e l o c i t i e s . - - T h e m a i n s t e p i n t h e l i n e a r i s a t i o n

    o f t h e d e v i a n t e q u a t i o n s i s t o re t a i n o n l y t h o s e t e r m s w h i c h a r e o f t h e f i rs t o r d e r w h e n v , ~ ( a n d , o fc o u r s e , r ' ) a r e t r e a t e d a s s m a l l q u a n t i t i e s . I t is s h o w n i n R e f . 8 t h a t w h e n v , g ~ a n d r ' a r e a ll s m a l lt h e n t h e a e r o d y n a m i c f o r c e s a r e li n e a r ( i n t e g r a l o r d i f f e re n t i a l ) f u n c t i o n s o f v , g~ a n d r ' ( t h ef u n c t i o n a l f o r m s a r e d e p e n d e n t o n t h e a c t u a l e q u i l i b r i u m c o n f i g u r a t i o n u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n ). T h i sd e g r e e o f l i n e a ri s a t io n i s t h u s s u f f ic i e n t t o m a k e t h e d e v i a n t e q u a t i o n s l in e a r e x c e p t f o r th o s e t e r m sw h i c h i n v o l v e t h e g r a v i ta t i o n a l f o r c e a n d a r e d e p e n d e n t o n t h e a t t i tu d e o f t h e a e r o p l a n e i n s p a c e .

    T h u s f o r t h o s e p r 6 b l e m s i n w h i c h g r a v i t y m a y b e n e g l e c t e d th e e q u a t i o n s a r e a l r e a d y li n e ar . F o rt h o s e i n w h i c h g r a v i t y c a n n o t b e i g n o r e d a f u r t h e r l in e a r i sa t i o n i s r e q u i r e d i n ro t a t io n a l a t t it u d e : n or e s t r i c ti o n i s r e q u i r e d o n t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t o f t h e o r ig i n u n l e s s t h e a t m o s p h e r e i s i n h o m o g e n e o u s .

    2 . 2 . 5 . N o n - d i m e n s i o n a l f o r m o f th e d e v i a n t e q u a t io n s t o f i r s t o r d e r in v a n d g ~ . - - T h e d e v i a n te q u a t i o n s a re r e n d e r e d n o n - d i m e n s i o n a l b y c h o o si n g

    (a) pV12l~ a s t h e u n i t o f f o r c e ,( b) l, a t y p i c a l o v e r a l l d i m e n s i o n o f t h e a e r o p l a n e , a s t h e u n i t o f l e n g t h , a n d( c) l / V 1 a s t h e u n i t o f t i m e ,

    w h e r eV~ = Iv 1 [ .

    T h e n t h e n o n - d i m e n s i o n a l d e v i a n t e q u a t i o n s o f m o t i o n , t o f i rs t o r d e r i n v , $2 a n d r ' a r e (seeA p p e n d i x I )

    L~ + x v l * a n * a ~r ' *

    M * r * x + @ o * " - - + M * r o u * x (g ~* x v l * ) +o~ ~ St*

    f ~ 2 r ' * fa * r o * x d V * L ;x" g *F * ~ = + M r o l y * x + F *{ O v

    d t l *852*+ - ~ .

    +

    + g ~* v l * ~ * S r * d V * + ~ *V * V *f ~ * r o * 8 r '* d V * - g * . f ~ * 3 r ' * d V * +V * V *

    f v * E * : 8 W * d V * - f s * q , * 8 r ' * d S * ) d t* = 0

    = F * + M ' g * ( 2 .2 , 6 a )

    x ( g * * + g * ) ( 2 . 2 , 6 b )

    8 r ' * d V * +

    (2 .2 , 6 c )1 0

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    w h e r eOg ~

    tt ~ . _ ~ V ~ - -( l / V 1 )

    O "o.,~ M S ---P++ . _

    t,

    r ' d S d Vl , d S e - l ~ , d V * - la ,v ~ , _ ~ l , g ~ g lV, ' V1 'M ~ o, ~ 0 ~0 --p l a p l 5

    F L2~ * - F ~ - - - L ~ ' - - - (2 .2 , 7 )pF? ' pI n t h e a b o v e e q u a t i o n s r0~ h a s b e e n r e p l a c e d b y r 0 i n th o s e t e r m s w h i c h w o u l d o t h e r w i s e i n v o lv e

    p r o d u c t s o f O ( r ' 2 ) , O ( v e ) , e t c .T h e k i n e m a t i c r e l a t io n s ( 2 .1 , 1 9 ) a p p l y w i t h (p , q , r ) t h e d e v i a n t a n g u l a r v e l o c i t i e s , t h e i t h e

    ' c a r r ie d a x i s ' a n g u l a r v e l o c i t ie s a b o u t t h e e q u i l i b r i u m a x e s a n d t h e i t h e r o t a t io n s f r o m t h es t e a d y - s t a t e o r i e n t a t i o n .

    2 . 2 . 6 . T k e d e v i a n t e q u a t io n s to f i r s t o r d e r i n a t t i t u d e . - - T h e d e v i a n t e q u a t i o n s a r e f u l l yl i n e a r is e d b y t a k i n g t h e d e v i a n t r o t a t i o n s i to b e s m a l l . T h e f o r m o f t h e e q u a t i o n s ( 2 .2 , 6 ) i su n a l t e r e d e x c e p t f o r t h o s e t e r m s i n v o l v i n g g . T h e r e l a ti o n s ( 2 .1 , 1 9 ) a n d ( 2 .2 , 5 ) ar e l in e a r i s e d ,t h e r o t a t i o n s i b e c o m i n g t h e c o m p o n e n t s o f a v e c t o r q b ; t h u s ,

    = 2 ( 2 . 2 , 8 )

    a n d 0{vi~,z} - {V~M}~ = -- a 0 ~ [l] ~{V~F . (2. 2, 9)

    I n ( 2 . 2, 9 ) t h e a n t i s y m m e t r i c m a t r i x i s e q u i v a l e n t t o a v e c t o r m u l t i p li c a t i o n b y ~ .2 .3 . T h e F o r c e s o n t h e A e r o p l a n e .

    2 . 3 . 1 . T h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l f o r c e . - - I n t h e d e v ia n t e q u a t i o n s o f m o t i o n t h e c o m p o n e n t s o ft h e v e c t o r g { e q u a t i o n ( 2 . 2, 4 ) } a r e g i v e n b y a n a p p l i c a t i o n o f e q u a t i o n ( 5 .2 , 5 ) , t h u s ,

    g = ( [ l ] - I ) g l ( 2 .3 , 1 )s o t h a t , t o f i r s t o r d e r i n t h e d e v i a n t r o t a t i o n s i ,

    g = qb x g l . ( 2 .3 , 2 )2 . 3 . 2 . T h e p r o p ul si v e f o r c e . - - T h e p r o p u l s i v e f o r c e w i l l g e n e r a l l y h a v e a f i x e d d i r e c t i o nr e l a t i v e t o t i l e p o w e r u n i t b u t i t s d i r e c t i o n m a y v a r y r e l a t i v e t o t h e b o d y a x e s b y a n a n g l e w h i c h

    w i l l b e o f t h e s a m e o r d e r o f sm a l l n e s s a s r ' . T h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e f o r c e w h i l e b e i n g c o n t r o l l a b l ew i l l a l so c h a n g e w i t h t h e m o t i o n o f t h e a e r o p l a n e a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r w i t h c h a n g e s i n f o r w a r d s p e e d .

    2 . 3 . 3 . T h e a e r o d y n a m i c f o r c e s . - - T h e s u r f ac e t r a c ti o n d / d u e t o t h e m o t i o n o f t h e a e r o p l a n et h r o u g h t h e a i r is o b v i o u s l y e x t r e m e l y d i f fi c u lt t o s p e c i f y f o r a g e n e r a l m o t i o n . I t w i l l d e p e n d u p o nt h e w h o l e h i s t o r y o f t h e m o t i o n ( d u e t o w a k e e f f e c t s) : t h e p r e s s u r e a n d s h e a r s a t a n y p o i n t o n t h es u r f a c e w i l l d e p e n d o n t h e in t e g r a t e d e f f e c t o f t h e w h o l e m o t i o n o f e v e r y p a r t o f th e a e r o p l a n e .

    11

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    I n a d d i t i o n , t h e t y p e o f fl o w r e g i m e e n c o u n t e r e d w i l l d e p e n d o n th e v a r ia t io n , t h r o u g h o u t t h em o t i o n , i n t h e v a lu e s o f a t y p i c a l R e y n o l d s n u m b e r a n d M a c h n u m b e r f o r t h e a e ro p l a n e .

    F o r t h e d e v i a n t m o t i o n r e l a t i v e t o a s t e a d y - f l i g h t s t a t e t h e a p p r o p r i a t e R e y n o l d s n u m b e r m a y b et a k e n t o b e t h a t o f t h e s t e a d y s t a te b u t t h e v a r i a ti o n i n t h e M a c h n u m b e r m a y s t i ll r e q u i r e t o b et a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t p a r t i c u l a r ly i n t h e t r a n s o n i c r e g i m e .

    T h e p r o b l e m b e c o m e s t ra c t a b l e w h e n t h e d e v i a n t m o t i o n i s l i n ea r i se d i n t h e v e lo c i ti e s v a n d g l .T h e f i r s t -o r d e r d e v i a n t a e r o d y n a m i c f o r c es m a y t h e n b e s a i d t o b e g i v e n b y a s u m o f t h e f o l l o w i n gc o n t r i b u t i o n s :

    ( 1 ) t he ( f i r s t - o r de r ) c ha ng e in the ( u n i t - o r de r ) e qu i l ib r ium f o r c e s due to ( f i rs t - o r de r ) c ha ng e inspe e d t r e a t ing the e q u i l ib r iu m s t r e s s c oe f f ic i e n t s a s c ons t a n t ,

    ( 2 ) t he ( f i r s t - o r de r ) c ha n ge in the d i r e c t ions o f t he ( u n i t - o r de r ) ove r a l l e qu i l ib r ium f o r c ec oe f f i c ie n t s due to ( f i r s t- o r de r ) r o t a t ion o f t he r e su l t a n t ve loc i ty ve c to r r e la t ive to the b od yaxes ,

    ( 3) t he ( f i r s t - o r de r ) c ha n g e in the ( un i t - o r de r ) e qu i l ib r ium s t r e s s c oe ff i c ie n t s due to ( f i r s t - o r de r )c h a n g e i n th e M a c h n u m b e r o f t h e e q u i l ib r i u m s t a te a n d

    ( 4) t h e ( f i r s t - o r d e r ) u n s t e a d y p r e s s u r e f i e ld g e n e r a t e d b y t h e ( f i rs t - o rd e r ) m o t i o n o f th ea e r o p l a n e w h e n c h a n g e s i n M a c h n u m b e r a r e i g n o r e d : t h i s c o m p o n e n t w i l l g e n e r a l l y b et r e a t e d on a n inv i sc id - f low ba s i s . I t i s shown in R e f . 8 t ha t t h i s p r e s su r e f i e ld m a y bed e r i v e d f r o m t h e s ta n d a r d l i n e a r is e d p o t e n t i a l u n s t e a d y - f l o w t h e o r y w h e n d u e a l l o w a n c ei s m a d e f o r th e d i f f e r en c e b e t w e e n b o d y a x e s as u s e d h e r e a n d t h e s t e a d il y t r a n s l at i n g a x ese m p l o y e d i n t h e s t a n d a r d t h e o r y . '

    2.4. Representation of the Aeroplane Structure.2.4.1. I n t r o d u c t i o n . - - T h e equa t ions of mot ion (2 .1 , 6) , (2 .1 , 7) and (2 .1 , 16) a re not , in

    t h e m s e l v e s , s u f f ic i e nt fo r t h e s o l u t i o n o f t h e a e r o p l a n e m o t i o n e v e n w h e n t h e s u r f a c e tr a c t io n s a r ec o m p l e t e l y s p e ci f ie d a s f u n c t i o n s o f t h e s u r f a c e m o t i o n . T h e a d d i t io n a l e q u a t i o n s r e q u i r e d a r e:

    ( 1 ) t he s t r e s s - s t r a in r e l a t ion ,( 2) t he e qua t io ns o f s t r ain c om pa t ib i i i t y .

    I n e f f ec t , i n o r de r t o p r oc e e d w i th a so lu t ion o f t he m o t ion i t is ne c e s sa r y to so lve the E la s t i cB o u n d a r y V a l u e p r o b l e m f o r t h e a e r o p l a n e s t r u c t u r e i n t e r m s o f a g en e r al s u r f a c e l o a d in g . W h e n i ti s a s s u m e d t h a t t h e s t r es s i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y a t t a in s i t s e q u i l i b r i u m v a l u e c o n s e q u e n t u p o n a r a p i dc ha n ge in s t r a in the n the e l a s t i c p r o b le m i s e f f e c t ive ly r e du c e d to the so lu t ion o f t he a e r op la n es t r u c t u r e u n d e r g e n e r a l s t e a d y s u r f a c e a n d b o d y f o r c e s w h e n t h e i n e r ti a f o r c e s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d b yt h e i r i n s t a n t a n e o u s y a l u e s ( d ' A l e m b e r t ' s P r i n c ip l e ). H o w e v e r , t h e a s s u m p t i o n o f a n i n s ta n t a n e o u s( c onse r va t ive ) s t r e s s - s t r a in r e l a t ion m a y no t be ju s t i f i e d in a pp l i c a t ion to uns t e a d y a e r oe la s t icp r o b l e m s s i n c e i t c a n n o t a l l o w f o r i n t e rn a l d a m p i n g : t h e s o l u t i o n o f th e e l as t ic p r o b l e m i f t h i sa s s u m p t i o n i s a b a n d o n e d b e c o m e s d i ff i cu l t a n d i n v o l v es t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e m o t i o n . A t h e o re t i c a lt r e a tm e n t o f i n t e r na l d a m ping in e l a s ti c i ty i s g ive n in R e f . 9.I n w h a t f o l l o w s h e r e i t w i l l b e a s s u m e d t h a t t h e s t r e s s - st r a in l a w i s t h e G e n e r a l i s e d H o o k e ' sL a w : t h e m o d i f i ca t i o n o f t h e e q u a t i o n s o f m o t i o n c o n s e q u e n t u p o n t h e p r e s e n c e o f s t r u c t u r a l d a m p i n gm a y t h e n b e m a d e f o r t h o s e c a s e s c o v e r e d i n R e f . 9 : as a c o n s e q u e n c e o f a s s u m i n g a n i n s t a n t a n e o u ss t r e s s - s t r a in r e l a t ion the r e i s no ne e d to r e t a in the in t e g r a t ion wi th r e spe c t t o t im e in the va r i a t iona le qua t ion o f m o t ion , ( 2 .1 , 16) .

    12

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    2.4.2. Suitable forms for the displacement ield .--O n th e ae roe las t lc sca le , e t he c lass ica la e r o p l a n e c o n s is t s o f a n a s s e m b l y o f b e a m - l i k e a n d p l a t e - li k e s t r u c t u r e s , w h i l e t h e m o d e r n i n t e g r a t e da e rop la n e ma y c ons i s t l a rge ly o f a s ing le p la te - l ike s t ruc tu re . M ore pa r t i c u la r i ly , f rom. a n a e roe la s t i cp o i n t o f v i e w t h e d e f o r m a t i o n s o f i n t e r e s t a re s o l el y t h o s e a t t h e s u r f a c e , th e i n t e r n a l d i s p l a c e m e n tf i e ld b e i n g o f s e c o n d a r y i m p o r t a n c e .

    A s a c o n s e q u e n c e w i d e u s e i s m a d e o f t h e s i m p l e b e n d i n g t h e o r y o f p la t e s a n d t h e s i m p l e b e n d i n ga n d t o r s io n t h e o r i e s o f b e am s s o m e t i m e s w i t h a p p r o x i m a t e c o r r e c ti o n s f or s h e a r d e f o r m a t i o n . W h e nt h e s i m p l e t h e o r i e s o f b e n d i n g a r e i n a p p l i c a b le t h e n m e t h o d s o f s t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s i s 1~'14 a r e u s e db a s e d o n t h e c o n s i s t e n t a s s e m b l y ( b y d i s p l a c e m e n t o r f o r c e c o m p a t i b i l i t y ) o f a l l t h e i n t e r n a le l e m e n t s o f t h e s t r u c t u r e a n d t h e e x t e r n a l ( p o i n t ) f o r c e s y s t e m . N e v e r t h e l e s s, i n t h i s c a se a ls o t h ep a r t o f t h e s o l u t i o n o f i n t e r e s t t o t h e a e r o e la s t ic i a n i s th a t w h i c h r e l a t e s t h e ' t r a n s v e r s e s u r f a c ed i s p l a c e m e n t s ' o f t h e s t r u c t u r e a t a f i n i te n u m b e r o f p o i n t s t o t h e l o a d s a t t h e s e p o i n t s.

    H a v i n g s y n t h e s i s e d th e s t r u c t u r e i n s o m e w a y t h e n t w o m a i n m e t h o d s a r e av a il ab l e f o rr e p r e s e n t i n g t h e c h a r a c te r i s ti c s o f t h e s t r u c t u r e i n t h e e q u a t i o n s o f m o t i o n :

    ( a ) in t h e c a s e w h e n b e a m o r p l a t e t h e o r y i s a p p l i ca b l e r e s o r t m a y b e m a d e t o a R a y l e i g h - R i t za n a l y s i s t h e r e b y e x p r e s s i n g t h e s u r f a c e d i s p l a c e m e n t i n t e r m s o f a s e r i e s o f w e i g h t e dc o - o r d i n a t e f u n c t i o n s ; t h i s a p p r o a c h s t e m s d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e v a r i at i o n a l e q u a t i o n o f m o t i o n(2.1, 16);

    (b ) th e G r e e n ' s o r I n f l u e n c e F u n c t i o n f o r b e a m o r p l a t e m a y b e c a l cu l a te d o r f o r m o r e g e n e ra ls t r u c t u r e s a s e t o f i n f l u e n c e c o e f fi c ie n t s a n d s o l u t i o n o f t h e e q u a t i o n s o f m o t i o n o b t a i n e dby nu me r ic a l in te g ra t ion ( c o l loc a t ion) ; the va r ia t iona l e qua t ion (2 .1 , 16) y ie lds the in te g ra le q u a t i o n o f m o t i o n d i r e c t l y b y t h e s i m p l e d ev i c e o f t a k i n g t h e v i r t u a l d i s p l a c e m e n t t o b e a( s m a ll ) a r b i tr a r y c o n s t a n t t i m e s t h e a p p r o p r i a t e i n f l u e n c e f u n c t i o n w h e n t h e v a r i a t io n i ns t r a i n - e n e r g y i n t e g r a l b e c o m e s , b y d e f i n i ti o n , t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t a t t h e g e n e r a l p o i n t.

    I n b o t h i n s t a n c e s t h e r e s u l t i s t o r e p l a c e t h e v a r i a t io n a l e q u a t i o n b y a f i n i t e s e t o f o r d i n a r yd i f f er e n t ia l eq u a t i o n s w i t h t i m e a s t h e i n d e p e n d e n t v a ri a b le .

    2.4.3. Application of the Rayleigh-Ritz p~ocedure.--The m e t h o d i s e x t r e m e l y w e l l k n o w n 'a n d t h e o n l y p o i n t o f i n t e r e s t h e r e r e f e r s t o t h e c h o i c e o f b o d y a x es . T h u s w h a t e v e r a x es a r e u s e de a c h c o - o r d i n a t e f u n c t i o n s h o u l d s a t i s fy t h e a p p r o p r i a t e a x e s c o n d i t io n s { e.g . e q u a t i o n s ( 2 .1 , l l a ) ,( 2 .1 , l i b ) f o r M e a n A x es }. W h e n in-vacuo v i b r a t i o n m o d e s ( n o r m a l m o d e s ) a r e u s e d a s c o - o r d i n a t ef u n c t i o n s t h e y w i l l a l r e a d y s a t is f y t h e m e a n - a x e s c o n d i t i o n s . I t i s c o m m o n l y a s s e r te d , f o r e x a m p l e ,t h a t n o r m a l m o d e s a r e ' o r th o g o n a l t o r i g i d - b o d y m o d e s ' a s i f t h is w e r e a u n i q u e p r o p e r t y o f n o r m a lm o d e s w h e r e a s i n f a c t i t is a c o n s e q u e n c e o f r e f e r r i n g t he " v i b r a t i o n m o d e s t o m e a n b o d y a x e s:s o - c a ll e d a r b i t r a r y m o d e s c a n a l w a y s b e c h o s e n t o b e ' o r t h o g o n a l t o r i g i d - b o d y m o d e s ' s i m p l y b ya pp ly ing the c ond i t ions (2 .1 , 11 a ), (2.1 , 11 b ) . T h e ro le o f the o ve ra l l bo dy m ot ion s in v ib ra t ion s tu d ie si s d is c u s s e d in A p p e n d i x I I .

    2.4.4. Application o f the Inf luence Fu nction.--In l ik e m a n n e r o u r m a i n i n t e r e s t in d i s c u s s i n gt h e a p p li c at io n o f t h e m e t h o d (b ) a b o v e is i n d e f i n i n g t h e I n f l u e n c e F u n c t i o n f o r a s t r u c t u r e w h i c hi s n o t s u b j e c t t o k i n e m a t i c c o n s t r a in t s , i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e c h o i c e o f b o d y a x e s.

    e Omkting local aeroelastic effects such as panel flutter.13

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    T h e f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n w i l l n a t u r a l l y a ls o h a v e r e f e r e n c e t o t h o s e c a s e s w h e r e a s e t o f i n f l u e n c ec o e f fi c i e nt s r a t h e r t h a n a n I n f l u e n c e F u n c t i o n i s av a i la b l e b u t s o m e r e m a r k s a r e a d d e d a t t h e e n dw h i c h r e f e r m o r e p a r t i c u l a r i l y t o t h e s e c a s e s .

    T h e e x i s t e n c e a n d n a t u r e o f I n f l u e n c e F u n c t i o n s 10,11 f o r p l a t e s a n d b e a m s i s w e l l k n o w n s o t h a ti t w i ll b e c o n v e n i e n t h e r e t o p u r s u e t h e d i s c u s s i o n w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e s i m p l e b e n d i n g o f b e a m s ;c o r r e s p o n d i n g r e s u l t s f o r o t h e r c a s e s a r e o b v i o u s .

    A t t h e o u t s e t , i n d e f i n i n g t h e I n f l u e n c e F u n c t i o n f o r a b e a m , i t is n e c e s s a r y to c o n s i d e r t h e b e a mt o h a v e s u f f i ci e n t k i n e m a t i c c o n s t r a i n t t o p r e v e n t b o d i l y m o t i o n a n d , f o r o u r p u r p o s e s , i t i sc o n v e n i e n t b u t n o t e s s e n t i a l t o c o n s i d e r a c a n t i l e v e r b e a m s i n c e c o n d i t i o n s a t t h e f r e e e n d a l r e a d ys a t i s f y t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s r e g a r d i n g l a c k o f k i n e m a t i c c o n s t r a i n t .

    T h u s , l e td~ / E d 2 w \

    b e t h e e q u a t i o n o f t h e l o a d e d b e a mW ~ -- - - -

    p ( x ) , 0 < x < 1 ( 2 . 4 , a )s u b j e c t t o t h e b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n sdw = O a t x = 0 ,d x

    E I d w dd x ~ = d x \ d x 2 ] = 0 at x = I . (2 .4 , 2)A f o r m a l s o l u t i o n o f t h e d i f f e re n t i a l e q u a t i o n a n d b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s i s g i v e n b y a F r e d h o l mI n t e g r a l E q u a t i o n 12, t h u s ,

    w ( x ) = G ( x , ~ ) p ( ~ ) d ~ (2 .4 , 3)0

    w h e r e t h e I n f lu e n c e F u n c t i o n G ( x , ~ ) s a t i s f i e s t h e d i f f e r en t i a l eq u a t i o n-dx E I ~ = ~ ( x - ~ ) , (2 .4 , 4)

    b e i n g t h e D i r a c F u n c t i o n , a n d t h e b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n sd GG - d x - 0 a t x = 0 ,

    a . c d ( E a . %El -d~x~ = dx \ dx~ ] = 0 at x = l . (2 .4 , 5)A s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e f a c t t h a t ( d 2 / d x 2 ) ( E I ( d Z / d x " ) } i s a s e l f - ad j o i n t d i f f e r en t i a l o p e r a t o r , t h e

    f u n c t i o n G ( x , ~ ) i s s y m m e t r i c a l .iI n t h e c a se o f a b e a m w i t h o u t k i n e m a t i c c o n s t r a in t a n d i n w h i c h t h e e n d s a re u n l o a d e d i t i s a

    n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n f o r t h e c o n s i s t e n c y o f t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n ( 2 .4 , 1 ) a n d t h e b o u n d a r yc o n d i t i o n s

    E I d Z w d / d 2 w \d x = d -xv ( E I j z x 2 ) = 0 at x = O, l (2.4, 6)t h a t

    f p ( x ) d x , = f t x p ( x ) d x = 0. (2 .4 , 7)0 0

    14

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    S i n c e t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s w i l l b e s a t i s f ie d b y a n y r e a l m o t i o n i n v o l v i n g t h e b e a m ( b y v i r tu e o f t h ea p p l i c a ti o n o f t h e o v e r a ll e q u a t i o n s o f m o t i o n ) w e m a y , f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f d ef i n i n g a n I n f l u e n c eF u n c t i o n , e q u i l i b ra t e t h e u n i t l o a d 3 ( x - ~ ) b y a n y c o n v e n i e n t l o a d i n g s y s t e m p r o v i d e d o n l y th a t i ta lo n e can n o t sa t i s f y ( 2.4, 7 ). Th i s a r b i t r a r y b a l an c in g sy s t em wi l l c l ea r ly v an i sh f r o m an y r ea lso lu t io n b y v i r tu e o f t h e sa t i s f ac t io n o f t h e o v e r a l l eq u a t io n s o f m o t io n ( 2.1, 6 ), ( 2 .1 , 7 ) . A co n v en ien tb a lan c in g sy s t em i s t h e lo ad in g a + b x w h e r e a , b sa t i s f y th e eq u a t io n s

    g iv ingj z - ( a + b x ) } d x = f ' x - ( a + b x ) } d x = 0 ( 2 . 4 , 8 )

    0 0

    6

    I t i s ea s i ly v e r i f i ed th a t a + b x b y i t se lf can n o t sa t i s f y eq u a t io n s ( 2 .4 , 7 ) u n le ss a = b - 0 .T h e I n f l u e n c e F u n c t i o n G ' ( x , ~ ) f o r t h e b e a m w i t h o u t k i n e m a t i c c o n s t r a i n t i s t h e n

    0(2.4, 9)

    T h e f u n c t i o n G ' ( x , ~ ) i s n o t s y m m e t r i c a l . T h e f u n c t i o n G ' ( x , ~ ) o b v io u s ly sa t i s f i e s t h e d i f f e r en t i a le q u a t i o n

    d z d Gdx EI -d~-x2 - - 3 ( x - ~ ) - ( a + b x ) (2.4, 10)

    a n d t h e b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s ( 2. 4, 6) w i t h G ' w r i t t e n f o r w .A s i t h a p p e n s t h e f u n c t i o n G ' wi l l s t il l s a t i s fy th e co n d i t io n s G ' = d G ' / d x = 0 a t x = 0 bu t

    th ese co n d i t io n s a r e n o lo n g e r n ecessa r y . I n f ac t , G ' i s , f o r f i x ed ~ , a r b i t r a r y u p to a sm a l l r i g id - b o d yd i sp lac em en t so th a t , i n g en e r a l,G ' ( x , ~ ) ~ - G ( x , ~ ) - G ( x , ~ ' ) [ a + b f ' ] d ~ ' + A ( ~ ) + B ( ~ ) x . (2.4, 11)

    0

    I n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e e q u a t i o n s o f m o t i o n o f t h i s b e a m t h e f u n c t i o n s A a n d B a r e d e t e r m i n e d b y t h ec h o i c e o f b o d y ax e s. T h u s , f o r a tt a c h e d a x e s A = B = 0 w h i l e f o r m e a n a x e s

    m ( x ) G ' ( x , ~ ) d x = m ( x ) x G ' ( x , ~ ) d x = 0 (2.4, 12)0 0

    w h e r e r e ( x ) i s t h e m a s s p e r u n i t l e n g t h o f t h e b e a m : t h e s e t w o c o n d i t i o n s y i e ld s i m u l t a n e o u seq u a t io n s f o r A(~ :) an d B (~ :) wh ich a r e a lway s co n s i s t en t . Th e r e i s, o f co u r se , n o n eed to ch o o se a so r i g in o f c o - o r d i n a t e s o n e e n d o f t h e b e a m b u t s h o u l d a n i n t e r m e d i a t e p o i n t b e c h o s e n t h e n G ' w i l lb e a n a m a l g a m o f t w o a b u t t i n g c a n t il e v e r in f l u e n c e f u n c t io n s : t h e a p p l i c a ti o n o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s( 2. 4, 8) ( e m b o d i e d i n t h e b a l a n c in g l o a d s y s t e m ) e n s u r e s c o n t i n u i t y o f s h e a r a n d m o m e n t b e t w e e nth e p a r t s o f t h e b ea m m ee t in g a t t h e o r ig in . F o r ex am p le , i n a co n v e n t io n a l ae r o p lan e th e o r ig in wi l lg e n e r a l l y b e i n t h e r e g i o n w h e r e t h e f o r e a n d a f t f u s e l a g e b e a m s a n d p o r t a n d s t a r b o a r d w i n gb e a m s m e e t .

    15

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    B y c h o o s i n g th e c e n t r e o f m a s s a s o r ig i n a n a l t e rn a t i v e b a l a n c i n g s y s t e m m a y b e e m p l o y e d w h i c h i sp a r t i c u l a r i l y c o n v e n i e n t w h e n a l s o m e a n a x e s a r e u s e d . T h i s s y s t e m i s

    a ( ~ ) m ( x ) + b ( ~ ) x m ( x )an d , a s b e f o r e , i t is e a s i ly v e r i f i ed t h a t t h i s s y s t e m a l o n e c an n o t s a t i s f y (2 .4 , 7 ). T h e eq u a t i o n s(2 .4 , 7 ) l ead to

    M k : ; ~u p o n u s i n g t h e f a c t t h a t

    f ~ m ( x ) x =x 00w h e r e M i s t h e m a s s o f t h e b e a m a n d h g t h e r a d i u s o f g y r a t i o n a b o u t t h e c e n t r e o f m a s s . W h e n t h em e a n - a x e s c o n d i t i o n s a r e u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e d ( ~ ) a n d B ( ~ ) t h e r e s u l t i n g i n f l u e n c e f u n c t i o n i s ,c o n v e n i e n t l y , s y m m e t r i c a l . O t h e r f o r m s o f b a l a n c i n g s y s t e m s m a y b e a d v a n t a g e o u s i n s p e c i fi c ca s es :t h e e x t e n s i o n t o t w o a n d t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s is o b v io u s .

    I n t h o s e c a se s w h e r e a m a t r i x o f in f l u e n c e c o e f fi c ie n t s r e p r e s e n t s t h e s t r u c t u r e t h e n t h e s t r u c t u r ew i l l h a v e b e e n a s s u m e d t o h a v e s u f f i c ie n t k i n e m a t i c c o n s t r a i n t s to p r e v e n t b o d i l y m o t i o n : t h ef o r e g o i n g i n t e g ra l o p e r a t i o n s f o r d e ri v i n g th e ' u n r e s t r a i n e d ' i n f l u e n c e f u n c t i o n m a y t h e n b ei n t e r p r e t e d s u i t a b l y a s m a t r i x m u l t i p l i c a t i o n s p r e f e ra b l y w i t h t h e a d d i t i o n o f a m a t r i x w h i c hr e p r e s e n t s a c o n s i s t e n t s e t o f i n t e g r a t i n g w e i g h t i n g n u m b e r s .

    T h e m a t r i x o f i n f l u e n c e c o e f f ic i e n ts f o r a n u n r e s t r a i n e d s t r u c t u r e i s n e c e s s a r i ly s i n g u la r , i n f a c t,i f t h i s m a t r i x i s o f o r d e r m t h e n i ts r a n k is ( m - n ) w h e r e n i s t h e n u m b e r o f n e c e s s a r y e x t e rn a le q u i l i b r i u m r e l a t i o n s t o b e s a t i sf i e d . A s a n i l lu s t r a t i o n c o n s i d e r a b e a m d e f l e c t i n g i n a p r in c i p a lp l a n e : i n t h i s c a s e t h e r e a r e t w o n e c e s s a r y e x t e r n a l e q u i l i b r i u m r e l a ti o n s , n a m e l y t h a t o v e r a l l f o r c ea n d m o m e n t i n t h e p r i n c i p a l p l a ne s h o u l d b e z e r o .

    L e t G b e t h e m a t r i x o f i n f l u e n c e c o e f f ic i e n ts f o r t h e b e a m u n d e r ( m - - l ) p o i n t l o a d s { p} w h e n t h eb e a m i s s u i t a b l y c o n s t r a i n e d . A g a i n , t h e m a n n e r o f c o n s t r a i n t i s a r b i t r a r y b u t w e c h o o s e t h ec a n t i l e v e r a s b e i n g m o s t c o n v e n i e n t . T h e n i f t h e ( m - 1 ) d e f l e c t i o n s a t t h e l o a d s t a t i o n s a re { w } ,

    {w} = G {p} : (2 .4 , 13)t h e b u i l t - i n e n d i s n o t i n c l u d e d a s a p o i n t - d i r e c t i o n . T o c o n s t r u c t t h e i n f l u e n c e m a t r i x f o r t h eu n r e s t r a i n e d b e a m w e p r o c e e d a s f o r t h e i n f l u e n c e f u n c t i o n b u t f i r s t i n c l u d e t h e r o o t a s a s t a t i o n b yw r i t i n g

    Ew h e r e w o a n d P 0 a r e t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t a n d ( p o i n t) l o a d a t t h e r o o t s t a t i o n . T h e b a l a n c i n g l o a d i sag a i n t ak en a s d j { 1 } + B ~ { x } w h e r e A 3. a n d B y a re g i v e n b y t h e o v e r a ll e q u i l i b r i u m e q u a t i o n s

    1 - ( 1 ) ' { 1 } A ~ . - { 1 } ' ( x } B ~ . = 0

    x - { x ) ' { 1 ) A s - { x } ' { x } B j = 0 , j = 0 t o m . (2.4, 15)16

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    T h e m a t r i x G ' i s g i v e n b y { c f . e q u a t i o n ( 2 . 4 , 9 ) } G I ~ 0 } 0 }

    a n d c l e a r l y t a k e s t h e f o r m [ o { o } '{ C 2 1 } C22Jf ina l ly , [ : I - - o

    t h e n

    { ; ' ] {A:.{1 } + BjfX}}' ( 2 . 4 , 1 6 )

    (2 .4 , 17a)

    (2 .4 , 17b)T h a t G ' ( o f o r d e r m ) is o f r a n k ( m - 2 ) m a y b e d e m o n s t r a t e d b y n o t i n g t h a t f o r t h e l o a di n g s y s te m sE { o }p = [ { I } ] i a n d E { ; ] P = [ { O } ] x

    T h u s t h e c o l u m n s o f G ' a r e c o n n e c t e d b y t w o l i n e a r r el a ti o n s , t h a t is , t h e r a n k o f G ' i s ( m - 2 ) . I na d d i t i o n s i n c e

    a { 1 } ' / P [ = 0 a n d /~ { x} '{ p} = 0L Jp }

    f o r a ll ~ , /3 w h e n t h e l o a d i n g s y s t e m py i s s e l f - e q u il i b ra t i n g w e m a y a d d t o G ' t h e a r b i t ra r y c o l u m n s{ 1} a n d f l{ x} . S i m i l a r r e s u l t s f o l l o w f o r o t h e r b a l a n c i n g l o a d s y s t e m s .

    3. A Discussion of the Equations of Motion with Referenc e to Current Methods of InvestigatingAeroplane Stability.3.1. Introduction.

    T h i s d i s c u s s i o n r e la t e s t h e f o r e g o i n g g e ne r a l a n a ly s is t o t h e m e t h o d s c u r r e n t l y u s e d t o e s t i m a t et h e s t a t i c a n d d y n a m i c s t a b i l i t y o f f l e x i b l e a e r o p l a n e s . E m p h a s i s i s l a i d o n t h e e s t i m a t i o n o f t h es t a b i l i t y o f t h e t r i m m e d , l e v e l - f l i g h t s t a t e .

    B r o a d l y s p e a k in g , c u r r e n t m e t h o d s ' f o r d e a l in g w i t h t h e s e p r o b l e m s f a ll i n t o tw o t y p e s , o n e a ne x t e n s i o n o f t h e c l a s s i ca l f l u t t e r a n a l y s is , t h e o t h e r a n e x t e n s i o n o f c la s s ic a l , r ig i d - a e r o p l a n e s t a b il i ty .

    T h e s l e n d e r i n t e g r a t e d c o n f i g u r a t i o n d i f f e r s c o n s i d e r a b l y i n l a y o u t f r o m t h e c l a s s i c a l a e r o p l a n ea n d i t i s b y n o m e a n s o b v i o u s t h a t b e h a v i o u r k n o w n t o b e t y p i c a l o f c la s si ca l a ir c r af t w i l l a p p l yt o t h i s c o n f i g u r a ti o n . H e r e , a t t e n t io n i s d r a w n t o s o m e o f t h e p o i n t s o v e r w h i c h s o m e d o u b t m a ya r is e , w h i l e i n P a r t I t t h i s t y p e o f c o n f i g u r a t i o n is d e a l t w i t h i n s o m e d e t a il .

    3 .2 . A Discussion of C urrent M etho ds.3 .2 .1 . Inclusion of the 'rig id-body modes ' in f lu t ter an aly seY .- -W he n, i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e

    a s s u m p t i o n o f s m a l l c h a n g e i n a t t it u d e o f t h e a e r o p l a n e , i t i s a ls o a s s u m e d t h a t t h e d i s p l a c e m e n to f a n y p o i n t o f t h e a e r o p l a n e f r o m a re c t il in e a r f l i g h t p a t h ! s s m a l l th e n t h e e q u a t i o n s o f m o t i o n m a yb e c o n s t r u c t e d s o a s t o r e f e r t h e m o t i o n t o s te a d i l y t r a n s l a t i n g ( i .e . N e w t o n i a n ) a x e s . A p r o c e d u r e

    17(88240) B

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    of t h i s t ype i s u sua l l y fo l l owe d i n i nve s t i ga t i ons o f t he f l u t t e r o f a e rop l a ne s i nc l ud i ng t he so -c a l l e d' r i g i d -bo dy m ode s ' (o f p i t c h a nd ve r t i c a l t r a ns l a t ion , fo r e xa m pl e , in t he sy mm e t r i c a l c a se) .

    T h e c h i e f d r a w b a c k o f t h is a p p r o a c h i s th a t c h a n g e s i n f o r w a r d s p e e d m u s t b e e x c l u d e d f r o m t h ed e v i a n t e q u a t i o n s o f m o t i o n i n o r d e r t o e l im i n a t e a e ro p l a n e m o t i o n s w h i c h i m p l y d e v i a ti o n s f r o m are c t i l i ne a r f l i gh t pa t h w h i c h a re m a ny t i me s l a rge r t ha n a t yp i c a l a e rop l a ne re fe re n c e l e ng t h (m o t i onso f p h u g o i d t y p e ) . T h e r e s u l t o f t h is i s to s u p p r e s s a n y r e f e r e n c e i n t h e d e v i a n t e q u a t i o n s o f m o t i o nt o t he a c t ua l e qu i l i b r i u m c onf i gu ra t i on un de r c ons i de ra t i on : t he t r i m sp e e d i s i r r e l e va n t e xc e p t i nso fa r a s i t i s i mp l i c i t l y p re se n t i n t he r a t i o o f a t yp i c a l s t ruc t u ra l s t i f fne s s t o a t yp i c a l dyna mi cp re s su re . In p ra c t i c e , in t he se c a se s i t is u sua l t o i ma g i ne a n ' e qu i l i b r i u m s t a t e ' i n wh i c h a ll fo rc esbo t h e l a s t ic a nd a e rod yna m i c a re z e ro : we i gh t i s ne c e s sa r il y i gno re d .

    W i t h t he a dv e n t o f t he i n t e g ra t e d c on f i gu ra t i on i t i s f e lt t ha t s t a b i l i t y inve s t i ga t ions shou l dp r o p e r l y i n c l u d e t h e f u l l o v e ra l l m o t i o n o f t h e a e r o p la n e . T h e d e v i a n t e q u a t io n s o f m o t i o n t h e n y i e l di n fo rm a t i on re l a t ing t o t he s t a t ic s t a b i li t y o f t he a e rop l a ne wh e re a s t he roo t s o f l owe s t f r e q ue n c yf o r t h e a b b r e v i a t e d e q u a t io n s y i e l d i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t a m o d e w h i c h o f t e n re s e m b l e s t h e s h o r t - p e r i o dmo t i on o f a r i g i d a e rop l a ne : wh e ne ve r t h i s mo de show s a ' s t a t i c ' i n s t a b i l it y t he ne g l e c t o f c ha nge i nfo rw a rd spe e d i s no t ju s t i f ia b l e .

    3.2.2. The meth od of m odif ied derivatives 16,4 . - - U n t i l f a i r l y r e c e n t l y t h e a p p r o a c h u s e d i na e rop l a ne s t a b i l i ty a nd re sponse c a l c u l a t i ons w h i c h t a ke a c c oun t o f f l e x i b il i ty ha s be e n ba se d on t hei d e a o f f r e q u e n c y - s e p a r a t e d sy s t em s . T h e m e t h o d is e s s e n ti a ll y a m o d i f i c a t io n o f t h e r i g i d - a e r o p l a n ee q u a t io n s o f m o t i o n a n d q u a s i - s te a d y a e r o d y n a m i c f o r c es a re u s e d b a s e d o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t, f o rt h e m o d e s o f in t e r es t , th e f r e q u e n c y p a r a m e t e r w i l l b e l o w . T h e n u m b e r o f e q u a t i o n s o f m o t i o nre m a i ns una l t e re d bu t t he l ow e s t -o rd e r c oe ff i c ie n t s a re m od i f i e d by a n a l l owa nc e fo r f le x i b i li t y , suc ha l lo w a n c e b e i n g b a s e d o n a n e q u i l i b r i u m o r s t e a d y - d e f o r m a t i o n a n a ly s is o f t h e a e r o p l a n e s t r u c t u r e(e .g . i n t e r i a fo rc e s a re ne g l e c t e d ) . P ra c t i c a l l y spe a k i ng , t h i s a pp roa c h i s a pp l i c a b l e whe ne ve r t het yp i c a l ove ra l l -mo t i on f r e que nc i e s a re muc h sma l l e r t ha n t he l owe r t yp i c a l v i b ra t i o i l na t u ra lf r e que nc i e s o f t he s t ruc t u re . Bu t t he v i b ra t i on f r e que nc i e s o f i n t e re s t a re t hose o f t he a e rop l a ne i nf l ig h t a n d t h e s e f r e q u e n c i e s m a y d e p a r t c o n s i d e r a b l y f r o m t h e i r ' st i ll - ai r ' v a l u e s: u n d e r s u c hc o n d i t io n s t h e p r i n c ip l e o f f r e q u e n c y s e p a r a ti o n m a y o f t e n f ai l a n d t h e n u m b e r o f e q u a t io n s o fm o t i o n s h o u l d b e i n c re a s ed .

    F u r t he r , i n c a l c u l a t i ng mod i f i e d de r i va t i ve s i t is u sua l t o i ma g i ne t he m a j o r pa r t s o f t he a e rop l a net o be k i ne m a t i c a l l y c ons t ra i n e d ( i. e. bu i l t - i r0 a t va ri ous po i n t s . F o r t h e c l a ss i ca l l a you t t h i s p roc e du rel e ad s t o m o d i f i e d d e r iv a t iv e s w h i c h a r e p h y s i c al l y m e a n i n g f u l b u t i t w o u l d n o t b e a n e x a g g e r a t io nt o s a y tha t t h e c on c e p t o f t he mo d i f i e d de r i va t i ve a s a pp l i e d t o t he i n t e g ra t e d c on f i gu ra t i on isv i t i a t e d by t he l a c k o f obv i ous phys i c a l me a n i ng t o be a t t a c he d t o suc h de r i va t i ve s .

    Th e p i t f a l ls a s soc i a te d wi t h t h e a pp l i c a t ion o f k i ne ma t i c c ons t ra i n t )o f a ny k i nd t o t he s l e nde rc onf i gu ra t i on a re d i s c us se d in Re f . 15 .

    18

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    A P P E N D I X IThe Dev ian t E qua tions o f Mot ion

    + ~ x ( v + v ) + - ~ - M r o l o + o r ' d +v+ ~ x ~ x M r 0 1 a + o r ' d + 2 ~ x ~ - ~ - d Vv v

    f 0 2 r ,+ ~ - ~ f f d V = F + M g .g

    +

    M r o l a + o r ' d x ~ / + ( {I ~O l+ ~ ' ) ~ - +v

    + T t - ~ + ~ [( o o ~ + ' ) . ~ ] +

    + ~ x ~ r o x y f d V + o r 0 x T f i dVV v= , L + M r o l a g + f o r ' d V (g l + g )

    v

    ? l l ~ I f f - ~'+ ~ 2 ( v x + v ) ~ S r ' d V + ~ -~ =~ . 8 r ' d V +V Vf c Or' c 3 ~ f ~ ( r o l + r ' ) 8 r ' d V -+ 2K ~. ~ T i 8 r ' d V + T f "

    v v

    - - ~ . f ~ [ ( r o l + r ' ) 8 r ' I - ( r o 1 + r ' ) S r ' ] d V . K~ -v

    f f f }g . ~ S r ' d V + ~ : 8 ~ d V @ . S r ' d S d t = 0v v s

    1 9(88240) ]32

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    A P P E N D I X I IM o t i o n u n d e r n o F o r c e s - - F r e e V i b r a t io n

    I n t h e u s u a l a p p r o a c h t o t h e f r e e v i b r a t i o n o f u n r e s t r a i n e d s t r u c t u r e s t h e m o t i o n i s r e f e r r e dd i r e c tl y t o N e w t o n i a n A x e s w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t b o d i l y m o t i o n m a y o n l y b e a l lo w e d f o r w i t h i n t h er e s t r i c t i o n s o f s m a l l o v e r a ll d i s p l a c e m e n t a n d r o t a t i o n . O v e r a l l e q u a t i o n s o f e q u i l i b r i u m a r e t h e na p p l i e d w h i c h l e a d to c o n d i t i o n s o n t h e r e s u l t i n g m o t i o n w h i c h a r e i d e n t ic a l to t h e m e a n - a x e sc o n d i t i o n s ( 2 .1 , l l a ) , ( 2 .1 , 1 1 b ) . T h e r e s u l t is to r e f e r t h e m o t i o n t o m e a n a x e s w h i c h a r e a t r e s ta n d a r e t h e r e f o r e , i p so f a c t o , N e w t o n i a n A x e s .

    H o w e v e r , t h e r e i s n o n e e d t o a s s u m e t h a t t h e m e a n a x e s a r e at re s t a n d m o r e g e n er a l m o t i o n se x i st w h i c h s a t is f y t h e e q u a t i o n s o f m o t i o n w h e n n o e x t e r n a l f o rc e s a c t o n t h e s y s t e m . O f a ll th e s eg e n e r a l m o t i o n s o n l y th a t i n v o l v i n g s t e a d y , n o n - r o t a t i n g t r a n s l a t i o n ( v = c o n s t . , ~ = 0 ) o f t h em e a n a x e s w i l l y i e l d w h a t is n o r m a l l y r e f e r r e d t o a s f r e e - v i b r a t i o n m o d e s .

    B u t a b o v e a ll it s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t t h e e q u a t i o n s o f m o t i o n W h e n n o e x t e r n a l f o r c e s a c t c o n t ai nn o r e f e r e n c e t o p o s i t i o h o r o r i e n t a t i o n i n s p a c e s o th a t t h e s e a r e , a t a ll t i m e s , a r b i t r a r y a n d w i t h o u tl i m i t. T h i s c o n c l u s i o n i s q u i t e o u t s i d e t h e s c o p e o f t h e s o l u t i o n , c o n s t . 1 + c o n s t . 2 x r 0 a s s o c i a t e dw i t h t h e N e u m a n n P r o b l e m i n e l a s t i c i t y .F i n a l l y , w h i l e i t i s c e r t a i n l y c o n v e n i e n t t o r e f e r v i b r a t i o n m o t i o n t o m e a n a x e s it is n o t e s s e n t ia l :t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f ov e r a ll a n d d e f o r m a t i o n m o t i o n s w i ll m e r e l y b e a l t er e d t o y i e ld t h e s a m et o t a l m o t i o n .

    2 0

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    P ar t I I . - - A S tudy o f the T r i m S t a te and L ong i tud i na l S tab ilityof the S lender Integrated A eroplane C onfiguration

    Summary .Th e general analysis developed in Part I is applied to the calculation o f the eq uil ibr ium states and the

    longitudinal stability of suc h equilib rium states for the slender, integrated aeroplane configuration.T he slender configuration is treate d essentially as having on ly longitudinal flexibility b u t an extension toinclude spanwise flexibility is included.Slender-wing theo ry is employe d bo th in the tr im state and in the deviant equations o f mo tion to give the

    aerodynamic loading.Th e m etho d of solution of the equations of equil ibr ium and the d eviant equations of mo tion is by a collocation

    proce dure w ell suited to digital computation.A simple num erical exam ple is pres ente d to illustrate th e application of the analysis.

    1 . In t roduc t ion .I n t h i s P a r t t h e g e n e r a l a n a l y s i s o f P a r t I i s a p p l i e d t o t h e e s t i m a t i o n o f th e s t a b i l it y o f t h es y m m e t r i c m o t i o n o f a s l e n d e r f l e x i b le fl y i n g w i n g t h i s b e i n g a m o d e l o f th e s l e n d e r i n t e g r a t e d t y p e

    o f a e r o p l a n e c o n f i g u r a t i o n w h i c h m a y p r o v e s u i t a b l e a s a s u p e r s o n i c t r a n s p o r t c r u i s in g i n t h eM a c h n u m b e r r a n g e 1 . 8 t o 2 . 2 o r t h e r e ab o u t s .

    B e f o r e t h e s t a b i l i t y o f t h e m o t i o n r e l a ti v e t o a s p e c i f i e d t r i m m e d s t a te c a n b e s t u d i e d t h e t r i m m e ds t a te i t s e l f m u s t b e d e t e r m i n e d a t a ll a i rs p e e d s s o t h a t t h e c a l c u l a ti o n o f th i s s t e a d y s t a t e f o r m s a nin t e g r a l pa r t o f t he f o l l o w in g a na lys is .

    T h e t r i m m e d s t a t e i s t a k e n a s l e v e l t r i m m e d f l ig h t a n d t h e a t m o s p h e r e i s t r e a t e d a s b e i n gh o m o g e n e o u s f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v ie w o f t h e d e v i a n t m o t io n .

    T h e m a i n i n t e r e s t is in t h e s t a b i l it y o f t h e a e r o p l a n e a s a w h o l e a n d n o t i n f l u t t e r a s s u c h . T h u so n l y t h o s e m o d e s o f m o t i o n h a v i n g s i g n i fi c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s f r o m o v e r a ll b o d y m o t i o n a r e o f d i r e c ti n t e r e s t . H e n c e t h e s l e n d e r w i n g i s t r e a t e d e s s e n t i a l l y a s a f l y i n g b e a m b e n d i n g l o n g i t u d i n a l l y a n dl aa v in g r ig i d s p a n w i s e s e c t i o n s b u t t h e e x t e n s i o n o f t h e a n a l y s is t o i n c l u d e s p a n w i s e f l e x i b il i tyi s d i sc usse d .

    L i n e a r i s e d s l e n d e r - w i n g t h e o r y is u s e d i n s e tt i n g u p t h e d e v i a n t e q u a t i o n s o f m o t i o n a n d t h ee q u a t i o n s f o r th e t r i m s t at e . H o w e v e r , t h e a e r o d y n a m i c t h e o r y u s e d i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e t r i m s t a t en e e d n o t b e i d e n t i ca l t o t h a t u s e d t o o b t a i n t h e d e v i a n t f o r c es a n d m a y a l l o w fo r n o n - l in e a r i t y . B u ti t s h o u l d b e b o r n e i n m i n d t h a t s i n c e t h e r e l a t i v e d e f o r m a t i o n i s a s s u m e d t o b e s m a l l t h e c h a n g ei n t h e l o c a l a n g le o f i n c i d e n c e o v e r t h e w i n g s u r f a c e d u e t o f l e x ib i l it y w i ll a l so b e s m a l l: h e n c e i fa n o n - l in e a r a e r o d y n a m i c t h e o r y i s t o b e u s e d i t s h o u l d t a k e t h e f o r m o f a su i t a b l e T a y l o r E x p a n s i o ni n t h e r e l a t i v e d e f o r m a t i o n a b o u t a m e a n o v e r a l l i n c i d e n c e .T h e a c tu a l m e t h o d o f s o lu t i o n o f b o t h t h e d e v i a n t e q u a ti o n s o f m o t i o n a n d t h e e q u a t i o n s o fe qu i l i b r ! um i s by c o l loc a t i on . T ha t i s , t he va r i a t i ona l e qu a t ion O f m ot io n i s s a t i s f i e d a t on ly a f i n i t en u m b e r o f p o i n t s , i n t h i s c as e d i s t r i b u t e d a l o n g t h e w i n g r o o t c h o r d . B y t h i s m e a n s t h e c o n t i n u o u ss y s t e m i s r e d u c e d t o o n e h a v i n g a fi n it e n u m b e r o f d eg r e es o f f r e e d o m a n d t h e u s u a l m e t h o d s o fs o l u t i o n a r e a v a il a b le . I n d e r i v i n g t h e d e v i a n t e q u a t i o n s o f m o t i o n a n d e q u a t i o n s o f e q u i l i b r i u m f o rt h i s e q u i v a l e n t d y n a m i c a l s y s t e m i t w i l l b e s e e n t h a t t h e o n l y n u m e r i c a l t e c h n i q u e r e q u i r e dt h r o u g h o u t i s t h a t o f n u m e r i c a l i n t e g ra t io n .

    21

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    An i de a l i s e d po i n t f o r c e is supp ose d t o a c t a t t he t r a i li ng e dge o f the w i ng i n o r d e r t o be a b l e tot r i m t he a e r op l a ne . Th i s c on t r o l f o r c e i s a s sum e d t o be i n f i n i t e l y d i sposa b l e a nd no a t t e m pt i s m a det o e l uc i da t e i ts o r i g i n b u t i t is a c l ose r e p r e se n t a t i on o f a f l a p - t ype C on t r o l s it ua t e d a t t he t r a i l inge d g e o f t h e w i n g .

    F i na l ly , t h e a na l ys i s is a pp l i e d t o t he s i m p l e e xa m pl e o f a de lt a w i ng ha v i ng a g i ve n m a ssd i s t r i bu t i on a nd whose ove r a l l c ha r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e p r oba b l y t yp i c a l o f a n a e r op l a ne su i t a b l e a s as u p e r s o n i c t r a n s p o r t.

    2 . T h e I n t e g r a t e d S l e n d e r C o n f i g u r a t i o n .2.1. G e n e r a l S p e c i f i c a t i o n .

    Th e ge ne r a l l a you t o f a n i de a li s e d , s l e nde r c onf i gu r a t i on i s show n i n F i gs . 1 a nd 2 : t hec r o s s - s ec t io n c o u l d b e m o r e g e n e r a ll y a w i n g - b o d y s h a p e. F i g . 1 s h o w s t h e m a i n g e o m e t r ic p a r a m e t e r so f t he a e r op l a ne w h i l e F i g . 2 sho ws t he se nse o f t he l i ne a r a nd a ngu l a r ve l oc i ti e s , f o r c e s a ndm o m e n t s a n d l o a d i n g p e r u n i t l e n g t h .

    Th e r e f e r e nc e l e ng t h i s t a ke n a s t he r oo t c hor d 1 a nd t he o r i g i n o f t he a x i s sys t e m i s a t t he m i d - po i n tof the t ra i l i ng edge .

    T h e c o n t r o l fo r c e P r e p r e s e n t s a n i d e a li s e d a e ro d y n a m i c c o n t r o l; i n p r a c ti c e P w o u l d b e s u p p l i e dby e l e va t o r - t y pe c on t r o l s g i v ing a sho r t r e g i on o f d i s t r i bu t e d p r e s su r e l oa d ing . T he f o r c e P b e i nga e r odyna m i c i n o r i g i n wi l l ha ve t he f o r m

    P = p V ~ l ~(cont rol coef f i c i ent )f o r