1）Francesco Landini蓝迪尼

Birth: c. 1335 Death: 1397 Nationality: Italian Occupation: composer, poet Source: Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2nd ed. 17 Vols. Gale Research, 1998.

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BIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYFrancesco Landini (ca. 1335-1397), the greatest Italian composer before the late 16th century, was also a poet.

Italian art music first came to the fore in the middle third of the 14th century. Earlier music--and there certainly was much of it--seems to have been largely confined to monophony: Gregorian chants and the songs of the troubadours and of St. Francis of Assisi. Then, suddenly, polyphonic music began to flourish in the mid-14th century, particularly in Florence, culminating in the work of the poet-musician Francesco Landini.

The son of a painter, Landini became blind in childhood because of smallpox; but he acquired great virtuosity on the organ, built organs, and invented a new stringed instrument, probably similar to the harpsichord, which emerged during his time.

Although honored as a poet in both Latin and Italian, Landini's extant poems are almost exclusively for his own musical compositions. These, although many seem to be lost, constitute about a quarter of all Italian music surviving from the period 1340-1480. They found widespread popularity and reappear in many manuscripts and in arrangements for keyboard instruments. Only one small fragment of a motet has come to light, although Landini is known to have written quite a number. What remains are 154 secular songs, which are of three types, madrigals, caccie, and ballate, all in two or three voice parts.

The madrigal, very different from the more familiar 16th-century type, was the first Italian poetry set to music; hence its name, which means "in the mother tongue." It flourished particularly in the generation before Landini. His 11 madrigals are usually composed for two or three vocalists, but voices and instruments may combine on each melodic line. Each madrigal consists of two

musically different sections, the first serving the two or three three-line sections of the poem and the second one the concluding two lines of text.

The caccia--the same word as the English "catch"--was a hunting or fishing song, set in the form of a canon or round. Its poetic form is that of the madrigal, so that each caccia falls into two canonic sections. In some madrigals, also, one of the two sections may be composed as a canon. Only two of Landini's caccie are extant.

The rest of Landini's output are ballate, essentially songs for a solo voice with the accompaniment of one or two instruments, though some of them are written for two or three voices. Their poetic form differs from that of the madrigal, for a refrain, modeled after the second section of the stanza and sung to the same melody, was sung at the beginning of the ballata and repeated after each of the usually three stanzas.

With his lyrical, songlike melody Landini stands out among his contemporaries. His songs possess an easy-flowing grace and are charmingly harmonized. The texts are in part by him and in part by his Florentine compatriot Franco Sacchetti. Their subjects are quite varied: religion, love, convivial companionship, and historical events.

2）马肖 Guillaume de Machaut

1300-1377Also known as: Guillaume de Machault, Guillaume de Machau, Guillaume de Mauchault, Guillelmus de Machaut, Guillelmus de Mascaudio

Birth: 1300 in Machaut, Champagne Death: April 13, 1377 in Rheims Nationality: French Occupation: composer, poet Source: Baker's Biographical Dictionary of Musicians®, Centennial Edition. Nicolas Slonimsky, Editor Emeritus. Schirmer, 2001.

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BIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYMachaut (also Machault, Machau, Mauchault), Guillaume de (Guillelmus de Mascaudio), important French composer and poet; b. probably in Machaut, Champagne, c. 1300; d. probably in Rheims, April 13?, 1377. He entered the service of John of Luxembourg, King of Bohemia, about 1323, and was his secretary until the King's death (1346). He was granted a canonry in

Verdun (1330), a second in Arras (1332), and a third Rheims (1333), retaining the first until 1335. He settled in Rheims permanently about 1340, and from 1346 was in the service of the French nobility, including the future King Charles V. His Messe de Nostre Dame for 4 Voices is one of the earliest polyphonic settings of the Mass. He also wrote 42 ballades, 33 virelais, 23 motets, 22 rondeaux, 19 lais, a double hocket, a complainte, and a chanson royal. An ed. of his works was prepared by F. Ludwig for the Publikationen Älterer Musik (1926-34; continued by H. Besseler, 1954) and by L. Schrade in Polyphonic Music of the Fourteenth Century (Vols. 2 and 3, Monaco, 1956).

Guillaume de MachautAlso known as: Guillaume de Machault, Guillaume de Machau, Guillaume de Mauchault, Guillelmus de Machaut

Birth: c. 1300 in Reims, France Death: April, 1377 Nationality: French Occupation: composer, poet Source: Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2nd ed. 17 Vols. Gale Research, 1998.

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BIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYGuillaume de Machaut (ca. 1300-1377) was the greatest French composer of his century, the creator of the first complete polyphonic Mass setting, and a renowned poet.

Guillaume de Machaut was born in the village of Machault in Champagne, near Reims. He became a cleric, and in 1323 he joined the household of King John of Bohemia as a secretary. John was the son of one German emperor and the father of another; his ancestral castle was Luxembourg. He was also the brother-in-law of one French king and later became the father-in-law of another, and his closest associations were with the French court. One of the most traveled noblemen of Europe and involved in numerous military campaigns, John took his secretary with him to Bohemia, Prussia, Poland, Lithuania, and Italy.

Later John settled Machaut at Reims with a canonicate. There Machaut lived from about 1340 on, quietly and peacefully, except for frequent trips to Paris and hunting expeditions; he was joined by

his brother in 1355 and by his student, the poet Eustache Deschamps, who may have been his nephew. Machaut always kept in close touch with the royal family, and his last patron was Jean de France, Duke of Berry, the grandson of King John and brother of King Charles V of France. The Duke of Berry was one of the greatest art patrons of all time. The most beautiful of the five manuscripts that contain all Machaut's works was written for the duke under Machaut's personal supervision. Because of this "complete edition," Machaut's output reaches us fully and is the most voluminous of any composer before the 15th century.

In 1374 Machaut's brother died, and in April 1377 Guillaume followed him. Two poems written by Deschamps in May commemorate his death; shortly thereafter they were set to music by a composer of the younger generation, Andrieu, and they constitute the earliest such "complaint" about a poet or composer.

His Works

In his poetry and in his life Machaut shows himself conscious of his lowly origin but also of his worth. He is dignified, but he can be rollicking and rustic; he is realistic and honest rather than formal. Machaut describes nature as he saw it, responds to the events of his day as a poet-historian, and gives a very honest account of his last love affair, that with Peronne, a girl of 18 or 20, with whom he fell in love during his early 60s; elsewhere he records the names of some eight other girls he had loved. But the majority of his poetry deals with love in the manner of the trouvères, whose style he sought to revive. In fact, he was the last composer outside of Germany to write monophonic songs like those of the trouvères.

Machaut's works can be divided into four categories. The first consists of larger poetic works: seven historical poems (dits); Le Remède de fortune, in part a textbook of poetry; Le Veoir dit (1362-1365), the story of his last love; La Prise d'Alexandrie (ca. 1370), chronicling the sack of Alexandria by the king of Cyprus in 1365; and seven others. Several of these works contain poems set to music. The second group comprises his shorter poems: La Louange des dames, some 270 poems in praise of women; and about 50 complaints and other poems. The third category includes poems set to his own music: 19 lais; 23 motets, with 2 texts each; and 101 pieces in the standard forms of the period (formes fixes)--ballade, virelai, and rondeau. The fourth group consists of two large musical works: the hocket David and a Mass. Many of these works reappear in manuscripts other than the five of his "complete edition," proving the composer's widespread fame. They are all available in modern editions.

Musical Technique

Machaut's musical technique represents the ars nova, or new music, of the 14th century, championed by Philippe de Vitry in the preceding generation. It employs duple meter alongside the previously explored triple meter; the triad; isorhythm, that is, a lengthy rhythmic pattern applied to changing melodic phrases; and complex, often syncopated rhythm. Machaut also seems to have introduced such artifices as reading a melody backward; and his accompanied songs--a melody accompanied by two instruments--are the first of the genre to reach us, since those of

Philippe de Vitry are lost.

In his Remède de fortune, Machaut teaches several form types, among them the lai, the complaint, the chanson royale, and the formes fixes. His lais are in 12 stanzas, each subdivided into two or four pairs of lines, sung to the same melody; all line pairs differ in length and rhythm, and therefore melodically, except that the last stanza is sung to the music of the first one. Of Machaut's 25 lais 19 are set to music, monophonically (for one unaccompanied voice only), but in two of them monophonic stanzas alternate with canonic ones (of the type of the modern round, then called a chace).

The complaint is a poem of many (30-50) stanzas of 4X4 lines each. When sung--only one of some 15 by Machaut is set to music (monophonically)--all stanzas are sung to the same music, each stanza falling into two repeated sections.

The chanson royale is a poem of 5 stanzas of 8-11 lines and a refrain of 3-4 lines. Only one of Machaut's eight chansons royales is set to music (monophonically).

Ballade, virelai, and rondeau are related forms, all derived from the dance, though only some rondeaux were still connected with dancing at the time. All involve a refrain which is repeated in all stanzas and may comprise 6-20 lines or more. Most of these poems are set to music: 20 of the 21 rondeaux, each for one sung part and one to three instrumental parts; 32 of 38 virelais, most of them monophonically, but some for voice plus one or two instruments; and 42 ballades, mostly for voice and one or two instruments.

To these types must be added the motet, the hocket, and the Mass. The motet, created shortly before 1200 as a liturgical work, soon became the chief type of serious secular art music. Machaut's motets are among the most artful of the century. Whereas isorhythm appears infrequently in the ballades and rondeaux and not at all in the other form types described above, it is ubiquitous in the motets. They are all written for two sung parts--sung to different texts, two, indeed, to one French and one Latin text simultaneously--and either one or two instrumental parts. The majority are secular, but some are liturgical.

The hocket David is one of the last works, and the longest, of a type created during the 13th century. In a hocket two parts alternately give out snatches of a melody, here above an isorhythmic cantus firmus (preexisting melody).

Machaut's Mass is probably the outstanding musical work of the entire 14th century. It is a polyphonic setting of the entire Mass Ordinary (the portions sung at every Mass except at the Requiem Mass, the Mass for the Dead), consisting of six sections: Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, Agnus Dei, and Ite Missa Est (the last section is rarely set by other composers). Only one such complete setting, the Mass of Tournai (ca. 1300), compiled from various composers, antedates Machaut's, and it is artistically not comparable. Machaut's Mass may have been composed for the Marian Feasts at a chapel served by the Machaut brothers in the 1350s (but it was not, as is often said, written for or sung at the coronation of King Charles V in 1364). The long texts of the Gloria

and Credo are set simply in chordal style, each followed by an elaborate Amen. All the other sections are composed in the style of the isorhythmic motet. Almost the entire work is written in four melodic lines, for voices and instruments, and all the sections are unified by a pervasive motif, a technique not employed before or within the following 60 years or so.

There was no one in France during the second half of the 14th century and the first quarter of the 15th to even remotely approach Machaut's musical eminence. In fact, all composers followed his lead and adopted his style, developing it only with respect to an increasingly mannered complexity, which parallels the late Gothic, or mannered, style of architecture prevailing during the period.

Heinrich SchützAlso known as: Heinrich Schutz, Henrich Schutz

Birth: October 8, 1585 in K?stritz, Germany Death: November 6, 1672 in Dresden, Germany Nationality: German Occupation: composer Source: Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2nd ed. 17 Vols. Gale Research, 1998.

3）舒茨 Heinrich Schütz (

BIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYThe German composer Heinrich Schütz (1585-1672) is credited with an important role in bringing the Italian baroque style to Germany.

Born in K?stritz, Saxony, to prosperous, middle-class parents, Heinrich Schütz learned the rudiments of music in the chapel choir of Moritz, Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel. In 1608 Schütz entered the University of Marburg to study law, but when the landgrave, who recognized his extraordinary musical gift, offered to support him, Schütz was able to leave for Venice in 1609 to study with Giovanni Gabrieli. Schütz returned in 1613 after his teacher's death.

While in Italy, Schütz published his first collection, Il primo libro de madrigali (1611), dedicated to Landgrave Moritz. These 19 chromatic madrigals reveal the close attention Schütz was always to give both the syntax and content of his texts. Even more Italianate are the Psalmen Davids (1619), published after the composer became kapellmeister to Johann Georg, Elector of Saxony, in Dresden. In these 26 works, composed for multiple groups of vocal and instrumental soloists, reinforced by two or more choruses, Schütz brought to northern Europe the colorful, polychoral

methods of his beloved master, Gabrieli. The music, of overwhelming grandeur, was written for the enhancement of the Protestant liturgy and the edification of the court.

Schütz's Historia der Auferstehung Jesu Christi (1623), the Easter Story, was his first oratorio in the Italian style. While the Evangelist performs solos to the accompaniment of four viols, the roles of Jesus and Mary Magdalene are sung as duets over the basso continuo. In his next important work, the Cantiones sacrae (1625), Schütz seemed to return to the older polyphonic style. But their chromaticism, "madrigalisms" illustrating the text, and intensely subjective qualities relate these sacred songs more closely to the madrigals of 1611.

To fulfill his task of transforming church music through the southern concerted style, Schütz made a second pilgrimage to Italy in 1628. Now he studied the techniques of Claudio Monteverdi as he observed them in the vocal and instrumental writing of the great Italian. The first fruits of the visit appeared the following year as part 1 of Schütz's Symphoniae sacrae. Solo singing with obbligato instruments over the continuo--such was the new style exemplified by the masterpiece of this first collection, Fili mi, Absalon.

A short while after Schütz returned to Germany, he found musical activity severely curtailed because of the religious wars raging throughout Saxony. During the 1630s and early 1640s he stayed only intermittently at Dresden, obtaining permission from the elector to work in Copenhagen, Wolfenbüttel, Hanover, and Weimar. Because of limited resources, the master now wrote shorter compositions for one to five parts with continuo. Two such collections were issued in 1636 and 1639 with the title Kleine Geistliche Konzerte.

By 1647 conditions at the Saxon court had improved somewhat, and Schütz released part 2 of his Symphoniae sacrae. Unlike part 1, which had Latin settings for voices and various obbligato instruments, part 2 was set to German words and used only the strings and continuo. In part 3 of the Symphoniae sacrae (1650) Schütz joined the polychoral writing of his early Psalmen Davids with the soloistic style he learned from Monteverdi. The masterpiece Saul, Saul, was verfolgst du mich? is scored for a six-voice ensemble, two four-voice choruses, and two obbligato instrumental parts. In few of his later pieces did he go beyond the resources of these compositions, which are truly cantatas.

Although Schütz was the foremost German protagonist of the new baroque style, he did not foresee that his apparent deemphasis of counterpoint would persuade younger compatriots to abandon it. By 1648 this danger had become so manifest that Schütz was persuaded to publish his Geistliche Chormusik, a collection of 29 motets in the older style, to show young composers "before they proceed to concertizing music to crack this hard nut (wherein the true kernel and the right foundation of good counterpoint is to be sought) and to pass their first tests in this category." Schütz obviously viewed his artistic mission as a union of counterpoint and stile recitativo, a cappella and concertato, rather than as a rejection of the older Flemish style.

In 1665 Schütz completed three Passions according to Luke, John, and Matthew. What first impresses us in these works is their external austerity. Gone are the instrumentally accompanied

recitative of the Easter Story and the polychoral writing with instruments in part 3 of the Symphoniae sacrae. Here the Bible narrative is sung a cappella with solo portions chanted in a "Germanized" plainsong.

Even though these works seem archaic, it would be incorrect to believe that Schütz rejected his entire mission of a concerted, soloistic church music. Only a year or two before, he had composed the Historia der Freuden-und Gnaden-reichen Geburt Gottes und Marien Sohnes Jesu Christi, the Christmas Story, in the richly concerted style he had espoused for over 50 years. In the Passions he abandoned the luxuriant apparatus for pure chant and polyphony, in part as an object lesson to younger composers and in part to demonstrate that his own era could still use the a cappella style of the past.

Schütz passed the last of his 55 years of service to the elector of Saxony in Weissenfels and in Dresden, where he died. Through his efforts German church music took on features we easily recognize as baroque. In the way he put polyphony on an equal footing with the new concerted style, Schütz resembles Monteverdi, who also brought the past into the present and subjected it to a new esthetic.

4）Orlando Gibbons

1583-1625

Birth: December 25, 1583 in Oxford, England Death: June 05, 1625 in Canterbury Nationality: English Occupation: composer, organ player Source: Baker's Biographical Dictionary of Musicians?, Centennial Edition. Nicolas Slonimsky, Editor Emeritus. Schirmer, 2001.

BIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYGibbons, Orlando, celebrated English composer and organist, father of Christopher and brother of Edward and Ellis Gibbons; b. Oxford (baptized), Dec. 25, 1583; d. Canterbury, June 5, 1625. He was taken to Cambridge as a small child. In 1596 he became chorister at King's Coll. there, matriculating in 1598. He composed music for various occasions for King's Coll. (1602-03). In 1605 he was appointed organist of the Chapel Royal, retaining this position until his death. He received the degree of B.Mus. from Cambridge Univ. in 1606, and that of D.Mus. from Oxford in 1622. In 1619 he became chamber musician to the King and, in 1623, organist at Westminster

Abbey. He conducted the music for the funeral of James I (1625), and died of apoplexy 2 months later. Gibbons's fame as a composer rests chiefly on his church music. He employed the novel technique of the “verse anthem” (a work for chorus and solo voices, the solo passages having independent instrumental accompaniment, for either organ or strings). Other works followed the traditional polyphonic style, of which he became a master. He was also one of the greatest English organists of the time. His madrigals and motets were ed. by E.H. Fellowes in The English Madrigal School, V (1921; 2nd ed., rev., 1964 by T. Dart), his services and anthems by P. Buck and others in Tudor Church Music, IV (1925), his keyboard music by G. Hendrie in Musica Britannica, XX (1962), and his verse anthems by D. Wulstan in Early English Church Music, III (1964).

WORKSWorks

Fantasies of 3 Parts...composed for viols (1610); pieces for the virginal, in Parthenia (1611); The First Set of Madrigals and Mottets of 5 Parts (1612); 9 Fancies, appended to 20 konincklijche Fantasien op 3 Fiolen by T. Lupo, Coperario, and W. Daman (Amsterdam, 1648).

5）Gregorio Allegri

1582-1652

Birth: 1582 in Rome Death: February 07, 1652 in Rome Nationality: Italian Occupation: singer, composer Source: Baker's Biographical Dictionary of Musicians?, Centennial Edition. Nicolas Slonimsky, Editor Emeritus. Schirmer, 2001.

BIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYAllegri, Gregorio, Italian singer and composer; b. Rome, 1582; d. there, Feb. 7, 1652. He was a choirboy at S. Luigi de Francesi in Rome (1591-96), and then a tenor there until 1604. He also received instruction from G. M. Nanino (1600-07). After serving as a chorister at Fermo Cathedral (1607-21), he was maestro di cappella at S. Spirito in Sassia (1628-30) and then a member of the papal choir in Rome. Allegri remains best known for his Miserere for 2 Choirs in 4 and 5 parts, a Psalm setting sung each Holy Week at the Sistine Chapel in Rome. It was this work that the

youthful Mozart is reported to have heard twice during his visit to the Sistine Chapel, and then wrote it down from memory in spite of the ban on its publication on pain of excommunication. The work was finally publ. via the efforts of Charles Burney by Novello in London. Allegri also composed Masses, Lamentations, and a Te Deum, and likewise publ. Concertini for 2 to 5 Voices (2 vols., Rome, 1618-19), Motecta for 2 to 6 Voices (Rome, 1621), and Sinfonia a 4 (ed. by A. Kirchner in Musurgia universalis, Rome, 1650).

6）Claudio (Giovanni Antoni) Monteverdi

Also known as: Claudio Giovanni Antonio Monteverdi, Claudio Monteverdi

Birth: 1567 in Cremona, Italy Death: November 29, 1643 in Venice, Italy Nationality: Italian Occupation: Composer Source: International Dictionary of Opera. 2 vols. St. James Press, 1993.

BIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYClaudio Monteverdi is regarded not only as the first great opera composer, but one of the greatest of all time. That he has attained this stature is testimony to the extraordinary nature of his extant operas. Of his ten operas, the only to survive are his first opera Orfeo and a fragment from his second opera Arianna--both of which were written for the Mantua court during the early years of the genre--along with Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria and L'incoronazione di Poppea. Composed during his final years for the public opera theater in Venice. These four works, standing at the two opposite poles of Monteverdi's operatic career, thus necessarily provide only a glimpse into the development and full range of his operatic genius.

Monteverdi is the only seventeenth-century composer whose works have found a permanent position in today's operatic repertoire. This is not entirely surprising; he has received more scholarly attention than any other composer of his century. In addition, inquiry into seventeenth-century opera has tended to focus on the origins of the genre and the humanistic neo-classicizing impulses that inspired its birth. Thus, Orfeo, long regarded as the first great opera, has been the subject of intense scrutiny. At a time when much of the opera produced for the Venice stage languished in relative obscurity, Monteverdi's Venetian operas, and in particular L'incoronazione di Poppea, were acknowledged as masterworks.

Recent scholarship has long since increased the visibility of Monteverdi's Venetian contemporaries, yet this has only made more apparent the extent to which his latter two operas differ from those of his younger contemporaries writing for the Venetian theater. Monteverdi brought to opera composition his Renaissance heritage and a musical style shaped by decades of madrigal composition. The madrigal books, masterpieces in themselves, were also a sort of laboratory in which Monteverdi developed various rhythmic, tonal, and vocal styles that would accommodate the dramatic requirements of opera. As Eric Chafe has recently shown, Monteverdi also inherited a tonal language based on Renaissance modal-hexachordal thinking, which he transformed into a highly expressive device for the new genre. In a sense, the unique quality of Monteverdi's sound and style results from the application of the most fundamental precepts and principles of Renaissance style to opera--the genre that embodies the Baroque aesthetic.

Monteverdi's La favola d'Orfeo was performed in 1607 in Mantua under the auspices of the Accademia degli Invaghiti. For his librettist, Monteverdi chose Alessandro Striggio, a diplomat and lawyer in the service of the ruling Gonzaga family of Mantua who, as the son of a composer, also had considerable interest in music and poetry. Monteverdi's and Striggio's Orfeo was not the first work of its kind. As numerous scholars have pointed out, Orfeo was modeled after an earlier work, Euridice, by poet Ottavio Rinuccini and composer Jacopo Peri. Like Rinuccini, Striggio set his libretto within the pastorale tragicomedic world that was popular from other Mantuan and Florentine theatrical entertainments such as Guarini's play Il pastor fido. Striggio also followed a similar dramatic structure, organizing his libretto as a prologue followed by five acts or sections, with the first two acts of the two versions roughly analogous in terms of content. Specific resemblances between the two works occur particularly in recitative passages--as in the messenger's revelation of Euridice's death--and it is in those instance that Monteverdi's musical setting demonstrates its greatest debt to Peri's work. Monteverdi also drew upon the theatrical traditions of the Florentine and Mantuan court. Thus, rather than relying so heavily upon the stile rappresentative favored by the Florentine opera pioneers, Monteverdi and Striggio designed Orfeo as a composite of various forms and styles for both voices and instruments, enhanced by a wide spectrum of instrumental colors--indicated with great specificity by the composer-- and with a greater variety of stage settings that undoubtedly contradicted classical demands for unity of place.

The appearance of the allegorical figure of Music in the prologue provides an important clue as to the actual purpose of this recounting of Orfeo's tale a demonstration of music's power. In Orfeo, however, the ability to wield music's power does not necessarily rest in the hands of this gifted protagonist. Orfeo's songs are no doubt pleasing in times of joy, as in the delightfully simple strophic song "Vi ricorda" or as in the impetuous burst of emotional display of "Rosa del ciel," and his sorrow is movingly expressed in the sharply felt lament "Tu sei morta." Yet Orfeo's most virtuosic musical display and urgent evocation of music's power, "Possente spirto," only temporarily gains him his desired goal and ultimately cannot save him from his human failings. In Orfeo, it would seem that Monteverdi proves that the true power of music belongs to the composer. Indeed, the organization of Orfeo is by no means determined solely by the flow of the drama. Numerous scholars have noted the symmetrical design in the distribution of the closed forms, as in the patterns of choruses between the nymphs and shepherds in act I. More recently, Eric Chafe has shown the careful and logical way in which tonality is used both in terms of overall

organization and in expressing the allegorical meaning of the drama. The dramatic tonal juxtapositions that occur in moments of rapidly shifting emotion--as in the messenger's announcement of Euridice's death--are not only localized effects, but rather can logically be accounted for within a rational tonal system that Monteverdi carefully employed in this work and explored in his contemporaneous madrigal composition.

In his musical characterization of the allegorical, somewhat two-dimensional Orfeo, Monteverdi provides only a glimpse of the psychological depth and human insight that was to mark the characters in his later operas. In the surviving fragment from the opera Arianna, written the following year, Monteverdi uses the monodic style to trace the various stages of Arianna's reaction to her abandonment by Theseus. Closely mirroring the intricacies of the text, Monteverdi sensitively evokes Arianna's despair, disbelief, hope, and anger. Yet the entire lament is musically unified by the repetitions of her obsessive cries for death, poignantly set with a striking chromaticism that has since become inseparable from the idea of lament.

In his latter two operas, Monteverdi also succeeds in creating characters with profoundly human depth; nevertheless, these works differ sharply from the earlier operas in musical and rhetorical style as well as in meaning. Undoubtedly, some of this is a result of the cultural and aesthetic climate in which they were produced. No longer employed by the Gonzaga family of Mantua, Monteverdi was now writing for the relatively new and successful public opera theater in Venice. Some of the striking peculiarities of these works thus reflect the intellectual leanings of those involved in Venetian opera production during its early decades. Both of the librettists for Monteverdi's late operas, Giacomo Badoaro and Gian Francesco Busenello, were members of the Accademia degli Incogniti, a group whose libertine and skeptical brand of philosophy was adopted by much of the noble intelligentsia of Venice. Opera librettos were but a small portion of their literary output, yet it is evident that these works reflect in some ways the numerous Incogniti discussions on love, women, virtue, death, and the survival of the flesh. As Ellen Rosand has pointed out, Il ritorno d'Ulisse, with its demonstration of the victory of virtuous love, and L'incoronazione di Poppea, with its celebration of illicit, passionate love, can be viewed as representing two sides of an Incogniti debate.

Neither the skepticism nor the intellectual leanings of these librettists interfered with Monteverdi's ability to infuse his characters with extraordinary humanity. Notably, among his contemporaries only Monteverdi chose to reshape portions of his librettos so as to alter their musical or dramatic implications. This is particularly evident in Il ritorno d'Ulisse, where the librettist Badoaro provided Monteverdi with mostly recitative poetry, with few stophic texts or other explicit indications for lyricism. In Penelope's opening lament, for example. Monteverdi rearranged the text in a manner that was not only more compelling dramatically--capturing Penelope's shifting moods as she longed for Ulisse's return--but also more musically coherent. Penelope's repeated lyrical plea for Ulisse's safe return, with its haunting melody and surprising tonal shifts, not only provides contrast from the recitative and bestows musical unity on the lengthy monologue, but also appropriately reflects Penelope's obsessive devotion to Ulisse, despite his continued absence. As Rosand has shown in her discussion of Iro, the parte ridicolo in Il ritorno d'Ulisse--whose expanded role in this libretto was librettist Badoaro's only significant departure from Homer--

Monteverdi uses an extreme sort of musical imitation that captures and yet exaggerates the essence of each word, distorting the musical surface so as to realize Iro's amusing but highly disturbing craving for nourishment that precipitates his suicide.

It is precisely this kind of musical imitation, employed with such opposite results in Penelope's lament and Iro's suicide, that Monteverdi used to such advantage in his masterpiece, L'incoronazione di Poppea. These characters bear little resemblance to the allegorical Orfeo or the heroically lamentful Arianna. They are complex combinations of conflicting emotions and motivations, yet their depth is made explicit through Monteverdi's musical realizations. The listener may sympathize with the unfortunate predicament of Nero's abandoned wife Ottavia, but it is not solely on account of her murderous actions that she ultimately fails to inspire compassion. In Ottavia's act I monologue, Monteverdi uses a terse, somewhat angular recitative for her denouncement of women's fate and their victimization by men, moving easily into a strained lyricism as she visualizes Nero and Poppea's passion, then briefly employing the guerriero style in a futile gesture of anger as she decries Jove's impotence--and her own. The starkness of Ottavia's music is directly in contrast to the seductive, voluptuous nature of Poppea's music. In the first of Nero and Poppea's exquisite duets, for example, Monteverdi empowers Poppea with languid lyric gesture, seductive virtuosity, and tonal control that infuse the spent Nero with new passion and thus extract from him the first of several promises that ultimately lead to her coronation. Above all, it is Poppea's music that urges the listeners to abandon their moral reservations and rejoice with her in the triumph of love over virtue.

The complicated state of the surviving sources as well as some of their notational anomalies, noted most recently by Alan Curtis, have called into question the authorship of portions of L'incoronazione di Poppea, including the popular and highly sensuous final duet. Some commentators, however, have argued that the uniformity of feature such as text setting, tonal style, melodic writing, and the application of musical devices from the madrigal tradition, still point to Monteverdi's authorship for much of the opera. While it is likely that these questions will never be definitively solved, the unique and subtle musical realizations of the characters throughout this opera would seem at the very least to argue for Monteverdi's guiding spirit in the creation of this masterwork.

PERSONAL INFORMATIONComposer. Born 1567 (baptized 15 May), in Cremona. Died 29 November 1643, in Venice. Married: Claudia de Cattaneis (died 10 September 1607), a singer at the Mantuan court, 20 May 1599 (two sons, one daughter who died in infancy). Learned to play the organ, and studied singing and theory with Marc' Antonio Ingegneri, maestro di capella at the Cathedral of Cremona; visited Milan, 1589; viol and violin player at the court of Vincenzo I, Duke of Mantua, by 1592; met Giaches de Wert, maestro di capella at the Mantuan court; accompanied the Duke of Mantua on battles against the Turks in Austria and Hungary, and accompanied him to Flanders in 1599; appointed maestro di capella in Mantuan, succeeding Pallavicino, 1601; La favola d'Orfeo performed for the Accademia degli Invaghiti in Matua, 1607; membership in the Accademia degli Animori of Cremona, 1607; L'Arianna composed to celebrate the marriage of Francesco Gonzaga

of Mantua to Margaret of Savoy, 1608; lost his post in Mantua after the death of Vincenzo 1, 1612; maestro di capella at San Marco, Venice, 1613; cantata Il combattimento di Taneredi e Clorinda performed for the Venetian nobleman Girolanmo Mocenigo, 1624; his late operas performed in the then recently opened public theaters of Venice, 1640-42. Monteverdi is buried in the church of the Fratri in Venice.

WORKSOperas

Editions

C. Monteverdi: Tutte le opere. Edited by G. F. Malipiero, 16 vols. Asolo, 1926-42; 2nd revised edition, 1954; supplement, vol. 17, 1966.

C. Monteverdi: Composizioni vocali profane e sacre (inedite). Edited by W. Osthoff. Milan, 1958.

C. Monteverdi: Opera Omnia. Edited by Fondazione Claudio Monteverdi, Instituta e monumenta, Monumenta, vol. v. Cremona, 1970.

La favola d'Orfeo. A. Striggio, Mantua, February 1607.

L'Arianna, O. Rinuceini, Mantua, 28 May 1608.

Le nozze di Tetide, 1616 [unfinished; lost].

Andromeda. E. Marigliani, 1618-20 [unfinished; lost].

La finta pazza Licori, G. Strozzi, composed for Mantua, 1927. [lost].

Gli amori di Diana e di Endimione, A. Pio, Parma, 1628 [lost].

Proserpina rapita, G. Strozzi, Venice, 1630 [music mostly lost].

Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria. G. Badoaro, Venice, 1640.

Le nozze d'Enea con Lavinia, Venice, 1641 [lost].

L'incoronazione di Poppea, G. F. Busenello, Venice, 1642.

Other works: sacred and secular vocal works.

7）Manuel Cardoso

1566-1650

Birth: December 11, 1566 in Fronteira Death: November 24, 1650 in Lisbon, Portugal Nationality: Portuguese Occupation: composer Source: Baker's Biographical Dictionary of Musicians?, Centennial Edition. Nicolas Slonimsky, Editor Emeritus. Schirmer, 2001.

BIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYCardoso, Manuel, distinguished Portuguese composer; b. Fronteira, near Portalegre (baptized), Dec. 11, 1566; d. Lisbon, Nov. 24, 1650. After studies with Manuel Mendes and Cosme Delgado at the évora Cathedral choir school, he was made a member of the Carmelite order (1588) and took his vows (1589) at Lisbon's Convento do Carmo, where he was active as an organist and choirmaster. He wrote much sacred music, most of which perished in the devastating Lisbon earthquake and fire of 1755. His extant works, all publ. in Lisbon, include Cantica BVM for four to five Voices (1613), Missae for four to six Voices, lib. 1 (1625), Missae for four to six Voices, lib. 2 (1636), Missae de BVM for four to six Voices, lib. 3 (1636), and Livro de varios motetes officio da semana santa e outras cousas for four Voices (1648), all of which have been ed. in Portugaliae Musica, series A, V-VI, XIII, XX, XXII, XXVI (1962-74).

8）Ruggiero Giovannelli

1560-1625

Birth: 1560 in Velletri Death: January 07, 1625 in Rome Nationality: Italian Occupation: composer Source: Baker's Biographical Dictionary of Musicians?, Centennial Edition. Nicolas Slonimsky, Editor Emeritus. Schirmer, 2001.

BIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYGiovannelli, Ruggiero, Italian composer; b. Velletri, near Rome, c. 1560; d. Rome, Jan. 7, 1625. He settled in Rome and served as maestro di cappella of S. Luigi dei Francesi (1583-91), the Collegio Germanico (1591-94), and the Cappella Giulia of St. Peter's (1594-99). In 1595 he took holy order, and in 1599 he joined the Sistine Chapel as a singer, where he later held several positions, including that of maestro di cappella (1614-15) before retiring in 1624. Among his works were 2 vols. of motets (1593, 1604) and various other sacred compositions, and 6 vols. of madrigals (1585-1606).

9）Giovanni Bernardino Nanino

1560-1623Also known as: Giovanni Bernardino Nanini

Birth: 1560 Death: 1623 in Rome Nationality: Italian Occupation: composer, teacher Source: Baker's Biographical Dictionary of Musicians?, Centennial Edition. Nicolas Slonimsky, Editor Emeritus. Schirmer, 2001.

BIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYNanino (Nanini), Giovanni Bernardino, Italian composer and teacher, brother of Giovanni Maria Nanino; b. c. 1560; d. Rome, 1623. He was a boy soprano at Vallerano Cathedral, and studied music with his brother. From 1591 to 1608 he was maestro di cappella at S. Luigi dei Francesi in Rome. His brother lived with him in a home maintained by the church, where they boarded and taught the boy sopranos. He subsequently was maestro di cappella at S. Lorenzo in Damaso, the small church in the home of Cardinal Montalto. He was a significant composer and teacher.

WORKSWorks

VOCAL SACRED:Motecta for 2 to 4 Voices (Rome, 1610); Motecta, liber secundus for 1 to 5 Voices, with Basso Continuo (Rome, 1611); Motecta, liber tertius for 1 to 5 Voices, with Basso Continuo (Rome,

1612); Motecta, liber quartus for 1 to 5 Voices, with Basso Continuo (Rome, 1618); Salmi vespertini for 4 to 8 Voices (Rome, 1620; ed. by K. Proske, Musica divina, I/3 and II/2, Regensburg, 1860-74); Venite exultemus for 3 Voices, with Basso Continuo (Assisi, 1620); etc.

10）Felice Anerio

1560-1614

Birth: 1560 in Rome Death: September 26, 1614 in Rome Nationality: Italian Occupation: composer Source: Baker's Biographical Dictionary of Musicians?, Centennial Edition. Nicolas Slonimsky, Editor Emeritus. Schirmer, 2001.

BIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYAnerio, Felice, significant Italian composer, brother of Giovanni Francesco Anerio; b. Rome, c. 1560; d. there, Sept. 26 or 27, 1614. He pursued his career in Rome. He was a choirboy at S. Maria Maggiore from 1568 to 1574, and then sang at the Cappella Giulia from 1575 and at S. Luigi dei Francesi from 1579 to 1584. In 1584 he received the tonsure and was made maestro di cappella at the Collegio degli Inglesi, where he served until 1585. In 1594 he was named composer to the papal choir. He became a deacon in 1607 and soon thereafter was made a priest. With Soriano, he was entrusted with reforming the Roman Gradual in 1611, a task completed in 1612. Anerio composed in a conservative style that was greatly admired for its expressive power.

WORKSWorks

SACRED Madrigali spirituali for 5 Voices (2 vols., Rome, 1585); Sacri hymni, et cantica for 8 Voices (Venice, 1595) and for 5, 6, and 8 Voices (Rome, 1602); Responsoria ad lectiones divini officii feriae quartae, quintae, et sextae sanctae hebdomadae for 4 Voices (Rome, 1606); also masses, Psalms, spiritual canzonettas, laudi, motets, etc. SECULAR Canzonette for 4 Voices (Venice, 1586); Madrigals for 5 and 8 Voices (Venice, 1587), 6 Voices (Venice, 1509 and Rome, 1602), 3 Voices (Venice, 1598), and 5 Voices (not extant).

11）Giovanni Gabrieli

Birth: c. 1557 in Venice, Italy Death: August 12, 1612 in Venice, Italy Nationality: Italian

Occupation: composer, organist Source: Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2nd ed. 17 Vols. Gale Research, 1998.

BIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYThe works of the Italian composer Giovanni Gabrieli (ca. 1557-1612) mirror the transition from the 16th-century Renaissance style to the 17th-century baroque. His compositions were very influential on Italian and German masters.

Giovanni Gabrieli was born in Venice. He was associated with the court chapel of Roland de Lassus in Munich (1576-1580). Despite this important contact, the formative influence on the young Giovanni was his uncle Andrea Gabrieli, whose career as composer and organist anticipated his own. Giovanni's devotion to Andrea is witnessed by a collection of concerti (1587) issued by the younger man from among his own works and those of the older man, dead but a year.

Like his uncle, Giovanni worked in the Cathedral of St. Mark in Venice, first as deputy to the famed master Claudio Merulo (1584), then as second organist (1585), and finally as first organist (1586). He also composed vocal and instrumental pieces for church and state festivities and taught a young generation of composers the new musical idioms of the baroque. He died in Venice on Aug. 12, 1612.

Only a few of Gabrieli's secular vocal pieces have survived. But a collection of madrigals by his student Heinrich Schütz, printed in 1611 as the fruits of an apprenticeship with Gabrieli, suggests that the teacher was deeply interested in the genre. Among Gabrieli's madrigals is the eight-voice Lieto godea for two choruses. Here, as in the sacred pieces, antiphonal effects, created by means of vertical, chordal combinations, replace the linear movement of the older polyphonists.

Many more of Gabrieli's instrumental pieces have survived, including numerous canzonas, ricercars, and sonatas. Some early canzonas such as La Spiritata are conventional, sectional pieces in imitative, multithematic polyphony. Several of the monothematic ricercars, on the other hand, are virtually forerunners of the latebaroque fugue. Of particular interest is Gabrieli's Sonata piano e forte, the first composition ever to bear this title. In addition to marking dynamics throughout the individual parts, the composer prescribed the instrumentation of the sonata--a novel departure from Renaissance practice, in which instrumentation was usually an ad libitum matter. Among his late instrumental pieces is a Sonata con tre violini e basso se piace, for which the master made the decisive turn to the basso continuo, the foundation voice of most baroque music.

Of all Gabrieli's works, first place must go to the motets. Polychoral writing (cori spezzati), as promulgated by Adrian Willaert and continued by Andrea Gabrieli, found its most brilliant exponent in Giovanni Gabrieli. In his collection Sacrae symphoniae (1597) there were motets for six to sixteen parts and arranged for one to four choruses. For these works he replaced the older,

imitative, melismatic polyphony of the Franco-Flemish school by syllabic, harmonic writing. Bass parts moving in fourths and fifths supported separated choirs responding antiphonally to one another in short, declamatory phrases. For Gabrieli, who designed his creations for large spaces, traditional counterpoint was less important than dramatic changes in texture and dynamics.

Gabrieli's second volume of Sacrae symphoniae, printed posthumously (1615), contains early as well as late pieces in the new concerted idiom. Characteristic of the late compositions are the juxtaposition of voices and instruments, virtuoso solo writing, and the basso continuo.

The motet In ecclesiis reveals most of the innovations of Gabrieli's late style: solos and duets supported by organ (basso continuo) or instrumental ensemble; a solo quartet of voices responding to or joining the chorus; and instrumental ensembles accompanying the singers or playing independent sinfonie. With such a work resplendent with color, Gabrieli helped inaugurate a new musical epoch that was carried forward by many 17th-century Roman masters and, even more significantly, by the Germans Heinrich Schütz and Michael Praetorius.

12）Tomás Luis de VictoriaAlso known as: Tomas Luis de Victoria

Birth: c. 1548 in ávila, Spain Death: 1611 Nationality: Spanish Occupation: composer Source: Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2nd ed. 17 Vols. Gale Research, 1998.

BIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYTomás Luis de Victoria (ca. 1548-1611) was the most renowned Spanish Renaissance polyphonist. His works are characterized by mystical fervor and nobility of musical concepts.

Tomás Luis de Victoria was the seventh child of 11 born in ávila to Francisco Luis de Victoria and Francisca Suárez de la Concha. His father's death in 1557 left the family in the care of an uncle who was a priest. Victoria spent several years as a choirboy in ávila Cathedral.

In 1565 (or 1563) Victoria entered the German College at Rome. This was a Jesuit school lavishly supported by Philip II and Otto von Truchsess von Waldburg, the cardinal archbishop of Augsburg. Victoria served as organist at the Aragonese church of S. Maria di Monserrato in Rome from 1569 to 1574. In 1571 the German College hired him to teach music to the young boys. He was ordained on Aug. 28, 1575. From that year to 1577 he directed the German College choir

singing at the church of S. Apollinare in Rome; from 1578 to 1585 he held a chaplaincy at S. Girolamo della Carità, the church of the newly founded Oratorians at Rome.

Victoria returned to Spain in 1587 and until 1603 served as chapelmaster of the Descalzas Reales convent in Madrid, where Philip II's sister, the Dowager Empress Maria, and her daughter, Princess Margaret, resided. From 1604 until his death on Aug. 27, 1611, he was also the organist at the convent.

In 1572 Victoria dedicated his first, and still most famous, publication to Cardinal Truchsess, a great connoisseur of church music. The 33 motecta ranging from four to eight voices in this collection include the sensuous Vere languores and O vos omnes, which to this day form the bedrock of Victoria's reputation with the broad public that knows nothing of his Magnificats, hymns, sequences, psalms, antiphons, and 20 Masses--five of which appeared in 1576, four more in 1583, seven in 1592, and the rest in 1600 and 1605.

In his 1572 motets Victoria closely followed the detail technique of Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, evincing a commanding mastery of Palestrina's dissonance treatment. Personal contact with Palestrina and perhaps even lessons probably explain Victoria's absorption of the technique. From 1566 to 1571 Palestrina served as chapelmaster at the Roman College near the German College. What distinguishes Victoria's personal manner in 1572 from Palestrina's is the younger composer's frequ

ent recourse to printed accidentals, his fondness for what would now be called melodic minor motion (sharps ascending, naturals descending), and the anticipation of 19th-century functional harmony.

Throughout his career, even when writing Missa Quarti toni (1592), Victoria always succeeded in sounding like a "major-minor" rather than a truly "modal" composer. For him Quarti toni meant A minor cadencing on the dominant. In 1600 he published Missae, Magnificat, motecta, psalmi, & alia, which consists very largely of organ-accompanied F-major music. True, he reverted to unaccompanied minor keys in the Officium defunctorum, published in 1605 as a tribute to his patroness, the Dowager Empress Maria, but this was funeral music. In none of Palestrina's publications did he specify organ accompaniments. Victoria did--even publishing organ parts in 1592 and 1600.

Victoria's miscellany of 1600 includes a Missa pro Victoria modeled on Clément Janequin's famous battle chanson. Philip III liked this ebullient nine-voice Mass founded on a secular model more than any of Victoria's other works, but it contravenes every quality endearing Victoria to his modern public. However, it does at least prove him to have been more versatile emotionally and technically than his admirers will admit. Philip III's partiality for it served as a sales gambit when Victoria sought funds from its publication to bail his youngest brother out of prison.

13）

William Byrd

Birth: c. 1543 in Lincolnshire, England Death: 1623 Nationality: English Occupation: composer Source: Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2nd ed. 17 Vols. Gale Research, 1998.

BIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYThe English composer William Byrd (ca. 1543-1623) was one of the greatest polyphonists of his time. He also excelled in the composition of keyboard music, stage songs, and instrumental fantasias.

William Byrd was born in Lincolnshire, probably in 1543. Nothing is known of his boyhood except that he became a child of the Chapel Royal some time after 1550, moving then to London, where he was "bred up under Thomas Tallis." At the age of 20 Byrd received his first appointment, returning to his native shire as organist at Lincoln Cathedral. Within a few years he succeeded Robert Parsons as one of the gentlemen of the Chapel Royal. The records are unclear as to whether Byrd moved to Westminster at this time. In 1572, however, he was replaced at Lincoln Cathedral by Thomas Butler, whom he himself had chosen, and it is clear that at that time he moved to London, where he shared the post of organist with Tallis.

In 1568 Byrd married Juliana Birley; they had a son in 1569 and a daughter in 1572. It was during this period that he was charged with recusancy, for which he was troubled the rest of his life, and that he acquired the first of his leases, which were to embroil him in litigation from this time forward.

These were years of close professional association with Tallis, his former mentor and senior by some 40 years. Together they received in 1578 a license "to imprint any and so many as they will of set songe or songes in partes, either in English, Latine, Frenche, Italian or other tongues that may serve for musicke either in Church or chamber, or otherwise to be plaid or soong...." This license, a virtual monopoly for music printing, passed to Byrd's sole ownership upon the death of Tallis in 1585. The proprietary fervor it inspired no doubt was a factor in the extraordinarily productive period which followed. During the next few years Byrd published no less than four major collections, all devoted entirely to his own works: Psalmes, Sonets & Songs (1588), Songs of Sundrie Natures (1589), Cantiones sacrae I (1589), and Cantiones sacrae II (1591).

The music in these, along with that available only in manuscript, such as the important keyboard collection "My Lady Neville's Book," reflects his esthetic position as a transitional figure between medieval and modern times. The very fact that these collections were composed and prepared for circulation in print furnishes one aspect of their modernity. And that the composer himself was

launching these editions as a financial venture is another. Both these considerations relate to innovative features on the esthetic side, which in turn signalize several new developments in the musical culture of 17th-century England.

No hint of a new praxis appears in the title of the first collection, Psalmes, Sonets & Songs of Sadness and Piety, Made into Musicke of Five Parts (1588). However, Byrd did provide for a glimpse of contemporary procedures in the circulation of music with his expressed resolve to expose untrue copies of his works then abroad. All this, music printing was to change.

In the body of the collection, one of the upper parts of pieces in all three categories indicated in the title is marked "the first singing voice." Byrd probably composed all these as solo songs with viol accompaniment (we know that "Though Amaryllis dance in green" originated thus), then adapted the accompanying viol parts to the text in preparing these for publication. Presumably his motivation was to increase sales by appealing to a wider public, or at least to a greater number of performers. On the whole, though, the effect of this procedure was to bring Byrd's compositions into alignment with the Italian madrigal, by then new only in England, and they are rather stiff and unwieldy part-songs compared to the livelier polyphonic works of the Italians.

More evidence of Byrd's concern for marketability appears with the Songs of Sundrie Natures, Some of Gravitie and Others of Myrth, Fit for All Companies and Voyces (1589). And the title of the last set of secular part-songs, that of 1611, is even more explicit with its prescription for aleatory performance: Psalmes, Songs & Sonnets: Some Solemne, Others Joyful, Framed to the Life of the Words: Fit for Voyces or Viols In other words, both content and medium are arranged for the largest possible number of hearers or performers.

In the Cantiones sacrae Byrd clearly though tacitly went against the policy of the English Reformation, intended not only to remove the political hegemony of Rome from England but also to expunge Latin from the liturgy. But in the two books of Gradualia which marked his next flurry of editorial activity, he publicly avowed the recusancy for which he and members of his family had already been called to account numerous times.

The first book of Gradualia we know only from the second edition of 1610. The second book, published in 1607 and also appearing in a second edition in 1610, consists of 43 motets for four, five, and six voices. Again, these motets are generally shorter than those in the Cantiones sacrae collections and are obviously intended for use by those who sought formal musical expression of their Catholic faith. That he would have dared publish two such books, particularly just after the Gunpowder Plot in 1605, which raised such a wave of anti-Catholic sentiment, testifies to the strength of his position at court and to the excellence of his general reputation as the "father of English music." Musically, these books represent the work of the greatest English polyphonic master of the 16th century.

The same may be said of his more than 60 English anthems, some being his own adaptations of Latin motets; of his 50 stage songs; of the keyboard works in the "Fitzwilliam Virginal Book," in "My Lady Neville's Book," and in the printed collection Parthenia; and, not least, of his

miscellaneous canons, rounds, and music for strings.

14）Roland de Lassus

Birth: 1532 in Mons Death: June 14, 1594 Nationality: Franco-Flemish Occupation: composer Source: Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2nd ed. 17 Vols. Gale Research, 1998.

BIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYThe enormous production of the Franco-Flemish composer Roland de Lassus (1532-1594), over 1,200 works in all categories, and their extraordinarily high quality, make him one of the greatest masters of Renaissance music.

Roland de Lassus, also known as Orlando di Lasso, was born in Mons, where he sang as a chorister in the church of St-Nicolas. Because of his unusual talent and beautiful voice, he was kidnaped three times for other choirs. After the third attempt, in 1544, his parents gave up the 12-year-old boy to Ferdinand Gonzaga, Viceroy of Sicily, who retained Lassus in his service for 6 years, taking him to Palermo and later to Milan.

Formative Years in Italy

In 1550 Lassus went to Naples, where he lived in the household of the Marchese della Terza. Toward the end of 1552 he proceeded to Rome, staying with Antonio Altovito, Archbishop of Florence. Lassus was choirmaster of St. John Lateran from April 1553 until 1555, when he left for Antwerp.

These formative years in Italy were decisive for Lassus' musical development. As part of his training he learned to compose the many genres cultivated in Italy--simple, note-against-note villanelle, sophisticated madrigals, Masses, and motets for one or more choruses. In most of his works his awareness of text and its musical depiction marked the Italian reorientation of musical architecture handed down by the older Franco-Flemish school. Probably connected with Naples is the Prophetiae Sibyllarum, a cycle of poems by an unknown Italian contemporary. The prophecies of these ancient Sibyls suggested to Lassus a chromatic idiom atypical of his other works, but it was destined nevertheless to impress many contemporaries, particularly those at the French court of Charles IX.

Antwerp Period

Lassus remained at Antwerp until the fall of 1556, during which time publishers began to vie for his works. Within a few months of his arrival Tielman Susato of Antwerp issued a miscellaneous collection of four-voice madrigals, villanelle, chansons, and motets; the Venetian Antonio Gardana restricted his edition to madrigals for five voices. The following year saw a collection of five-and six-voice motets in which Lassus unveiled the emotional expression he favored for these sacred pieces.

Munich (1556-1575)

In 1556 Duke Albert of Bavaria called Lassus to Munich, and the composer spent the remaining 38 years of his life there. Engaged as a singer in the choir directed by the composer Ludwig Daser, Lassus was advanced to court kapellmeister in a short time and was put in complete charge of all music for secular and sacred functions. His personal charm and artistic talent made him a favorite of the duke and his son William. In 1558 Lassus married a lady-in-waiting at court, Regina W?chinger, with whom he had six children. Two sons, Rudolph and Ferdinand, were to become musicians and edit posthumously over 500 of their father's motets in a monumental edition, Magnum opus musicum (1604).

Within a dozen years of his coming to the Bavarian capital, Lassus published volume after volume of madrigals, chansons, lieder, motets, and Masses. The French publishers LeRoy and Ballard issued in 1560 the first of many chansons by the master. Stylistically these works range from homophonic patter songs after the Parisian fashion to intricately contrapuntal, and occasionally chromatic, pieces reflecting in their word treatment the Italian madrigal.

Lassus' Psalmi Davidis poenitentiales (ca. 1560) are settings of the penitential psalms (Nos. 6, 31, 37, 50, 101, 129, and 142). The composer responded in a particularly sensitive way to the sad words of these poems. He conveyed their mood so penetratingly that Samuel Quickelberg, a Bavarian court official, referred to the music as a superb example of musica reservata. By this term he meant music faultlessly adapted to, and bestowing profound expression on, the words. Duke Albert was so impressed with the penitential psalms that he ordered them copied into handsome folio volumes and illuminated with miniatures by the court painter Hans Mülich. Other sacred music from Lassus' early years in Munich is his Sacrae lectiones novem ex propheta Job (1565) and a volume of Magnificats on the eight tones (1567).

In a collection of German songs, Neue teutsche Liedlein (1567), Lassus abandoned the traditional tenor cantus-firmus lied favored by older masters such as Heinrich Isaac and Ludwig Senfl. Lassus preferred imitative, yet freely composed pieces full of tonal word painting, a technique clearly derived from the madrigal. He can justifiably be considered the innovator of the late Renaissance lied.

Lassus' astounding productivity brought him honors and renown. On Dec. 7, 1570, Emperor Maximilian II conferred on him a noble title and coat of arms. Three years later William, heir to the Bavarian throne, was the patron of a 12-volume edition, Patrocinium musices, in large part devoted to the works of Lassus. Also in 1573 Catherine de Médicis of France commissioned music

from Lassus to celebrate the accession of her son Henry of Anjou to the throne of Poland. Henry's brother, King Charles IX of France, also admired Lassus and made strenuous efforts to lure him to Paris. The composer never seriously considered leaving Munich, however, and the death of Charles in 1574 brought all negotiations to an end.

Five Masses by Lassus (Ite rime dolenti, Scarco di doglia, Sidus ex claro, Credidi propter, Le Berger et la bergère) were published as volume 2 of the Patrocinium musices (1574). Although his Masses do not always represent him at his best, and rarely achieve the level of the most inspired motets, Pope Gregory XIII so valued these five works that he invited Lassus to Rome and named him a knight of the Golden Spur.

Munich (1576-1594)

In the later 1570s and first half of the 1580s Lassus was at the height of his fame and power. Volume 5 of the Patrocinium musices (1576) was dedicated to a new collection of Magnificats. In contrast to his Magnificats of 1567, based on traditional chants, Lassus now "parodied" secular and sacred polyphony for his borrowed material. Like some of the Masses admired by Pope Gregory, these Magnificats seem to ignore the religious spirit demanded of Church music by the Council of Trent. This "secularization," however, is by no means a true or complete picture of Lassus' later output. On the contrary, the mature works on the whole tend to be more spiritual in text and tone and are closely related to political and religious changes at the Bavarian court.

In 1579 an event occurred that was to have momentous repercussions on the composer's career: the death of his revered patron, Duke Albert. Faced with awesome debts, Duke William was obliged to curtail chapel expenses and discharge many singers and instrumentalists. More important still was the duke's religious nature and attitude, which made for a changed court atmosphere. Piety and penitence, the fruits of Counter Reformation fervor, pervaded the court and strongly affected Lassus himself. With the Jesuits strongly entrenched in Bavaria, the composition of frivolous chansons and madrigals was now unwelcome.

Lassus altered the sprightly secular genres of the past by transforming them into sacred or at least serious pieces. In his fifth book of madrigals (1585) the contents were completely spiritualized into madrigali spirituali. They were set to poems from the Rime spirituali by Gabriele Fiamma, Bishop of Chioggia, whose verse was closely attuned to the temper of the times.

The following year Lassus experienced the beginnings of a deep melancholy that paralyzed his creative efforts for a time. By April 1587 he had recovered from his depression and issued a new volume of spiritual madrigals. These were followed in 1588 by a setting of 25 psalms for three voices in the German translation of Ulenberg. By 1590 Lassus' mental health had once again deteriorated, and he required constant care and attention. He was able to return to his duties in 1593. His last work, Le lagrime di San Pietro, a series of 20 spiritual madrigals on poems by Luigi Tansillo, was completed shortly before his death on June 14, 1594.

15）

Guillaume Costeley

1531-1606

Birth: 1531 Death: January 28, 1606 in Evreux Nationality: French Occupation: organ player, composer Source: Baker's Biographical Dictionary of Musicians?, Centennial Edition. Nicolas Slonimsky, Editor Emeritus. Schirmer, 2001.

BIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYCosteley, Guillaume, French organist and composer; b. c. 1531; d. évreux, Jan. 28, 1606. Theories that he was an Irishman named Costello who settled in France, or that he was of Scottish extraction, have been discarded. He was court organist to Charles IX of France. In 1570 he became the first annually elected “prince” or “ma?tre” of a society organized in honor of St. Cecilia, which, beginning in 1575, awarded a prize each year for a polyphonic composition. Costeley excelled as a composer of polyphonic chansons. His Musique, a book of such works for four to six voices, appeared in 1570. Modern eds. of some of those for four voices are in H. Expert, Ma?tres Musiciens de la Renaissance Fran?aise (vols. III, XVIII, XIX, 1896-1904). An example for five voices is in Cauchie's Quinze chansons.

16）Claude Le JeuneAlso known as: Claudin Le Jeune

Birth: c. 1530 in Valenciennes, France Death: September 26, 1600 in Paris, France Nationality: Flemish Occupation: composer

BIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYClaude Le Jeune (ca. 1530-1600) was a Flemish composer active in France. He created a new species of composition, musique mesurée, and was also acclaimed for his numerous settings of the French Psalter.

Born in Valenciennes (now in France, then part of Flanders), Claude Le Jeune spent his earliest years in Flanders and may have traveled thereafter to Venice for a stay with the composer Adrian

Willaert. Le Jeune settled in Paris about 1564. Although an avowed Huguenot, he was in charge of planning musical activities at the French court, particularly those attending the marriage of the Duc de Joyeuse in 1581. The following year saw the composer's appointment as maistre des enfans de musique to Fran?ois d'Anjou, brother of King Henry III. In 1596 Le Jeune was listed as maistre compositeur ordinaire de la musique to King Henry IV and retained this post until his death in Paris about Sept. 26, 1600.

Although much of Le Jeune's music is lost, 659 works have come down to us. They include 67 chansons, 146 airs, 320 psalms, 41 sacred songs, 10 motets, 1 Mass, 1 Magnificat, and 3 instrumental pieces. The last four genres are of little importance: they belong to his early, formative years or inadequately represent the composer's stature or development. Of greater weight are the chansons, airs, and settings of the Huguenot Psalter. The chansons extend from music-oriented, elaborately contrapuntal pieces of the 1550s, through Italianate, text-oriented, chromatic works of the 1560s and 1570s, to a clarified idiom free of "madrigalisms" in the last pieces of the 1580s and 1590s.

Much more significant are the hundred-odd airs in musique mesurée. By adapting classical quantitative meters to French poetry, the poet Jean Antoine de Ba?f wrote many lyrics in vers mesurée; these in turn were set by Le Jeune in note-against-note counterpoint. Despite their artificial structure, these strophic songs are among the composer's loveliest inspirations.

Le Jeune turned to the French Psalter as translated by Clément Marot and Théodore de Bèze at least four times in his career, employing the original Genevan tunes for the last three. In the first arrangement (1564) he set 10 of the psalms in motet (imitative) style. His Dodecachordon (1598) was 12 psalms composed as imitative motets in each of the 12 modes. In contrast to these settings were two volumes of psalms, one for three voices (first published 1602-1610) and one for four to six voices (first published 1601). Written in simple note-against-note style, they were probably designed for congregations or choirs of Protestant churches. The version for four to five parts, in particular, was admired throughout Europe and America during the 17th and 18th centuries and established Le Jeune's reputation even at the expense of his larger and more important creations.

17）William Mundy

1529-1591

Birth: 1529 Death: October 1591 in London, England Nationality: English Occupation: composer Source: Baker's Biographical Dictionary of Musicians?, Centennial Edition. Nicolas Slonimsky,

Editor Emeritus. Schirmer, 2001.

BIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYMundy, William, English composer, father of John Mundy; b. c. 1529; d. probably in London, Oct. 1591. He became head chorister at Westminster Abbey in 1543. In 1564 he was made vicar-choral at St. Paul's Cathedral and a Gentleman of the Chapel Royal. He composed services, anthems, and Latin antiphons. See F. Harrison, ed., William Mundy: Latin Antiphons and Psalms, Early English Church Music, II (1963).

18）Giovanni Pierluigi da PalestrinaAlso known as: Giovanni Palestrina

Birth: December 27, 1525 in Palestrina, Italy Death: February 2, 1594 in Rome, Italy Nationality: Italian Occupation: composer Source: Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2nd ed. 17 Vols. Gale Research, 1998.

BIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYThe Italian composer Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (ca. 1525-1594) was one of the greatest masters of Renaissance music and the foremost composer of the Roman school.

Born Giovanni Pierluigi, the composer is known as Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina from the name of his birthplace, a hill town near Rome. It is assumed without historical evidence that Giovanni was a choir singer at the church of St. Agapit in 1532, when he was but 7 years old. When the bishop of Palestrina, Cardinal della Valle, was transferred to the basilica of S. Maria Maggiore in Rome in 1534, the 9-year-old chorister may have followed him, but the earliest cathedral record naming Giovanni carries the date 1537. Except for a brief return to his birthplace, Giovanni served at S. Maria Maggiore until his nineteenth birthday. During this formative period he probably trained with one of the Franco-Flemings in Rome: Robin Mallapert, Firmin Le Bel, or Jacques Arcadelt.

In 1544 Palestrina was summoned to his native town as organist and singing master of the local church. During the following half dozen years he married, fathered the first of his three sons, and began composing. Most important for his future career was the attention accorded his music by the new bishop of Palestrina, Cardinal del Monte. When he became Pope Julius III in 1550, one of his

first acts of the following year was to appoint Palestrina choirmaster of the Julian Chapel of St. Peter's.

By 1554 Palestrina had published his first book of Masses and dedicated it to Pope Julius, who rewarded him with a coveted assignment to the Pontifical (Sistine) Choir at St. Peter's. By custom all singers of this choir were unmarried, and they were admitted only after rigorous examination. Since the Pontiff had ignored both traditions, Palestrina's designation was viewed with little enthusiasm. When Pope Julius died a few months later, Paul IV dismissed the composer but awarded him a small pension for his services. He also approved Palestrina's appointment as choirmaster at the church of St. John Lateran, where Roland de Lassus had been active only the year before.

Palestrina conducted the chorus at St. John Lateran from 1555 until 1560. But stringent economies and political intrigues made it difficult for him to achieve his artistic aims. After a particularly unpleasant incident about food and lodging for his choirboys, Palestrina left his post without notice. Such bold behavior did not seem to affect adversely his future career, for he became choirmaster at S. Maria Maggiore in 1561. Working conditions in this basilica were considerably better than at the Lateran, and Palestrina remained reasonably content for the next 5 years.

In 1566 Palestrina became music director of the newly formed Roman Seminary. Although he received a smaller salary than at S. Maria Maggiore, he was in part compensated by permission to enroll his sons Rodolfo and Angelo at the institution. What seems to have been initially a suitable arrangement did not, however, work out to his satisfaction, for he left the seminary very soon thereafter. For the next 4 years he was music director for Cardinal Ippolito d'Este II, an outstanding patron of the arts.

In March 1571 Palestrina was appointed choirmaster at the Julian Chapel, where he stayed for the rest of his life. On at least two occasions attempts were made to lure him from Rome. In 1568 Emperor Maximilian had invited him to the imperial court at Vienna. And in 1583 the Duke of Mantua, an amateur musician of talent and frequent correspondent of the composer, invited Palestrina to his court. To both invitations the master set such a high price on his services that it might be assumed that he never seriously considered leaving the Eternal City.

Reforms in Music

Intermittently from 1545 to 1565 the Council of Trent considered the reform of Church music, even contemplating the ban of all polyphony from the liturgy. According to one report, Palestrina saved the art of music by composing the Missa Papae Marcelli according to the requirements of the council. But the role alleged to have been played by this Mass is undoubtedly mythical. Palestrina's reputation makes it likely, however, that he was consulted on decisions about music. We do know that his works were performed before, and approved by, Cardinal Borromeo, who was charged with securing a liturgical music free of secular tunes and unintelligible texts.

Palestrina's influence with the Roman hierarchy is also witnessed by a papal order of 1577. He and

a colleague, Annibale Zoilo, were directed to revise the Graduale Romanum by purging the old tunes of barbarisms and the excrescences of centuries. Palestrina never did complete this laborious task, and the Medicean Gradual of the early 17th century, sometimes thought to be his work, is actually the labor of others.

His Works

Palestrina's voluminous works encompass the most important categories cultivated in the late Renaissance: Masses, motets, and madrigals. Of these three the madrigals played a small role, for his orientation was overwhelmingly on the side of sacred music. His 250 motets include settings of psalms and canticles, as well as exclusively liturgical items such as 45 hymns, 68 offertories, 13 lamentations, 12 litanies, and 35 Magnificats. Most of these compositions reveal the so-called Palestinian style, in which stepwise melodic movement dominates expansive leaps, and diatonic tones in both horizontal and vertical combinations are preferred to their chromatic counterparts.

Important as are the motets, they are decidedly secondary to the 105 Masses for which Palestrina was justly admired. He essayed various types: the archaic tenor cantus firmus Mass; the paraphrase Mass; the Mass erected on hexachord and other contrived subject; and the "parody" Mass, which elaborates a preexistent polyphonic model. True to his preferences Palestrina avoided secular models, opting for the tunes of the Church or at least tunes associated with sacred texts. He was not modern in the same way as his Venetian colleagues with their polychoral pieces. His fuller identification with the older Franco-Flemish masters, however, made him the representative of that illustrious group best remembered by posterity.

19）Thoinot Arbeau

1520-1595Also known as: Jean Tabourot

Birth: March 17, 1520 in Dijon, France Death: July 23, 1595 in Langres Nationality: French Occupation: ecclesiastic, writer IOGRAPHICAL ESSAYArbeau, Thoinot (real name, Jean Tabourot), French ecclesiastic and writer; b. Dijon, March 17, 1520; d. Langres, July 23, 1595. He was educated in Dijon and Poitiers. He served in ecclesiastical positions in Langres, where he later became vicar-general. Arbeau publ. the invaluable treatise Orchésographie, et traité en forme de dialogue par lequel toutes personnes peuvent facilement apprendre et practiquer l’honnête exercice des danses (Langres, 1588; 2nd ed., 1589; Eng. tr., 1948), which treats of social dances of his day with a new tablature to correlate steps and music. It also includes many dance tunes. Its historical value is further enhanced by the information it gives on how dance music of the 16th century was performed.

20）Diego Ortiz

1510-1570

Birth: 1510 in Toledo, Spain Death: 1570 in Naples Nationality: Spanish Occupation: music theorist, composer Source: Baker's Biographical Dictionary of Musicians?, Centennial Edition. Nicolas Slonimsky, Editor Emeritus. Schirmer, 2001.

BIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYOrtiz, Diego, Spanish music theorist and composer; b. Toledo, c. 1510; d. probably in Naples, c. 1570. He was maestro de capilla at the viceregal court in Naples (1558-65). He was one of the earliest masters of variations (divisions). His greatest work is Trattado de glosas sobre clausulas y otros géneros de puntos en la música de violones (Rome, 1553; modern ed. by M. Schneider, Berlin, 1913; 3rd ed., Kassel, 1967), containing early examples of instrumental variations and ornamental cadenzas (for Viola da Gamba alone with harpsichord). An Italian version of this work was also publ. at Rome in 1553 (Il primo libro de Diego Ortiz Toletano, etc.). In addition, he publ. a vol. of sacred music at Venice in 1565 (hymns, motets, Psalms, etc., for 4 to 7 Voices). Some motets by him (in lute tablature) were included in Valderrabano's Silva de Sirenas (1547).

21）Antonio de Cabezon Cabecon

1510-1566

Birth: 1510 in Castrillo de Matajudios Death: March 26, 1566 in Madrid Nationality: Spanish Occupation: organ player, composer Source: Baker's Biographical Dictionary of Musicians?, Centennial Edition. Nicolas Slonimsky, Editor Emeritus. Schirmer, 2001.

BIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYCabezón (Cabe?on), Antonio de, great Spanish organist and composer; b. Castrillo de Matajudios, near Burgos, 1510; d. Madrid, March 26, 1566. He became blind in infancy; went to Palencia about 1521 to study with the Cathedral organist Garcia de Baeza and with Tomás Gómez. He was appointed organist to the court of the Emperor Charles V and Empress Isabella (1526); after her death, Cabezón entered the service of Prince Philip and accompanied him to Italy, Germany, the Netherlands (1548-51), and England (1554); he returned to Spain (1556) and remained court organist until his death. His keyboard style greatly influenced the development of organ composition on the Continent and the composers for the virginal in England; Pedrell called him “the Spanish Bach.” The series Libro de Cifra Nueva (1557), which contains the earliest eds. of Cabezón's works, was reprinted by H. Anglès in La música en la corte de Carlos V (1944). His son and successor at the court of Philip II, Hernando (b. Madrid; baptized, Sept. 7, 1541; d. Valladolid, Oct. 1, 1602), publ. his instrumental works as Obras de música para tecla, arpa y vihuela (Madrid, 1578). This vol. contains exercises in two and three parts, arrangements of hymn tunes, four-part “tientos,” arrangements of motets in up to six parts by Josquin and other Franco-Flemish composers, and variations on tunes of the day (El caballero, etc.). See Cabezón's Collected Works (C. Jacobs, ed.; N.Y., 1967-76).

22）Pierre de Manchicourt

1510-1564

Birth 1510 in Bethune Death October 05, 1564 in Madrid Nationality Flemish Occupation composer Source Baker's Biographical Dictionary of Musicians?, Centennial Edition. Nicolas Slonimsky, Editor Emeritus. Schirmer, 2001.

BIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYManchicourt, Pierre de, Franco-Flemish composer; b. Bethune, c. 1510; d. Madrid, Oct. 5, 1564. He was a choirboy at Arras Cathedral (1525); after serving as director of the choir at Tours Cathedral (1539) and as master of the choirboys and maitre de chapelle at Tournai Cathedral (1545), he was made a canon of Arras Cathedral in 1556; from 1559 he was master of Philip II's Flemish chapel in Madrid. He composed many fine masses, motets, and Parisian chansons.

23）Jacobus Clemens non Papa

Birth: c. 1510 in Ypres, Flanders Death: c. 1556 in Dixmuide, Flanders Nationality: Flemish Occupation: composer BIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYJacobus Clemens non Papa (ca. 1510-ca. 1556) was a Flemish composer whose a cappella Masses, motets, and chansons represent high points in the history of Renaissance polyphonic vocal music.

Jacobus Clemens non Papa was born in Ypres, Flanders. Nothing is known of his education except that he was trained as a priest, and little is known about his career. He seems to have spent his early creative years in Paris, where his first works were published, but he returned to the Low Countries in 1540. It is known that he was in Bruges until 1545, where he served as priest and choirmaster of the children at St. Donatien. In subsequent years Clemens was active as a singer and composer at the cathedrals in Antwerp and's Hertogenbosch, at Ypres, and finally at Dixmuide, where he died and was buried.

Clemens published under the name Jacques Clément or Jacobus Clemens until 1546, after which he added the appellation "non Papa" to the Latin form of his name. Why he did this is not known, though scholars have suggested it may have been done so that Clemens might distinguish himself from a priest-poet active in Ypres at the time who bore the same name and called himself Jacobus Papa.

The extant works of Clemens--all works for unaccompanied voices--include 15 Masses, 231 motets, a number of songs in French and in Flemish, and 4 books of Souterliedekens, or "little psalter songs." These last are simple three-part settings of the Psalms in Flemish that Clemens based on popular melodies of the day. These Psalm settings were intended as devotional pieces for the home, which accounts for their simplicity and easy tunefulness. By contrast, in his Masses and motets, Clemens wrote a rich and varied polyphony, with a seriousness and thoroughness typical of the Renaissance Netherlandish composers. His motets, in which Clemens shows himself ever responsive to the moods and images of his texts, are especially remarkable for both their clarity and expressive power. Many of his motets are remarkable, as well, for their unusual use of chromaticism, much of it notated in the scores, but more of it, many scholars believe, implied and meant to be added to the music only in its performance by the initiate.

Clemens was an outstanding composer in an epoch that produced many composers of genius. His contributions to the genres of the Mass and the motet, in particular, stand as great monuments of the art of polyphony in the Renaissance.

24）Alonso de Mudarra

1508-1580

Birth: 1508 in Palencia diocese Death: April 01, 1580 in Seville Nationality: Spanish Occupation: vihuelist, composer Source: Baker's Biographical Dictionary of Musicians?, Centennial Edition. Nicolas Slonimsky, Editor Emeritus. Schirmer, 2001.

TABLE OF CONTENTSBiographical EssaySource Citation

BIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYMudarra, Alonso de, Spanish vihuelist and composer; b. Palencia diocese, c. 1508; d. Seville, April 1, 1580. He became a canon (1546) and was elected major domo (1568) at Seville Cathedral. He publ. the important vol. Tres libro de música en cifras para vihuela (Seville, 1546; ed. in Monumentos de la Musica Espa?ola, VII, 1949).

25）Thomas TallisAlso known as: Thomas Tallys, Thomas Talys, Thomas Talles

Birth: c. 1505 in Greenwich, England Death: November 23, 1585 in Greenwich, England Nationality: English Occupation: composer, organist Source: Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2nd ed. 17 Vols. Gale Research, 1998.

BIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYThe English composer and organist Thomas Tallis (ca. 1505-1585) wrote anthems, services, and other music for the Anglican rite. He is considered the father of English cathedral music.

Evidence points to Leicestershire as the birthplace of Thomas Tallis. Of his youth, education, and musical training nothing certain is known. The earliest official record of his professional activity places him as organist at Dover Priory in 1532. From his Benedictine cloister he moved first to St. Mary-at-Hill in Billingsgate about 1537 and then to the Augustinian Abbey of the Holy Cross at

Waltham, where he served until its dissolution in 1540.

Under the adverse circumstances which ensued, Tallis next joined the musical establishment at Canterbury, leaving 2 years later to become a gentleman of the Chapel Royal. He stayed in that position for the rest of his life. For nearly a half century he composed, played, sang, and taught music at the English court. During that period he witnessed the stylistic transition from medieval to tonal polyphony, which culminated in his own compositions and in those of his brilliant pupil William Byrd. Tallis died in Greenwich on Nov. 23, 1585, survived by his widow, Joan.

Tallis composed mainly sacred works, and his oeuvre may most conveniently be divided into two kinds: those with Latin texts and those with English texts. Of the former there are four Marian motets, the colossal 40-voiced Spem in alium, along with some two dozen other motets; several responsories, antiphons, and office hymns; two Lamentations and two Magnificats; and three Masses. His sacred compositions on English texts include a "Great" and a "Short" Service; two service movements; various preces, litanies, responses, and psalms; and, most important of all, 28 anthems, among which 10 are clearly derived from his own Latin motets. The few extant secular pieces actually do not compose a separate class, since most of these are somehow related to sacred compositions. The instrumental In nomine and Felix namque compositions were composed upon sacred cantus firmi, and at least one piece, "Fond youth is a bubble," is a secular contrafactum.

Some of Tallis's Marian motets, especially Gaude Virgo, reflect the hocketed, elaborate polyphony of the previous century, while the seven-part Miserere, with six parts in canon, and the elaborate polyphonic imitation of Spem in alium demonstrate the "deep learning" for which both Tallis and Byrd were famous. The same quality, but in more modern guise, is found in some of the 17 motets which make up Tallis's contribution to the Cantiones sacrae, a collection he and Byrd published jointly in 1575 as the first edition appearing under their new royal license.

Clarity of harmony and word setting become more pronounced in Tallis's compositions on English texts. Here too the transition from ancient to modern style may be traced, as can be seen by comparing the retrospective "Dorian" Short Service with the brighter and more tuneful anthems "Heare the voyce and prayer" and "If ye love me."

26）Christopher Tye

1505-1572

Birth: 1505 Death: 1572 Nationality: English Occupation: organ player, composer Source: Baker's Biographical Dictionary of Musicians?, Centennial Edition. Nicolas Slonimsky, Editor Emeritus. Schirmer, 2001.

BIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYTye, Christopher, English organist and composer; b. c. 1505; d. c. 1572. In 1536 he received his Mus.B. from Cambridge, and in 1537 was made lay clerk at King's Coll. there. In 1543 he became Magister choristarum at Ely Cathedral, and in 1545 he received the D.Mus. degree from the Univ. of Cambridge. After becoming a deacon and a priest in 1560, he left his position at Ely Cathedral in 1561; held livings at Doddington-cum-Marche in the Isle of Ely (from 1561), and at Wilbraham Parva (1564-67) and Newton-cum-capella (1564-70). His son-in-law was Robert White or Whyte. He described himself as a gentleman of the King's Chapel on the title page of his only publ. work, The Actes of the Apostles, translated into Englyshe metre to synge and also to play upon the Lute (London, 1553; it includes the first 14 chapters of the Acts). The hymn tunes Windsor and Winchester Old are adaptations from this collection. Tye was an important composer of English church music; he left masses, services, motets, and anthems. The following eds. of his works have been publ.: R. Weidner, Christopher Tye: The Instrumental Music (New Haven, Conn., 1967), J. Satterfield, Christopher Tye: The Latin Church Music (Madison, Wisc., 1972), and J. Morehen, Christopher Tye: The English Sacred Music in Early English Church Music, XIX (1977).

27）Jacob Arcadelt

1505-1568Also known as: Jacques Arcadelt

Birth: 1505 in Liege Death: October 14, 1568 in Paris Nationality: Flemish Occupation: composer BIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYArcadelt, Jacob or Jacques, significant Flemish or French composer; b. probably in Liège, c. 1505; d. Paris, Oct. 14, 1568. He was in the papal service from 1540 to 1551, and also was in the service of the Duc de Guise in France until about 1562. Many of his works were publ. in his lifetime, bringing him wide recognition in Italy and France. He was especially known for his secular vocal music, his 200 madrigals being particularly important in the development of that genre. He also wrote 126 chansons, 3 masses, 24 motets, and Lamentations. A. Seay ed. his complete works in Corpus Mensurabilis Musicae, XXXI/1-10 (1965-71).

28）Luis MilánAlso known as: Luis Milan, Luis de Milan

Birth: c. 1500 in Valencia, Spain Death: c. 1561 Nationality: Spanish Occupation: composer Source: Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2nd ed. 17 Vols. Gale Research, 1998.

BIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYLuis Milán (ca. 1500-ca. 1561) was the earliest Spanish composer to publish a collection of secular music.

Luis Milán was born of noble parents at Valencia and presumably died there. His Libro de música de vihuela de mano; Intitulado El Maestro (1535/1536) was the first of the seven vihuela tablature books published in 16th-century Spain. He also published two other books: a book on parlor games for gallants and their ladies to play, Libro de motes de damas y caualleros; Intitulado el juego de mandar (1535), and El Cortesano (1561; The Courtier), an imitation of Baldassare Castiglione's popular etiquette book, Il Cortegiano (1528).

Like the other Spanish vihuela tablatures, El Maestro purports to be a self-instructing manual, easy pieces filling book I, hard ones book II. But unlike the others, it contains no transcriptions of other masters' works, and the top line of the six horizontal lines in the tablature refers to the highest-pitched course rather than the lowest. Dedicated to the Portuguese king Jo?o III, El Maestro is the only Spanish tablature that contains any Portuguese songs. In addition it includes six villancicos (polyphonic songs) and four romances in Spanish and six Italian sonetos. Although free of religious pieces, El Maestro does end with an elaborate explanation of the church modes in polyphonic music.

Forty fantasias, four tentos (alternately called fantasias, a word which for Milán means simply "product of the imagination"), and six pavanes interlard the vocal music in El Maestro. Alternate settings of ten of the vocal pieces allow the singer to improvise long virtuoso runs between lines of the text. Milán's pavanes, especially those on Italian lines, are the most transcribed and performed Spanish vihuela music of the Golden Age.

Milán's El Cortesano (dedicated to Philip II) pictures life a generation earlier at the Valencian court of Germaine de Foix and her third husband, Ferdinand, Duke of Calabria. In retrospect, Milán sees himself as arbiter elegantiarum at their polyglot court, where nearly everyone was a poetaster idling his time in hunts, biting repartee, jests, masquerades, and amorous escapades. Juan Fernández de Heredia, his defeated rival in one such escapade (described in El Cortesano, 1874

ed.), was the most famous Valencian poet of the time. In return for the snipings scattered through every day of the six into which El Cortesano is divided, Fernández de Heredia advised Milán to stick with the only art of which he was a master, vihuela playing (Obras, 1955 ed.). Dance pieces were his forte, not singing, and as a teacher Milán was guilty of neglect or even cruelty, claimed Fernández de Heredia.

29）Nicolas Gombert

1495-1560

Birth: 1495 in Flanders Death: 1560 Nationality: Flemish Occupation: composer BIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYGombert, Nicolas, important Flemish composer; b. southern Flanders, possibly between Lille and St. Omer, c. 1495; d. c. 1560. He was one of the most eminent pupils of Josquin des Prez, on whose death he composed a funeral dirge. The details of his early life are obscure and uncertain. The physician Jerome Cardan reported that Gombert violated a boy and was sentenced to the galleys on the high seas. He is first positively accounted for in 1526, when his name appears on the list of singers at the court chapel of Charles V that was issued at Granada in that year; the restless Emperor traveled continually throughout his extensive domain—Spain, Germany, and the Netherlands—and his retinue was obliged to follow him in his round of his courts at Vienna, Madrid, and Brussels; Gombert probably was taken into the service of the Emperor on one of the latter's visits to Brussels. He is first mentioned as “maistre des enffans de la chapelle de nostre sr empereur” (“master of the boys of the royal chapel”) in a court document dated Jan. 1, 1529; he remained in the Emperor's employ until 1538-40, during which time he took an active part in the various functions of the court, composing assiduously. After his retirement from his post in the royal chapel, he seems to have returned to his native Netherlands (Tournai), and there continued to compose until his death. He held a canonship at Notre Dame, Courtrai, from June 23, 1537, without having to take up residence there, and was also a canon at the Cathedral of Tournai from June 19, 1534. Despite his many trips abroad and the natural influence of the music of other countries, Gombert remained, stylistically, a Netherlander. The chief feature of his sacred works is his use of imitation, a principle which he developed to a high state of perfection. The parts are always in motion, and pauses appear infrequently; when they do occur, they are very short. In his handling of dissonance he may be regarded as a forerunner of Palestrina. His secular works, of which the earliest known printed examples (9 4-part chansons) are included in Attaignant's collection of 1529-49, are characterized by a refreshing simplicity and directness. Gombert's greatest contributions to the development of 16th-century music lay in his recognizing the peculiarities of Netherlandish polyphony and his developing and spreading it abroad. His extant works include 10 masses, over 160 motets, and 70 chansons, many of which appeared in

contemporary (mostly Spanish) lute and guitar arrangements, a fact which shows the great vogue they had. Gombert's Opera omnia, ed. by J. Schmidt-Gorg, was publ. in Corpus Mensurabilis Musicae, VI/1-11 (1951-75).

30）Birth: 1490 Death: September 13, 1562 in Paris, France Nationality: French Occupation: composer BIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYSermisy, Claudin or Claude de, significant French composer; b. c. 1490; d. Paris, Sept. 13, 1562. He served as a cleric at the Saint-Chapelle in Paris in 1508. He also was a singer in the private chapel of Louis XII, and may have traveled abroad with the King's chapel. After serving as a canon at Notre-Dame-de-la-Rotonde in Rouen, he went to the parish church of Cambron in the Amiens diocese in 1524. In 1532 he returned to Paris as sous-ma?tre at the royal chapel, and also held the eleventh canonry of the Saint-Chapelle from 1533. He was an outstanding composer of both sacred and secular music. A number of his chansons, masses, and motets were publ. in contemporary collections. G. Allaire and I. Cazeaux ed. a complete collection of his works in Corpus Mensurabilis Musicae, LXII/1 (1970-74).

31）Pierre Passereau

Nationality: French Occupation: composer BIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYPassereau, Pierre, French composer who flourished in the first half of the 16th century. He was chapel singer to the Duke of Angoulême, and later of later Francis I. Twenty-three of his chansons were publ. in contemporary anthologies (1533-47). G. Dottin ed. his complete works (1967).

32）c.1485–1558, French composer, famous for his descriptive four-part chansons about birds, battles, hunts, and other subjects. He also composed motets and spiritual chansons.Birth: 1485 in Chatellerault Death: 1558 in Paris, France Nationality: French Occupation: composer BIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYJanequin (Jannequin), Clément, important French composer; b. Chatellerault, c. 1485; d. Paris, 1558. He is first mentioned as a clerc in the service of Lancelot du Fau, a man of the court and church, in 1505. His patron became Bishop of Lu?on in 1515, and he appears to have remained in the bishop's service until 1523, at which time he entered the service of Jean de Foix, bishop of

Bordeaux. Having become a priest, he received several minor prebends there. He became canon of St. Emilion in 1525, then procureur des ames there in 1526. He was named curé of St. Michel de Rieufret in 1526, then of St. Jean de Mezos in 1530, and also doyen of Garosse that same year. With the death of his patron in 1529, he lost his prebends. However, he had become known as a composer through Pierre Attaingnant's publication of some of his chansons. Janequin served as master of the choirboys at Auch Cathedral in 1531, then was made curé of Avrille in 1533; he was also ma?tre de chapelle of Angers Cathedral (1534-37), and subsequently curé of Unverre. In 1549 he settled in Paris, being listed as a student at the Univ. He wrote a chanson on the siege of Metz, which brought him the honorary title of chapelain to the Duc de Guise. He later was made chantre ordinaire du roi and then compositeur ordinaire du roi. Janequin was an outstanding composer of chansons and chansons spirituelles, of which more than 400 are extant. His mastery is evidenced both in his brief and witty settings and in those more lengthy and programmatic. Among his finest are Le Chant des oiseaux, La Chasse, Les Cris de Paris, and his most celebrated work, La Bataille, most likely written to commemorate the battle of Marignano. Pierre Attaingnant publ. several of his chansons between the 1520s and the 1530s; others appeared in various collections of the time. A. Merritt and F. Lesure ed. Clément Janequin (c. 1485-1558): Chansons polyphoniques (Monaco, 1965-71).

WORKSWorks

MASSES Missa super “L'Aveuglé Dieu,” Missae duodecim (Paris, 1554); Missa super “La Bataille” (1532). MOTETS Attaingnant is believed to have publ. a vol. of his motets in Paris in 1533; however, no copy of the vol. has been found. The motet Congregati sunt (1538) is extant. PSALMS AND CHANSONS SPIRITUELLES Premier livre contenant XXVIII pseaulmes de David... for 4 Voices (Paris, 1549); Premier livre contenant plusieurs chansons spirituelles, avec les lamentations de Jeremie (Paris, 1556); Proverbes de Salomon... for 4 Voices (Paris, 1558); Octante deux pseaumes de David... for 4 Voices (Paris, 1559).

33）Juan del Encina

Birth: 1468 in Encina, Salamanca, Spain Death: 1529? Nationality: Spanish Occupation: dramatist, composer, poet, playwright, musician, singer Source: Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2nd ed. 17 Vols. Gale Research, 1998.

BIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYJuan del Encina (1468-1529) is called the father of Spanish drama. He was also the foremost Spanish musical composer of his time.

The original name of Juan del Encina was Fermoselle, but he adopted the name of his probable birthplace, a small village in the province of Salamanca. In all likelihood Encina studied at the University of Salamanca under Antonio de Nebrija, the foremost Spanish humanist of his time. He then entered the service of the Duke of Alba, in whose palace of Alba de Tormes he discharged the multiple functions of playwright, poet, composer, and musician for 7 years. Encina published his Cancionero (a collection of plays and villancicos, or polyphonic songs) in Salamanca in 1496; other works were added to this collection in later editions.

Encina went to Rome in 1498, where he entered the papal chapel and eventually became singer to Leo X. During this time Encina continued to write plays. While in Rome he obtained several ecclesiastical benefices in Spain, and in 1510 and 1513 he was in Málaga as archdeacon and canon. He had obtained, however, papal dispensation to collect his benefices without discharging his duties.

In 1519, aged 50, Encina took holy orders and went on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, which he described in his poem La Trivagia. He celebrated his first Mass in Jerusalem. Encina returned to Spain as prior of León, where he resided from 1523 until his death.

As a poet, Encina was most successful in brief, lyrical pieces, which he set to music himself; his romances were also more lyrical than narrative. His great popularity as a composer is attested to by the fact that 61 of his villancicos were collected in the Cancionero musical de Palacio (ca. 1500). As a playwright, Encina brought to their final development the theatrical forms derived from medieval liturgical drama. He inaugurated Renaissance drama in Spain. His early dramas (such as Egloga de las grandes lluvias) were Nativity plays, with rustic shepherds as protagonists. His later plays (such as Egloga de Plácida y Vitoriano) were Italianate in spirit, much longer, and complicated in form. His shepherds were now of classical inspiration. The joy of life he sang about in his later plays was almost neopagan in its exuberance.

34）Johannes Ockeghem

1410-1497Also known as: Johannes Okeghem, Johannes Okengheim, Johannes Ockenheim, Jean Ockeghem

Birth: 1410 Death: February 06, 1497 in Tours

Nationality: Flemish Occupation: composer Source: Baker's Biographical Dictionary of Musicians?, Centennial Edition. Nicolas Slonimsky, Editor Emeritus. Schirmer, 2001.

BIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYOckeghem (Okeghem, Okengheim, Ockenheim, etc.), Johannes (Jean, Jehan de), great Flemish composer; b. c. 1410; d. probably in Tours, Feb. 6, 1497. He may have been a pupil of Binchois. He is first listed among the vicaires-chanteurs at Notre Dame in Antwerp on June 24, 1443, and served there until 1444. By 1446 he was in the service of Charles I, Duke of Bourbon, in Moulins, remaining there until at least 1448. By 1452 he was in the service of Charles VII of France as first among the singer-chaplains who were non-priests; by 1454 he was premier chapelain. He subsequently served Louis XI and Charles VIII, and in 1459 the latter made him treasurer of the church of St. Martin-de-Tours. Under Louis XI, he also was a canon at Notre Dame in Paris from 1463 to 1470. He likewise was a chaplain at St. Benoit. In Jan. 1470 he traveled to Spain at the King's expense. In 1484 he journeyed to Bruges and Dammes. Upon his death, Guillaume Cretin wrote a poetic “Deploration,” and Josquin Des Prez and Lupi composed musical epitaphs. With his contemporaries Dufay and Josquin, Ockeghem ranks among the foremost masters of the Franco-Flemish style of composition in the second half of the 15th century. Among his settings of the Mass is the earliest extant polyphonic Requiem. The inventiveness displayed in his masses is only excelled in his superb motets. His achievements in the art of imitative counterpoint unquestionably make his music a milestone on the way to the a cappella style of the coming generations. A major ed. of his works is found in D. Plamenac, editor, J. Ockeghem: S?mtliche Werke, in the Publikationen Alterer Musik, Jg. I/2 (Leipzig, 1927), which contains eight masses; a second ed., rev., 1959, was publ. as Masses I-VIII in J. Ockeghem: Collected Works, I (N.Y.); Masses and Mass Sections IX-XVI appeared in the same ed. as vol. II (N.Y., 1947; 2nd ed., 1966).

35）Guillaume DufayAlso known as: Guillaume Du Fay, Willem Du Fayt

Birth: c. 1400 in Hainaut, Belgium Death: November 27, 1474 in Cambrai, Belgium Occupation: composer Source: Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2nd ed. 17 Vols. Gale Research, 1998.

BIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYThe works of the Netherlandish composer Guillaume Dufay (ca. 1400-1474) marked the beginning of the Renaissance and influenced the course of music during the 15th and 16th centuries.

Born probably in the province of Hainaut in what is now Belgium, Guillaume Dufay received his musical training at the cathedral school of Cambrai under Nicholas Malin and Richard Loqueville (1409-ca. 1419). One of Loqueville's three-voice works is preserved in a four-voice arrangement by Dufay. Cambrai was famous for its cathedral school and for its bishop, Pierre d'Ailly, one of the more influential figures in the Church at this time, who was also chancellor of the University of Paris. Dufay may have been in his retinue during the bishop's stay at the Council of Constance (1414-1418).

This gathering of churchmen from all over Europe may have been the occasion of Dufay's introduction to his first Italian patrons, the Malatesta family. He was in Rimini at the court of the Malatestas in 1419/1420; the works he wrote for members of the family date from this time until 1426.

Between 1426 and 1428 Dufay was in Cambrai. A chanson, Adieu ces bon vins de Lannoys, dated 1426 in a contemporary manuscript, may indicate a stay in Laon, a city in which he would hold two benefices in 1430. In 1428 he went to Italy to become a member of the papal chapel, where he remained until 1433. After 2 years in Savoy and Cambrai, Dufay returned to serve in the papal chapel until 1437. During this period his name moves from ninth to first position in the lists of singers.

In his remaining years Dufay's activities can be traced only with difficulty. He is known to have spent much of this time in Cambrai, especially after 1445. According to his will, he also spent at least 5 more years at the court of Savoy. The duchy of Savoy under Louis and his wife, Anne of Cyprus, boasted one of the best chapels in Europe. It appears that during Dufay's later stay in Savoy he received a degree in law from the University of Turin. An incomplete motet, Juvenis qui puellam, jokingly portrays the disputation required of a degree candidate.

Dufay became a canon at St. Waltrudis in Mons in 1446, having also received a canonicate in Cambrai in 1436. At St. Waltrudis he met the composer Gilles Binchois, who was a canon there. Dufay also had some connection with the Burgundian court in this period since he is named as a member of the chapel of the Duke of Burgundy in a document that is not, however, from that court. The title may have been an honorary one since Dufay's presence there cannot be documented.

The last 30 years of Dufay's life were centered on the Cathedral at Cambrai. Archival documents from the Cathedral contain references to the copying of his music and, on at least one occasion, to the payment to him of 60 écus for having enriched the services with his music. His fame was

widespread; for example, in 1458 he was invited to Besan?on to arbitrate a dispute over the mode of an antiphon, and later Piero de' Medici referred to Dufay as the ornament of his age. He died in Cambrai on Nov. 27, 1474.

Dufay's will, which is preserved, indicates that he achieved considerable material success in life. He made bequests of artworks, music books, and money to various individuals and institutions, including the bequest of four music books to Charles the Bold of Burgundy. He also requested the performance of some of his own music in his last hour and for his last rites. The motet he specified, Ave Regina caelorum, is preserved and has, in addition to the traditional text, a plea for "mercy on thy dying Dufay," indicating that he probably composed it for this purpose. The Requiem Mass he asked to have performed is the earliest polyphonic setting of this service; it has not been preserved.

Dufay achieved a synthesis of the different national styles of the early 15th century. His earliest works are naturally French in nature, but those written in the 1420s show the strong impression the flowing vocal lines of Italian music made on the young composer. This is especially true in his setting of Petrarch's Vergine bella. The works of the late 1420s and 1430s give evidence of possible contact with English music and its "sweet sound" of thirds, sixths, and full triads. This mature style is the beginning of the international style of the Renaissance, and it is the music that the theorist Johannes Tinctoris (ca. 1476) calls the "new art ... whose fount and origin is held to be among the English, of whom Dunstable stood forth as chief. Contemporary with him in France were Dufay and Binchois, to whom directly succeeded the moderns Ockeghem, Busnois, Regis and Caron." The poet Martin le Franc in his Le Champion des dames (1441-1442) writes that Dufay "has taken the English countenance and follows Dunstable."

More than 200 compositions by Dufay have been preserved. These include all genres common at the time: Mass Ordinaries, both individual movements and cycles, Mass Propers, motets, and minor liturgical works, as well as French chansons and settings of Italian texts. He used the older isorhythmic technique, but only for festival motets where this older technique would carry a certain connotation suitable to the occasion. He was among the earliest Continental composers to compose cyclic Mass Ordinaries and one of the first to use a secular cantus firmus (in the Mass Se la face ay pale). He also composed a cycle of hymns for the Church year. In these works one finds the "sweet sound" of thirds, sixths, and full triads and classic examples of fauxbourdon. His chansons, datable in all periods of his creative life, show the changes in style taking place in the 15th century; changes in conception of melody, harmony, and metric flow gradually occur from the earliest to the latest of these works. His style, a fusion of features of French, Italian, and English music of the 1420s, becomes the starting point for composers whose line extends into the 16th century.